Risk assessment of feed components of botanical origin - Approaches taken in the European Union

In view of a continuous trend in replacing synthetic feed additives and especially flavouring compounds by botanical preparations, different aspects of the safety evaluations of plants and plant-derived preparations and components in feed are discussed. This includes risk assessment approaches developed by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) for phytotoxins regarding unintentional exposure of target animals and of consumers to animal derived food via carry-over from feed. Relevant regulatory frameworks for feed additives and feed contaminants in the European Union are summarised and the essentials of existing guidelines used in the safety evaluation of botanicals and their preparations and components in feed are outlined. The examples presented illustrate how the safety of the botanicals, their preparations and components present in feed is assessed. An outlook on possible future developments in risk assessment by applying new in vitro and in silico methodologies is given.

Antagonistic and additive effect when combining biopesticides against the fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda

Fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda (FAW) is a cosmopolitan crop pest species that has recently become established in sub-Saharan Africa and Southeast Asia. Current FAW control is almost entirely dependent on synthetic pesticides. Biopesticides offer a more sustainable alternative but have limitations. For example, pyrethrum is an effective botanical insecticide with low mammalian toxicity but is highly UV labile, resulting in a rapid loss of efficacy in the field. Beauveria bassiana is an entomopathogenic fungus that is more persistent, but there is a time lag of several days before it causes insect mortality and leads to effective control. The combination of these biopesticides could mitigate their drawbacks for FAW control. Here we evaluated the efficacy of pyrethrum and B. bassiana as individual treatments and in combination against 3rd instar FAW. Four different combinations of these two biopesticides were tested, resulting in an antagonistic relationship at the lowest concentrations of B. bassiana and pyrethrum (1 × 104 conidia mL-1 with 25 ppm) and an additive effect for the other 3 combined treatments (1 × 104 conidia mL-1 with 100 ppm and 1 × 105 conidia mL-1 with 25 ppm and 100 ppm pyrethrum). Additionally, a delay in efficacy from B. bassiana was observed when combined with pyrethrum as well as a general inhibition of growth on agar plates. These results appear to show that this particular combination of biopesticides is not universally beneficial or detrimental to pest control strategies and is dependent on the doses of each biopesticide applied. However, the additive effect shown here at specific concentrations does indicate that combining biopesticides could help overcome the challenges of persistence seen in botanical pesticides and the slow establishment of EPF, with the potential to improve effectiveness of biopesticides for IPM.

Safety considerations for dietary supplement manufacturers in the United States

Due to significant dietary supplement use in the US, product manufacturers must understand the importance of implementing a robust approach to establishing safety for all ingredients, including dietary ingredients, components, and finished dietary supplement products. Different regulatory pathways exist by which the safety of dietary ingredients can be established, and thus allowed to be marketed in a dietary supplement. For individual dietary ingredients, safety information may come from a variety of sources including history of safe use, presence of the ingredient in foods, and/or non-clinical and clinical data. On occasion safety data gaps are identified for a specific ingredient, particularly those of botanical origin. Modern toxicological methods and models can prove helpful in satisfying data gaps and are presented in this review. For finished dietary supplement products, issues potentially impacting safety to consider include claims, product labeling, overages, contaminants, residual solvents, heavy metals, packaging, and product stability. In addition, a safety assessment does not end once a product is marketed. It is important that manufacturers actively monitor and record the occurrence of adverse events reported in association with the use of their products, in accordance with the law. Herein, we provide a comprehensive overview of considerations for assessing dietary supplement safety.

Non-targeted chemical analysis of consumer botanical products labeled as blue cohosh (Caulophyllum thalictroides), goldenseal (Hydrastis canadensis), or yohimbe bark (Pausinystalia yohimbe) by NMR and MS

Consumers have unprecedented access to botanical dietary supplements through online retailers, making it difficult to ensure product quality and authenticity. Therefore, methods to survey and compare chemical compositions across botanical products are needed. Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy and non-targeted mass spectrometry (MS) were used to chemically analyze commercial products labeled as containing one of three botanicals: blue cohosh, goldenseal, and yohimbe bark. Aqueous and organic phase extracts were prepared and analyzed in tandem with NMR followed by MS. We processed the non-targeted data using multivariate statistics to analyze the compositional similarity across extracts. In each case, there were several product outliers that were identified using principal component analysis (PCA). Evaluation of select known constituents proved useful to contextualize PCA subgroups, which in some cases supported or refuted product authenticity. The NMR and MS data reached similar conclusions independently but were also complementary.

Essential oils and isolated compounds for tick control: advances beyond the laboratory

BACKGROUND

Tick control is a worldwide challenge due to its resistance to acaricides. Essential oils (EOs) and isolated compounds (EOCs) are potential alternatives for tick control technologies.

METHODS

A review with EOs and EOCs, under field and semi-field conditions, was performed based on Scopus, Web of Science and PubMed databases. Thirty-one studies published between 1991 and 2022 were selected. The search was performed using the following keywords: "essential oil" combined with "tick," "Ixodes," "Argas," "Rhipicephalus," "Amblyomma," "Hyalomma," "Dermacentor," "Haemaphysalis" and "Ornithodoros." The words "essential oil" and "tick" were searched in the singular and plural.

RESULTS

The number of studies increased over the years. Brazil stands out with the largest number (51.6%) of publications. The most studied tick species were Rhipicephalus microplus (48.4%), Ixodes scapularis (19.4%), Amblyomma americanum and R. sanguineus sensu lato (9.7% each). Cattle (70%) and dogs (13%) were the main target animal species. Regarding the application of EOs/EOCs formulations, 74% of the studies were conducted with topical application (spray, pour-on, foam, drop) and 26% with environmental treatment (spray). Efficacy results are difficult to evaluate because of the lack of information on the methodology and standardization. The nanotechnology and combination with synthetic acaricides were reported as an alternative to enhance the efficacy of EOs/EOCs. No adverse reactions were observed in 86.6% of the studies evaluating EOs/EOCs clinical safety. Studies regarding toxicity in non-target species and residues are scarce.

CONCLUSIONS

This article provides a comprehensive review on the use of EOs and EOCs to reduce tick infestations, in both the hosts and the environment. As future directions, we recommend the chemical characterization of EOs, methodology standardization, combination of EOs/EOCs with potential synergists, nanotechnology for new formulations and safety studies for target and non-target organisms, also considering the environmental friendliness.

Anti-oomycete activities from essential oils and their major compounds on Phytophthora infestans

Botanicals are various plant-based products like plant extracts or essential oils. Anti-fungal activities of selected essential oils were tested on the pathogen causing potato and tomato late blight (Phytophthora infestans). Tests to evaluate anti-oomycete activities of commercial essential oils and their major compounds were carried out in vitro in microplate in liquid media. Anti-oomycete activities on Phytophthora infestans strain were obtained from essential oils/major compounds: Eucalyptus citriodora/citronellal; Syzygium aromaticum (clove)/eugenol; Mentha spicata/D-Carvone, L-Carvone; Origanum compactum/carvacrol; Satureja montana (savory)/carvacrol; Melaleuca alternifolia (tea tree)/terpinen-4-ol, and Thymus vulgaris/thymol. As an active substance of mineral origin, copper sulfate was chosen as a control. All selected essential oils showed an anti-oomycete activity calculated with IC50 indicator. The essential oils of clove, savory, and thyme showed the best anti-oomycete activities similar to copper sulfate, while oregano, eucalyptus, mint, and tea tree essential oils exhibited significantly weaker activities than copper sulfate. Clove essential oil showed the best activity (IC50 = 28 mg/L), while tea tree essential oil showed the worst activity (IC50 = 476 mg/L). For major compounds, three results were obtained: they were statistically more active than their essential oils (carvacrol for oregano, D- and L-Carvone for mint) or as active as their essential oils sources (thymol for thyme, carvacrol for savory, terpinen-4-ol for tea tree) or less active than their original essential oils (eugenol for clove, citronellal for eucalyptus). Microscopical observations carried out with the seven essential oils showed that they were all responsible for a modification of the morphology of the mycelium. The results demonstrated that various essential oils show different anti-oomycete activities, sometimes related to a major compound and sometimes unrelated, indicating that other compounds must play a role in total anti-oomycete activity.

A review on biology and possible management strategies of tomato leaf miner, Tuta absoluta (Meyrick), Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae in Nepal

Tuta absoluta (Meyrick) (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae), Tomato Leaf Miner (TLM) moth, is one of the notorious oligophagous pests of solanaceous crops that mines primarily on mesophyll of leaves as well bore tomato fruits. In Nepal, T. absoluta, the pest that has a potential to create loss up to 100%, was detected in 2016 in a commercial tomato farm at Kathmandu. So, the farmers and researchers must heed for effective management contrivance to improve the yield of tomato in Nepal. The devastating nature of T. absoluta causes its unusual proliferation so that it needs dire study of its host range, potential damage and sustainable management strategies. We discussed the data and information on T. absoluta available in several research papers comprehensively and provided succinct information on occurrence of T. absoluta in the world, its biology, life cycle, host plants, yield loss due to T. absoluta and several novel control tactics which helps farmers, researchers, policy makers to sustainably rise the tomato production in Nepal as well as in global context to attain food security. Sustainable pest management strategies such as Integrated Pests Management (IPM) approaches incorporating and prioritizing biological control methods with usage of chemical pesticides with less toxic active ingredient can be encouraged to the farmers for controlling the pests sustainably.

Green synthesis of nanoparticles using botanicals and their application in management of fungal phytopathogens: a review

Green synthesis of nanoparticles is an emerging aspect in plant disease management that blends nanotechnology and plant-derived ingredients to produce a biocontrol formulation. Different physical and chemical processes employed in the synthesis of nanoparticles are polluting, expensive, and also release hazardous by- products. The range of secondary metabolites present in plants makes them efficient reducing and stabilizing agent during the synthesis process. These metabolites serve a vital role in plant defense against the invasion of phytopathogens including fungi, bacteria, viruses, insect pests, etc. The plant metabolites, such as sugars, terpenoids, polyphenols, alkaloids, phenolic acids, and proteins, have been shown to be crucial in the reduction of metal ions into nanoparticles. In green synthesis of nanoparticles, the plant extracts are used as potential reducing and capping. This also restricts the formation of clusters or aggregates and improves the colloidal stability. The nanoparticles exhibit excellent antimycotic against a variety of phytopathogens and are very efficient in managing plant diseases. The aim of this review is to highlight plants, phytochemicals exhibiting antifungal properties, green synthesis of nanoparticles using plant material and their antimycotic activity.

Insecticidal properties of Ocimum basilicum and Mentha piperita essential oils against South American Tomato moth, Phthorimaea absoluta (Meyrick) (Lepidoptera: Gelichiidae)

Phthorimaea absoluta (Meyrick) is one of the most destructive pests of tomato, causing 100% yield loss in the absence of control measures. The important method of managing the pest is by using synthetic insecticides. However, intermittent and indiscriminate uses of certain insecticides have negative effect on the environment. Use of herbal insecticides such as secondary metabolites and essential oils is a key for sustainable long term crop protection. Investigation on the insecticidal properties of Ocimum basilicum, Mentha piperita essential oils (EOs) and their constituents was carried out against P. absoluta. The M. piperita EO showed highest mortality (100%) of P. absoluta with LC₅₀ 1.78 μl/ml due to alloaromadendrene (27.99%), levomenthol (18.31%) and santolina triene (9.78%). The O. basilicum EO also had significant mortality (90%) effect with LC₅₀ 3.58 μl/ml due to humulene (32.31%), alpha farnesense (27.22%), estragole (19.24%) and 4-cerene (10.61%). Among binary compounds, levomenthol showed highest mortality (100%) having LC₅₀ 13.18 μl/ml followed by alpha-pinene (100%) with LC₅₀ 16.10 μl/ml, 4-cerene (95%) with LC₅₀ 38.20 μl/ml and alpha-phellandrene (90%) having LC₅₀ 46.83 μl/ml. The observed toxicity in all compounds was due to significant changes in the activity of esterases, glutathione S-transferase and acetylcholine esterases over the time. The present study suggests that O. basilium and M. piperita EOs would provide an additional approach for the management of P. absoluta over synthetic insecticides.

A new insight in immunomodulatory impact of botanicals in treating avian coccidiosis

Avian coccidiosis is caused by genus Eimeria (E.) i.e. E. maxima, E. necatrix, E. tenella, E. acervulina, E. brunette and E. mitis and lead to three billion US dollar per year economic loss in poultry industry and reduces the growth performance of birds. To purge undesirable foreign agents, immune system produces a variety of molecules and cells that ultimately neutralize target particles in healthy organisms. However; when this particular system compromises, infection develops and the load of pathogens along with their virulence factors overcome both; innate and adaptive immune systems. Livestock and poultry sectors are important part of agriculture industry worldwide. Due to excessive use of chemotherapeutic agents, pathogens have developed resistance against these agents leading to the great economic losses. Numerous therapeutic approaches are in routine process for the treatment and prevention of various ailments but irrational use of antibiotics/chemicals has raised alarming concerns, like the development of drug resistant strains, residual effects in ultimate users and environmental pollution. These problems have led to the development of alternatives. In this regard, anticoccidial vaccine can be used as an alternative but due to high cost of production, plant derived biological response modifiers and antioxidants compounds are considered as a promising alternative. This review summarizes the immunotherapeutic effects of different compounds particularly with reference to avian coccidiosis.

Hepatotoxicity due to herbal dietary supplements: Past, present and the future

Dietary supplements (DS) constitute a widely used group of products comprising vitamin, mineral, and botanical extract formulations. DS of botanical or herbal origins (HDS) comprise nearly 30% of all DS and are presented on the market either as single plant extracts or multi-extract-containing products. Despite generally safe toxicological profiles of most products currently present on the market, rising cases of liver injury caused by HDS - mostly by multi-ingredient and adulterated products - are of particular concern. Here we discuss the most prominent historical cases of HDS-induced hepatotoxicty - from Ephedra to Hydroxycut and OxyELITE Pro-NF, as well as products with suspected hepatotoxicity that are either currently on or are entering the market. We further provide discussion on overcoming the existing challenges with HDS-linked hepatotoxicity by introduction of advanced in silico, in vitro, in vivo, and microphysiological system approaches to address the matter of safety of those products before they reach the market.

Multiplex planar bioassay detecting estrogens, antiestrogens, false-positives and synergists as sharp zones on normal phase

BACKGROUND

Phytoestrogens are found in many plants used in traditional medicines. Increasingly, plant extracts (botanicals) are also being added to foods or marketed as dietary supplements. Especially such powder formulations are susceptible to adulteration and falsification, given the global processing chain. To detect estrogen-like compounds in such multicomponent mixtures, non-target screening for hormonally active or endocrine disrupting compounds in plant products is becoming more important. Unfortunately, the current planar yeast estrogen screen (pYES) is prone to zone diffusion on the normal-phase high-performance thin-layer chromatography (NP-HPTLC) plate due to long incubation times in the aqueous bioassay.

PURPOSE

The present study aimed to reduce zone diffusion on NP plates, which provides the basis for extending pYES to a multiplex bioassay, offering 4 different biological activity principles, followed by targeted identification of active zones.

STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS

The reduction of substance diffusion via a polyisobutyl methacrylate polymer coating was studied. After successful zone fixation (^fix), a multiplex bioassay was developed, in which a 17β-estradiol-strip was applied along each sample track to detect synergists and antagonists (A), and for verification (V), a 4-methyl umbelliferone-strip to exclude false-positives. After multiplex bioassay screening of 68 botanicals, the zones with hormonal activities were heart-cut eluted to reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography-diode array detection-high-resolution tandem mass spectrometry (RP-HPLC-DAD-HESI-HRMS/MS).

RESULTS

The separated substances were successfully fixed by the chromatogram coating. The zone sharpness (achieved after the bioassay) made it possible to add two strips, the 17β-estradiol-strip for antagonistic and synergistic, and the 4-methyl umbelliferone-strip for false-positive effect detection, resulting in a multiplex bioassay. Using the 12D hyphenation NP-HPTLC^fix-UV/Vis/FLD-pYAVES-FLD heart-cut RP-HPLC-DAD-HESI-HRMS/MS, it was possible to obtain information on estrogens, antiestrogens, false-positives, and synergists, and (tentatively) assign 17 hormonally active compounds, of which only 7 have been known to affect the human estrogen receptor, while another 4 had structural similarity to common phytoestrogens and antiestrogens.

CONCLUSIONS

The streamlined 12D hyphenation including a multiplex bioassay has been shown to differentiate hormonal effects, leading to new insights and better understanding. It can generally be used to identify unknown hormonally active compounds in complex samples.

Nemato-toxic analysis of several chopped plant leaves against Meloidogyne incognita affecting tomato In vitro and In pots

Tomato plant is affected by several pathogens, including root-knot nematodes (RKNs), belonging to the genus Meloidogyne. Meloidogyne incognita is among the most potent pests infecting tomato roots. Therefore, it is of interest to discuss the management of Meloidogyne incognita using selected botanicals such as Cammelina benghalensis, Evolvulus nummularius, Gomphrena celosioides, Lindenbergia indica, Scoparia dulcis and Vernonia cinerea. The second-stage juveniles (J2s) of M. incognita were directly treated with the aqueous extracts of the botanicals at varied concentration ranging from 10-100%. 100% concentration of Lindenbergia indica was found to be the most toxic against the survival of J2s of M. incognita as compared to other concentrations. In vitro tests also showed the maximum inhibition in egg hatching at 100% concentration after seven days in the extract of Lindenbergia indica. Moreover, botanicals significantly reduced the infestations in relation to number of root galls, eggmasses/root and nematode population/250 g soil in pots. The plant treated with Scoparia dulcis leaves showed the highest nematicidal efficacy with maximum reductions in all the pathological parameters as compared to the untreated control. All treatments resulted in increased growth, physiological parameters and decreased pathological parameters of tomato.

Antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of phytonutrients as antibiotic substitutes in poultry feed

Globally, there is increasing demand for safe poultry food products free from antibiotic residues. There is thus a need to develop alternatives to antibiotics with safe nutritional feed derivatives that maximize performance, promote the intestinal immune status, enrich beneficial microbiota, promote health, and reduce the adverse effects of pathogenic infectious microorganisms. With the move away from including antibiotics in poultry diets, botanicals are among the most important alternatives to antibiotics. Some botanicals such as fennel, garlic, oregano, mint, and rosemary have been reported to increase the poultry's growth rate and/or feed to gain ratio. Botanicals' role is assumed to be mediated by improved immune responses and/or shifts in the microbial population in the intestine, with the elimination of pathogenic species. In addition, modulation of the gut microbiota resulted in various physiological and immunological responses and promoted beneficial bacterial strains that led to a healthy gut. There is thus a need to understand the relationship between poultry diets supplemented with botanicals and good health of the entire gastrointestinal tract if we intend to use these natural products to promote general health status and production. This current review provides an overview of current knowledge about certain botanicals that improve poultry productivity by modulating intestinal health and reducing the negative impacts of numerous pathogenic bacteria. This review also describes the efficacy, negative effects, and modes of action of some common herbal plants applied in poultry as alternatives to reduce the use of antibiotics.

The Botanical Safety Consortium: A public-private partnership to enhance the botanical safety toolkit

Botanical dietary supplement use is widespread and growing, therefore, ensuring the safety of botanical products is a public health priority. This commentary describes the mission and objectives of the Botanical Safety Consortium (BSC) - a public-private partnership aimed at enhancing the toolkit for conducting the safety evaluation of botanicals. This partnership is the result of a Memorandum of Understanding between the US FDA, the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, and the Health and Environmental Sciences Institute. The BSC serves as a global forum for scientists from government, academia, consumer health groups, industry, and non-profit organizations to work collaboratively on adapting and integrating new approach methodologies (NAMs) into routine botanical safety assessments. The objectives of the BSC are to: 1) engage with a group of global stakeholders to leverage scientific safety approaches; 2) establish appropriate levels of chemical characterization for botanicals as complex mixtures; 3) identify pragmatic, fit-for-purpose NAMs to evaluate botanical safety; 4) evaluate the application of these tools via comparison to the currently available safety information on selected botanicals; 5) and integrate these tools into a framework that can facilitate the evaluation of botanicals. Initially, the BSC is focused on oral exposure from dietary supplements, but this scope could be expanded in future phases of work. This commentary provides an overview of the structure, goals, and strategies of this initiative and insights regarding our first objectives, namely the selection and prioritization of botanicals based on putative toxicological properties.

Bioefficacy of Lemongrass and Tea Tree Essential Oils Against House Fly, Musca domestica

Abstract

The management of house fly, Musca domestica has become immensely important to prevent epidemics of many detrimental diseases. In view of this objective, the present study demonstrates the efficacy of lemongrass (LG) and tea tree essential oils (TTEOs) against M. domestica. The TTEO proved to be more lethal against larvae and adults of M. domestica depicting an LC₅₀ at 14.88 mg/ dm³ which was 17.19 mg/ dm³ for LGEO. In contrast, pupicidal effect of LGEO was much higher (LD₅₀, 14.49 µl/0.25L) as compared to TTEO. The LGEO drastically reduced the total body sugar, glycogen and protein contents by 3.29, 2.95 and 7.56 fold, respectively, contrasting with high influence of TTEO on lipid content of the late 3rd instar larvae. A considerable reduction in gut enzymes secretion was observed due to treatment of EOs thereby altering gut physiology of the insect. Moreover, significant inhibition of acetylcholine esterase (AchE) was also observed with LGEO at LC₅₀ concentration (5.33 mg/ml) inhibiting insect neurotransmission. The gas chromatography-mass spectrometric (GC-MS) analysis of the LGEO showed 12 major compounds dominated by Citral whereas TTEO contained only 5 major compounds. Further analysis by field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM) revealed distortion and shrinkage of larval bodies caused by the treatment of EOs. These overall observations brand LG and TT-EOs as potential organic-insecticides against M. domestica.

Graphic Abstract

Supplementary Information

The online version of this article (10.1007/s40011-020-01220-z) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Herbal Supplements: Precautions and Safe Use

The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) classifies herbal preparations as food supplements. New herbal supplements and products are not governed by the strict FDA drug approval process and there is no premarket approval required. The FDA prohibits manufacturers and distributors from marketing adulterated or misbranded products but does not rigorously define safe practices. Scientific evidence related to herbal supplements is limited. Herbal supplements have been associated with adverse reactions and herbal-drug interactions. Information and precautions for 20 common herbal supplements, including St. John's wort, ginseng, echinacea, and ginkgo, are reviewed. Resources for consumers and health care professionals are highlighted.

The Safety and Efficacy of Botanicals with Nootropic Effects

Recent estimates for the global brain health supplement category, i.e. nootropic market size, will grow to nearly $5.8 billion by 2023. Overall, nearly one-quarter (23%) of adults currently take a supplement to maintain or improve brain health or delay and reverse dementia. Not surprisingly, the use of such supplements increases with age - more than one-third of the oldest generation (ages 74 and older) takes a supplement for brain health. This widespread use is being driven by a strong desire both in the younger and older generations to enhance cognitive performance and achieve healthy aging. The most prevalent botanicals currently dominating the nootropic marketplace include Gingko biloba, American ginseng, and Bacopa monnieri. However, other botanicals that affect stress, focus, attention, and sleep have also been procured by dietary supplement companies developing products for improving both, short and long-term brain health. This review focuses on efficacy data for neuroactive botanicals targeted at improving cognitive function, stress reduction, memory, mood, attention, concentration, focus, and alertness, including Bacopa monnieri, Ginkgo biloba, Holy basil, American ginseng, Gotu kola, Lemon balm, Common and Spanish sages and spearmint. Botanicals are discussed in terms of available clinical efficacy data and current safety profiles. Data gaps are highlighted for both efficacy and safety to bring attention to unmet needs and future research.

Influence of Different Plant Powders as Grain Protectants on Sitophilus oryzae (L.) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) in Stored Wheat

ABSTRACT

Sitophilus oryzae (L.) is the most widespread and destructive insect of stored wheat throughout the world. The main aim of the study was to find ecofriendly alternatives to chemical fumigants and synthetic insecticides for the control of weevils in stored wheat. The leaf powder of Ageratum conyzoides proved to be the best treatment against the weevil that resulted in maximum mean cumulative mortality (96.67%), the lowest monthly population increase (18.33), and the least grain damage (12.61%) and weight loss (1.75%) during 6 months of storage. The next best treatments were the drupe powder of Melia azedarach, followed by Vitex negundo and Ocimum sanctum. A. conyzoides, Melia azedarach, and O. sanctum were found effective even 3 months after preparation. The leaf powder of Murraya koenigii resulted into the lowest mean cumulative adult mortality (14.23%), the highest monthly population increase (132.78), and the highest grain damage (47.50%) and weight loss (11.07%), thus proving to be the least effective.

HIGHLIGHTS

The biological effects of microencapsulated organic acids and botanicals induces tissue-specific and dose-dependent changes to the Gallus gallus microbiota

Background

Microencapsulated organic acids and botanicals have the potential to develop into important tools for the poultry industry. A blend of organic acids and botanicals (AviPlus®P) has previously shown to reduce Salmonella and Campylobacter in chickens; however, changes to the microbiota of the jejunum and ileum have not been evaluated. Microbiota diversity is linked to, but not correlated with, the efficacy of natural products; therefore, understanding the effects on the microbiota is necessary for evaluating their potential as an antibiotic alternative.

Results

Ileal and jejunal segments from control and supplement-fed chickens (300 and 500 g/metric ton [MT]) were subjected to alpha diversity analysis including Shannon’s diversity and Pielou’s Evenness. In both analytics, the diversity in the ileum was significantly decreased compared to the jejunum irrespective of treatment. Similarly, beta diversity metrics including Bray-Curtis dissimilarity index and Weighted Unifrac Distance Matrix, were significant (Q < 0.05) for both tissue and treatments comparisons. Alpha and beta diversity analytics indicated compartmentalization effects between the ileum and jejunum. Additionally, analysis of communities in the microbiota (ANCOM) analysis showed Lactobacilliaceae predominated the total operational taxonomic units (OTU), with a stepwise increase from 53% in the no treatment control (NTC) to 56% in the 300 g/MT and 67% in the 500 g/MT group. Staphylococcaceae were 2% in NTC and 2 and 0% in 300 and 500 g/MT groups. Enterobacteriaceae decreased in the 500 g/MT (31%) and increased in the 300 g/MT (37%) compared to the NTC (35%). Aerococcaceae was 0% for both doses and 7% in NTC. Ruminococcaceae were 0% in NTC and 2 and 1% in the 300 and 500 g/MT. These changes in the microbial consortia were statistically (Q < 0.05) associated with treatment groups in the jejunum that were not observed in the ileum. Least discriminant analysis effect size (LEfSE) indicated different changes directly corresponding to treatment. Enterobacteriaceae demonstrated a stepwise decrease (from NTC onward) while Clostridiaceae, were significantly increased in the 500 g/MT compared to NTC and 300 g/MT (P < 0.05).

Conclusion

The bioactive site for the microencapsulated blend of organic acids and botanicals was the jejunum, and dietary inclusion enhanced the GIT microbiota and may be a viable antibiotic alternative for the poultry industry.

The fate of biocontrol agents under the European phytopharmaceutical regulation: how this regulation hinders the approval of botanicals as new active substances

The use of biocontrol agents (BCAs) is growing across the world and in Europe in particular, where novel ways of farming are highly encouraged and implemented. However, although the social pressure is high to increase the number of BCAs in use within the EU, the European plant protection products (PPP) regulation (EC) N° 1107/2009 does not define clearly what BCAs are. Therefore, problems and drawbacks are observed throughout the whole authorisation process. Consequently, this situation impedes drastically the rapid implementation of botanical BCAs and their subsequent use in the field. Previous studies described in detail the fate of BCAs and the current administrative process that leads to their approval. Drawbacks are described for GMOs but surprisingly scarcely for pesticides. Therefore, the present study pinpoints the drawbacks of the approval process of botanical BCAs. To achieve this goal, a comparative study of 5 substances (4 of plant origin and 1 chemical) was performed. This study clearly reveals the present weaknesses and loopholes in the European PPP regulation process. The results of the present study may be useful to initiate and promote a major change in the evaluation and the regulation process of BCAs. This should allow designing a novel and innovative framework enabling the development of future plant protection products according to the sustainable use of pesticides, described in the corresponding (EC) Directive N° 128/2009 (SUD). This work targets farmers, policy makers, NGOs and scientists interested in issues related to this topic.

Side effects of two citrus essential oil formulations on a generalist insect predator, plant and soil enzymatic activities

The widespread use of chemical pesticides for crop protection, despite having contributed to ensure food security, have shown to exert negative impacts on the environment and on human health. In addition, the frequent emergence of resistance to pesticides and their adverse effects toward non-target organisms have generated the need to develop novel ecofriendly tools for pest control. Among these, plant essential oils (EOs) may play a central role in arthropod pest control. Recently, two formulations (Emulsion and PEG-nanoparticles) of three citrus EOs (lemon, mandarin and sweet orange) showed a promising potential against Tuta absoluta (Meyrick) (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae), a key tomato pest. Here, we evaluated the side effects of these experimental insecticides active substances toward (i) the generalist predator of several tomato pests, Nesidiocoris tenuis Reuter (Hemiptera: Miridae); (ii) the soil enzymatic activities (dehydrogenase activity, alkaline phosphomonoesterase, acid phosphomonoesterase and urease) and (iii) the tomato plant antioxidant enzymes (ascorbate peroxidase, catalase, superoxide dismutase and polyphenol oxidase). Among the tested formulations, mandarin EO-based insecticide presented a significant impact on the predator survival and reproduction. Conversely, all the tested compounds proved to be harmless for the soil enzymatic and the plant antioxidant activities. Overall, these results provide solid bases for the development of novel biopesticides for sustainable tomato crop protection.

Human myiasis cases originating and reported in africa for the last two decades (1998-2018): A review

The article reviews literature on myiasis in Africa and cases that originated in Africa over the last two decades (1998-2018). The relevant literature was obtained by using several databases (Science-Direct, JSTOR, Google Scholar, Ebscohost and PubMed). We searched for the following words or their combination myiasis, maggots, fly species responsible for myiasis found in Africa, and the different types of myiasis. References in several articles provided links to other relevant works. Only papers written in English were reviewed. In total, we reviewed 51 articles which covered a total of 849 myiasis cases. The review encompasses geographical distribution of the disease, dipteran species responsible, predisposing factors, sex of the patient, type of myiasis and treatment. Myiasis is found in most parts of the African continent, however only 18 articles reported myiasis cases in Africa during the period under review. The rest of the articles report cases from the rest of the world but acquired by travellers when visiting Africa. Cordylobia anthropophaga (Blanchard) was responsible for 93.28% of all the reported cases in this review. The low number of articles on human myiasis reported in Africa may be due to underreporting by physicians or most cases are not diagnosed. Therefore, the actual prevalence of myiasis in Africa is currently unknown.

Allergic Contact Dermatitis to Fragrances

Allergic contact dermatitis to fragrance is common. The prevalence of fragrance allergy in the general population is between 0.7% and 2.6%. In patch-test populations, the positive reaction rate to fragrances ranges from 5% to 11%. The most common fragrance screeners in most baseline series include fragrance mix 1, fragrance mix 2, and Balsam of Peru. The addition of hydroxyisohexyl 3-cyclohexene carboxaldehyde, hydroperoxides of limonene, and hydroperoxides of linalool to screening series can further aid in the diagnosis of fragrance allergy. In the proper clinical setting, supplemental patch testing with an additional fragrance or essential oil series should be considered.

NOD-like receptor signaling in inflammation-associated cancers: From functions to targeted therapies

BACKGROUND

Recently, many studies have reported that some botanicals and natural products were able to regulate NOD-like receptor signaling. NOD-like receptors (NLRs) have been established as crucial regulators in inflammation-associated tumorigenesis, angiogenesis, cancer cell stemness and chemoresistance. NLRs specifically sense pathogen-associated molecular patterns and respond by activating other signaling regulators, including Rip2 kinase, NF-κB, MAPK and ASC/caspase-1, leading to the secretion of various cytokines.

PURPOSE

The aim of this article is to review the molecular mechanisms of NOD-like receptor signaling in inflammation-associated cancers and the NLRs-targeted botanicals and synthetic small molecules in cancer intervention.

RESULTS

Aberrant activation of NLRs occurs in various cancers, orchestrating the tissue microenvironment and potentiating neoplastic risk. Blocking NLR inflammasome activation by botanicals or synthetic small molecules may be a valuable way to prevent cancer progression. Moreover, due to the roles of NLRs in regulating cytokine production, NLR signaling may be correlated with senescence-associated secretory phenotype.

CONCLUSION

In this review, we discuss how NLR signaling is involved in inflammation-associated cancers, and highlight the NLR-targeted botanicals and synthetic small molecules in cancer intervention.

Botanicals as modulators of depression and mechanisms involved

Depression is the most disastrous mood disorder affecting the health of individuals. Conventional treatments with chemical compounds for depression have limitations, while herbal medicine has unique therapeutic effects. This paper introduces the pharmacological basis and biological mechanisms underlying the botanical antidepressants over the past 5 years. Based upon the specific therapeutic targets or mechanisms, we analyzed the pathological roles of monoamine neurotransmitters, the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis, inflammation, oxidative stress, synaptic plasticity performed in antidepressant of the botanicals. In addition, gut flora and neurogenesis were also preferentially discussed as treatment approaches. Based on the complex pathogenesis of depression, we suggested that mixed use of botanicals, namely prescription would be more suitable for treatment of depression. In addition, neural circuit affected by botanicals or active components should also attract attention as the botanicals have potential to be developed into fast-acting antidepressants. Finally, gut flora might be a new systemic target for the treatment of depression by botanicals. This review would strength botanical medicine as the antidepressant and also provides an overview of the potential mechanisms involved.

Exploring DNA quantity and quality from raw materials to botanical extracts

OBJECTIVES

The aim of this study was to explore the variability in DNA quality and quantity along a gradient of industrial processing of botanical ingredients from raw materials to extracts.

METHODS

A data matrix was assembled for 1242 botanical ingredient samples along a gradient of industrial processing commonly used in the Natural Health Product (NHP) industry. Multivariate statistics was used to explore dependant variables for quality and quantity. The success of attaining a positive DNA test result along a gradient of industrial processing was compared among four biotechnologies: DNA barcoding, NGS, Sanger sequencing and qPCR.

RESULTS

There was considerable variance in DNA quality and quantity among the samples, which could be interpreted along a gradient from raw materials with greater quantities (50-120 ng/μL) of DNA and longer DNA (400-500bp) sequences to extracts, which were characterized by lower quantities (0.1-10.0 ng/μL) and short fragments (50-150bp).

CONCLUSIONS

Targeted molecular diagnostic tests for species identity can be used in the NHP industry for raw and processed samples. Non-targeted tests or the use of NGS for any identity test needs considerable research and development and must be validated before it can be used in commercial operations as these methods are subject to considerable risk of false negative and positive results. Proper use of these tools can be used to ensure ingredient authenticity, and to avert adulteration, and contamination with plants that are a health concern. Lastly these tools can be used to prevent the exploitation of rare herbal species and the harvesting of native biodiversity for commercial purposes.

Cosmeceuticals: What's Real, What's Not

Cosmeceuticals are cosmetics that promise to deliver physiologically relevant benefits without the incorporation of prescription drugs. To entice consumers to purchase these premium priced products, a story must be told of how the cosmeceutical delivers on these appearance improvement promises. The backbone of any cosmeceutical skin care regimen is facial cleansing and moisturizing. This article reviews the novel ingredients and technologies used to achieve these benefits examining what is real and what is not.

Target and non-target toxicity of fern extracts against mosquito vectors and beneficial aquatic organisms

Dengue and malaria are significant mosquito-borne diseases that are rapidly spread worldwide, mainly in temperate countries. Pteridophytes were identified to be a significant source of novel mosquitocidal agents. The present research was to explore the eco-friendly larvicides from methanol extracts of ferns, viz., Actiniopteris radiata, Adiantum caudatum, Cheilanthes swartzii, Hemionitis arifolia and Lycopodium clavatum. The larvicidal potential of the extracts screened using larvae of dengue vector Aedes aegypti (III and IV instar) and malarial vector Anopheles stephensi (III and IV instar), showed 10-100% mortality rates. Biosafety assessment was made on embryos of Danio rerio and Artemia nauplii. The phyto-constituents of the methanol extract of A. radiata leaves were identified through gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Methanolic leaf extracts of A. radiata, A. caudatum and C. swartzii exhibited larvicidal activity against III and IV instar larvae of Ae. aegypti (LC₅₀: 37.47, 74.51 and 152.38 and 67.58, 95.89 and 271.46 ppm) and An. stephensi (LC₅₀: 70.35, 112.12 and 301.05 and 113.83, 175.30 and 315.19 ppm), respectively. The GC-MS of the methanol extract of A. radiata leaves revealed the presence of 7 phyto-components among which, Carbamic acid, phenyl-, (2-Nitrophenyl) methyl ester (1), Benzoic acid, 3- methylbenzoate (2) and 4-(benzylimino)- 1,4-dihydro-1-(p-toluoylmethyl) pyridine (3) were dominant. Biosafety assessment of methanol extract of A. radiata leaves on embryos of Danio rerio (Zebra fish) and Artemia nauplii (micro crustacean) revealed that there were no destructive or teratogenic effects. To conclude, the larvicidal activity and insignificant toxicity to non-target aquatic organisms of A. radiata leaves makes it a potential and environment safe biocontrol agent against dengue and malarial vectors.

Formation and biological targets of botanical o-quinones

The formation of o-quinones from direct 2-electron oxidation of catechols and/or two successive one electron oxidations could explain the cytotoxic/genotoxic and/or chemopreventive effects of several phenolic botanical extracts. For example, poison ivy contains urushiol, an oily mixture, which is oxidized to various o-quinones likely resulting in skin toxicity through oxidative stress and alkylation mechanisms resulting in immune responses. Green tea contains catechins which are directly oxidized to o-quinones by various oxidative enzymes. Alternatively, phenolic botanicals could be o-hydroxylated by P450 to form catechols in vivo which are oxidized to o-quinones. Examples include, resveratrol which is oxidized to piceatannol and further oxidized to the o-quinone. Finally, botanical o-quinones can be formed by O-dealkylation of O-alkoxy groups or methylenedioxy rings resulting in catechols which are further oxidized to o-quinones. Examples include safrole, eugenol, podophyllotoxin and etoposide, as well as methysticin. Once formed these o-quinones have a variety of biological targets in vivo resulting in various biological effects ranging from chemoprevention - > no effect - > toxicity. This U-shaped biological effect curve has been described for a number of reactive intermediates including o-quinones. The current review summarizes the latest data on the formation and biological targets of botanical o-quinones.

Potential of Botanicals to Control Callosobruchus maculatus (Col.: Chrysomelidae, Bruchinae), a Major Pest of Stored Cowpeas in Burkina Faso: A Review

Cowpea is an essential food legume in the tropics and particularly for sub-Saharan African populations. Postharvest grain storage, however, is a major constraint for crop expansion and year-round availability due to the cowpea weevil, Callosobruchus maculatus F., the main storage pest of cowpeas in West Africa. The use of chemicals for cowpea storage is a common practice which represents, however, a risk for consumers, environment, and could also exacerbate pest control. In Burkina Faso, since the early 2000s, several scientific investigations have focused on the control of C maculatus using botanicals considered as promising and safe alternatives to chemicals. The aim of this review is to take stock of the research conducted and to identify the potential candidates on which future studies in this field will focus. The set of data analyzed show that several plants materials, including powders, crushed plants and essential oils (EO), were active against eggs, larvae, and adults of C maculatus, through dose-dependent mortality responses. However, EO extracted from native aromatic plants have yielded the most promising results, specifically EO from Ocimum canum appeared as the best candidate control agent. Other potentially interested EO tested included Hyptis suaveolens, Hyptis spicigera, and Lippia multiflora. Based on these results, attempts to optimize the use of EO for cowpea storage were conducted in laboratory and field conditions. Side effects of botanicals toward the main biological control agent, the ectoparasitoid Dinarmus basalis have also been highlighted. The results are discussed in a view of practical use of botanicals and EO as safe alternatives for Integrated Pest Management in stored cowpeas in Africa and developing countries.

Toxicological effect of underutilized plant, Cleistanthus collinus leaf extracts against two major stored grain pests, the rice weevil, Sitophilus oryzae and red flour beetle, Tribolium castaneum

Toxicity and repellency activity of Cleistanthus collinus (Roxb.) (CC) leaf extracts were evaluated against rice weevil, Sitophilus oryzae (L.) and red flour beetle, Tribolium castaneum (Herbst) under laboratory condition. Five concentration(s) (1%, 1.5%, 2%, 2.5% and 4%) with two controls (acetone and water) treatments along with deltamethrin were used for direct and contact residual toxicity. The insect that survived after CC exposure were transferred to an untreated feeding substrate and the population buildup of subsequent two generation were recorded after 30 (F₁) and 60 days (F₂). In the contact residual toxicity, highest CC concentration (4%) produced 75% mortality in S. oryzae and 62.5% mortality in T. castaneum during 7 days of exposure, whereas in direct toxicity the mortality were 81% and 58% respectively, for S. oryzae and T. castaneum. The long term effect of CC was apparent in both the insect species, where F₂ populations were significantly decreased in the CC treatments. CC treatment at 4% produced similar adult mortality in comparison to deltamethrin at 1%. In addition, repellent activity of CC extracts was observed against both S. oryzae and T. castaneum. This is the first step towards assessing the scientific basis for the understanding the effectiveness of CC extracts against stored grain pests and it could be a viable eco-friendly option for stored grain insect pest management.

Integration of botanicals in contemporary medicine: road blocks, checkpoints and go-ahead signals

The use of botanicals for maintaining good health and preventing diseases is undisputed. The claimed health benefits of natural health products and herbal medicines are based on traditional claims, positive results obtained in preclinical studies and early phase clinical trials that are not backed by safety and efficacy evidences approved by regulatory agencies. Although, the popularity of botanicals is growing, health care practitioners of modern medicine seldom recommend their use because of ill equipped database of their safety and potency. This review discusses problems that preclude botanicals from integrating into the mainstream contemporary therapeutics and cues that provide impetus for their realisation.

Toxic effects of some insecticides, herbicides, and plant essential oils against Tribolium confusum Jacquelin du val (Insecta: Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae)

Cereals are staple food for many countries and are grown on millions of hectares of land, but much of the harvest is wasted due to losses by pests. To minimize these losses, many pesticides are used which are damaging to the environment and human health. There are debates to get rid of these chemicals but they are still in use at large scale. An alternative control strategy for insect pests in storage houses is the use of botanicals. In this study, four plant essential oils, two plant extracts, two herbicides, and two insecticides were used against Tribolium confusum and the comparison of toxicity was made by calculating LC₅₀ and LT₅₀ values. LC₅₀ values were higher for abamectin (2.09–10.23 mg/L) and cypermethrin (3.41–11.78 mg/L) insecticides followed by neem essential oil (7.39–19.24 mg/L) and citrus extract (10.14–24.50 mg/L). However, LC₅₀ values were maximum in case of jaman plant extract (22.38–176.42 mg/L) followed by two herbicides, Logran (19.66–39.72 mg/L) and Topik (29.09–47.67 mg/L) However, LC₅₀ values were higher for topic herbicide (24.098 ppm) and jaman essential oil (16.383 ppm) after four days of treatment. Abamectin and cypermethrin insecticides, neem essential oil and citrus plant extract also killed adults of T. confusum quicker as compared other essential oils, extracts and herbicides. Results revealed that botanical formulations being environmentally safe could be used instead of highly hazardous pesticides for stored products’ pests. This study also elaborates the non-host toxicity of herbicides commonly applied in our agroecosystem.

Development of botanicals to combat antibiotic resistance

The discovery of antibiotics in the previous century lead to reduction in mortality and morbidity due to infectious diseases but their inappropriate and irrational use has resulted in emergence of resistant microbial populations. Alteration of target sites, active efflux of drugs and enzymatic degradations are the strategies employed by the pathogenic bacteria to develop intrinsic resistance to antibiotics. This has led to an increased interest in medicinal plants since 25-50% of current pharmaceuticals are plant derived. Crude extracts of medicinal plants could serve as an alternate source of resistance modifying agents owing to the wide variety of secondary metabolites. These metabolites (alkaloids, tannins, polyphenols etc.) could act as potentials for antimicrobials and resistance modifiers. Plant extracts have the ability to bind to protein domains leading to modification or inhibition protein-protein interactions. This enables the herbals to also present themselves as effective modulators of host related cellular processes viz immune response, mitosis, apoptosis and signal transduction. Thus they may exert their activity not only by killing the microorganism but by affecting key events in the pathogenic process, thereby, the bacteria, fungi and viruses may have a reduced ability to develop resistance to botanicals. The article is meant to stimulate research wherein the cidal activity of the extract is not the only parameter considered but other mechanism of action by which plants can combat drug resistant microbes are investigated. The present article emphasizes on mechanisms involved in countering multi drug resistance.

Evaluation of dietary and lifestyle changes as modifiers of S100β levels in Alzheimer's disease

There is a significant body of research undertaken in order to elucidate the mechanisms underlying the pathology of Alzheimer's disease (AD), as well as to discover early detection biomarkers and potential therapeutic strategies. One such proposed biomarker is the calcium binding protein S100β, which, depending on its local concentration, is known to exhibit both neurotrophic and neuroinflammatory properties in the central nervous system. At present, relatively little is known regarding the effect of chronic S100β disruption in AD. Dietary intake has been identified as a modifiable risk factor for AD. Preliminary in vitro and animal studies have demonstrated an association between S100β expression and dietary intake which links to AD pathophysiology. This review describes the association of S100β to fatty acids, ketone bodies, insulin, and botanicals as well as the potential impact of physical activity as a lifestyle factor. We also discuss the prospective implications of these findings, including support of the use of a Mediterranean dietary pattern and/or the ketogenic diet as an approach to modify AD risk.

Management of blight of bell pepper (Capsicum annuum var. grossum) caused by Drechslera bicolor

Sweet or bell pepper is a member of the Solanaceae family and is regarded as one of the most popular and nutritious vegetable. Blight, in the form of leaf and fruit blight, has been observed to infect bell pepper crops cultivated at the horticulture farm in Rajasthan College of Agriculture, Udaipur, India. Based on disease severity, we attempted to curb this newly emerged problem using different fungicides, plant extracts, bio-control agents, and commercial botanicals against the fungus in laboratory and pot experiments. Bio-control agent Trichoderma viride and plant growth promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPR) isolate Neist-2 were found to be quite effective against bell pepper blight. All evaluated fungicides, botanicals, commercial botanicals, and bio-control agents in vitro were further studied as seed dressers and two foliar sprays at ten days interval in pot experiments. The combinations of Vitavax, PGPR isolate Neist-2, and Mehandi extract were found to be very effective against bell pepper blight followed by Vitavax, T. viride, and Mehandi extract used individually. All treatments in the pot experiments were found to significantly reduce seedling mortality and enhance plant biomass of bell pepper. Thus, these experimental findings suggest that a better integrated management of bell pepper blight could be achieved by conducting field trials in major bell pepper- and chilli-cultivated areas of the state. Besides fungicides, different botanicals and commercial botanicals also seem to be promising treatment options. Therefore, the outcome of the present study provides an alternate option of fungicide use in minimizing loss caused by Drechslera bicolor.

Developmental response of Spodoptera litura Fab. to treatments of crude volatile oil from Piper betle L. and evaluation of toxicity to earthworm, Eudrilus eugeniae Kinb

Evaluations of biological effects of (Pb-CVO) the crude volatile oil of Piper betle leaves on the tobacco cutworm Spodoptera litura were conducted. Pb-CVO was subjected to GC-MS analysis and twenty vital compounds were isolated from the betel leaf oil. Pb-CVO was tested at four different concentrations (0.25, 0.5, 1.0 and 1.5%) against S. litura. The treated insects exhibited dose depended mortality. The mortality rate was significantly higher at the 1.0 and 1.5% Pb-CVO. The LC50 (Lethal concentration) were observed at 0.48% Pb-CVO. Larval and pupal durations increased in all treatment concentrations (0.25, 0.3, 0.4 and 0.5%) whereas, pupal weight decreased compared to control. Adult longevity of S. litura was reduced in all treatments but predominantly in the 0.4 and 0.5% Pb-CVO. Correspondingly, mean fecundity rate was reduced at all concentrations compared to control. Histological studies of larvae mid-gut profiles of S. litura were severely damaged in 1.0 and 1.5% and showed abnormalities in mid-gut cells with 0.25 and 0.5% Pb-CVO treatments. Earthworm toxicity illustrated that 0.1% of chemical insecticides (monocrotophos and cypermethrin) varied widely in their contact toxicities compared to 0.5 and 1.0% Pb-CVO and control in both contact filter paper and artificial soil test. These findings suggest that twenty essential compounds of betel leaf oil were significant inhibitors of the development and caused behavioral changes of S. litura. Treatment with betel leaf oil at these concentrations had no adverse effect on earthworm populations.

Recommendations for Development of Botanical Polyphenols as "Natural Drugs" for Promotion of Resilience Against Stress-Induced Depression and Cognitive Impairment

Extensive evidence has demonstrated that psychological stress has detrimental effects on psychological health, cognitive function, and ultimately well-being. While stressful events are a significant cause of psychopathology, most individuals exposed to adversity maintain normal psychological functioning. The mechanisms underlying such resilience are poorly understood, and there is an urgent need to identify and target these mechanisms to promote resilience under stressful events. Botanicals have been used throughout history to treat various medical conditions; however, the development of botanical compounds into potential preventative and therapeutic agents in studies promoting brain health is hindered by the fact that most orally consumed botanicals are extensively metabolized during absorption and/or by post-absorptive xenobiotic metabolism. Therefore, the primary objective of this review article is to provide recommendations for developing natural compounds as novel therapeutic strategies to promote resilience in susceptible subjects. The development of botanical polyphenols to ultimately attenuate mood disorders and cognitive impairment will rely on understanding (1) the absorption and bioavailability of botanical polyphenols with emphasis on flavan-3-ols, (2) the characterization of tissue-specific accumulation of biologically available polyphenols and their mechanisms of action in the brain, and eventually (3) the characterization of biologically available polyphenol metabolites in mechanisms associated with the promotion of resilience against mood disorders and cognitive impairment in response to stress. We also summarize exciting new lines of investigation about the role of botanicals such as polyphenols in the promotion of cognitive and psychological resilience. This information will provide a strategical framework for the future development of botanicals as therapeutic agents to promote resilience, ultimately preventing and/or therapeutically treating cognitive impairment and psychological dysfunction.

Does Concurrent Use of Some Botanicals Interfere with Treatment of Tuberculosis?

Millions of individuals with active TB do not receive recommended treatments, and instead may use botanicals, or use botanicals concurrently with established treatments. Many botanicals protect against oxidative stress, but this can interfere with redox-dependent activation of isoniazid and other prodrugs used for prophylaxis and treatment of TB, as suggested by results of a recent clinical trial of the South African botanical Sutherlandia frutescens (L.) R. Br. (Sutherlandia). Here we provide a brief summary of Sutherlandia's effects upon rodent microglia and neurons relevant to tuberculosis of the central nervous system (CNS-TB). We have observed that ethanolic extracts of Sutherlandia suppress production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in rat primary cortical neurons stimulated by NMDA and also suppress LPS- and interferon γ (IFNγ)-induced ROS and nitric oxide (NO) production by microglial cells. Sutherlandia consumption mitigates microglial activation in the hippocampus and striatum of ischemic brains of mice. RNAseq analysis indicates that Sutherlandia suppresses gene expression of oxidative stress, inflammatory signaling and toll-like receptor pathways that can reduce the host's immune response to infection and reactivation of latent Mycobacterium tuberculosis. As a precautionary measure, we recommend that individuals receiving isoniazid for pulmonary or cerebral TB, be advised not to concurrently use botanicals or dietary supplements having antioxidant activity.

Nor-hopanes from Zanha africana root bark with toxicity to bruchid beetles

Zanha africana (Radlk.) Exell (Sapindaceae) root bark is used by farmers throughout sub-Saharan Africa to protect stored grain from bruchid beetles, such as Callosobruchus maculatus. Chloroform, methanol and water extracts of Z. africana root bark inhibited oviposition and caused significantly higher mortality of C. maculatus at a rate of application equivalent to that applied by farmers compared to control insects. The chloroform extract contained nor-hopanes rarely found in plants of which seven were isolated, one of which was previously known. Two of the most abundant nor-hopanes 3β,6β-dihydroxy-7β-[(4-hydroxybenzoyl)oxy]-21αH-24-norhopa-4(23),22(29)-diene and 3β,6β-dihydroxy-7β-[(4-hydroxybenzoyl)oxy]-24-norhopa-4(23),17(21)-diene were toxic to and reduced oviposition of C. maculatus in a dose dependent manner. Z. africana root bark is rich in insecticidal compounds that account for its effective use by smallholder farmers as an alternative to conventional insecticides.

Intake of selected bioactive compounds from plant food supplements containing fennel (Foeniculum vulgare) among Finnish consumers

The purpose of this study was to estimate the intake of selected bioactive compounds from fennel-containing plant food supplements (PFS) among Finnish consumers. The estimated average intake of estragole was 0.20mg/d, of trans-anethole 1.15mg/d, of rosmarinic acid 0.09mg/d, of p-coumaric acid 0.0068mg/d, of kaempferol 0.0034mg/d, of luteolin 0.0525μg/d, of quercetin 0.0246mg/d, of matairesinol 0.0066μg/d and of lignans 0.0412μg/d. The intakes of kaempferol, quercetin, luteolin, matairesinol and lignans from PFS were low in comparison with their dietary supply. The intake of estragole was usually moderate, but a heavy consumption of PFS may lead to a high intake of estragole. The intake of trans-anethole did not exceed the acceptable daily intake, but PFS should be taken into account when assessing the total exposure. To our knowledge, this study provided the first intake estimates of trans-anethole, p-coumaric acid and rosmarinic acid in human populations.

Potentiality of botanical agents for the management of post harvest insects of maize: a review

Natural products derived from plants are emerging as potent biorational alternatives to synthetic insecticides for the integrated management of post harvest insects of maize. In this paper, effectiveness of botanicals including plant extracts, essential oils, their isolated pure compounds, plant based nano formulations and their mode of action against storage insects have been reviewed with special reference to maize. Plant based insecticides found to be the most promising means of controlling storage insects of maize in an eco friendly and sustainable manner. This article also throws light on the commercialization of botanicals, their limitations, challenges and future trends of storage insect management.

Botanicals for mood disorders with a focus on epilepsy

Mood disorders are among the major health problems that exist worldwide. They are highly prevalent in the general population and cause significant disturbance of life quality and social functioning of the affected persons. The two major classes of mood disorders are bipolar disorders and depression. The latter is assumed to be the most frequent psychiatric comorbidity in epilepsy. Studies published during the second half of the 20th century recognized that certain patients with epilepsy present a depressed mood. Synthesized pharmaceuticals have been in use for decades to treat both mood disorders and epilepsy, but despite their efficiency, their use is limited by numerous side effects. On the other hand, animal models have been developed to deeply study potential botanicals which have an effect on mood disorders. Studies to investigate the potential effects of medicinal plants acting on the nervous system and used to treat seizures and anxiety are increasingly growing. However, these studies discuss the two conditions separately without association. In this review, we present animal models of depression and investigative models (methods of assessing depression) of depression and anxiety in animals. Other classical test models for prediction of clinical antidepressant activity are presented. Finally, this review also highlights antidepressant activities of herbals focusing specially on depression-like behaviors associated with epilepsy. The pharmacological properties and active principles of cited medicinal plants are emphasized. This review, therefore, provides an overview of the work done on botanicals for mood disorders, potential mechanisms of action of botanicals, and the major compounds. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled "Botanicals for Epilepsy".

The importance of botanical treatments in traditional societies and challenges in developing countries

Epilepsy is one of the most common neurological conditions worldwide, with many affected persons found in Asia, Latin America, and sub-Saharan Africa. Relatedly, the large majority found in these regions does not receive the appropriate therapy with antiepileptic drugs (AEDs), stemming from various reasons among which are lack of access to AEDs, social stigma, and negative cultural attitudes. The presence of epilepsy resistant to the available AEDs coupled with the frequent AED side effects has further fueled the widespread and growing use of botanicals as alternative therapy in several traditional societies in these developing countries since people with epilepsy (PWE) consider them as safe and effective. There have, however, been few botanicals that have been examined for their pharmacological activities related to traditional uses, and there is hardly any conclusive evidence regarding their efficacy in humans or knowledge about the exact mechanism(s) of action. This review discusses some botanical treatments that have been used for epilepsy in developing countries and the challenges faced. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled "Botanicals for Epilepsy".

Review of the use of botanicals for epilepsy in complementary medical systems--Traditional Chinese Medicine

In traditional Chinese medicine, botanical remedies have been used for centuries to treat seizures. This review aimed to summarize the botanicals that have been used in traditional Chinese medicine to treat epilepsy. We searched Chinese online databases to determine the botanicals used for epilepsy in traditional Chinese medicine and identified articles using a preset search syntax and inclusion criteria of each botanical in the PubMed database to explore their potential mechanisms. Twenty-three botanicals were identified to treat epilepsy in traditional Chinese medicine. The pharmacological mechanisms of each botanical related to antiepileptic activity, which were mainly examined in animal models, were reviewed. We discuss the use and current trends of botanical treatments in China and highlight the limitations of botanical epilepsy treatments. A substantial number of these types of botanicals would be good candidates for the development of novel AEDs. More rigorous clinical trials of botanicals in traditional Chinese medicine for epilepsy treatment are encouraged in the future. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled "Botanicals for Epilepsy".

Issues and promise in clinical studies of botanicals with anticonvulsant potential

Botanicals are increasingly used by people with epilepsy worldwide. However, despite abundant preclinical data on the anticonvulsant properties of many herbal remedies, there are very few human studies assessing safety and efficacy of these products in epilepsy. Additionally, the methodology of most of these studies only marginally meets the requirements of evidence-based medicine. Although the currently available evidence for the use of cannabinoids in epilepsy is similarly lacking, several carefully designed and well controlled industry-sponsored clinical trials of cannabis derivatives are planned to be completed in the next couple of years, providing the needed reliable data for the use of these products. The choice of the best botanical candidates with anticonvulsant properties and their assessment in well-designed clinical trials may significantly improve our ability to effectively and safely treat patients with epilepsy. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled "Botanicals for Epilepsy".

Management of root-knot nematode (Meloidogyne incognita) in bottle gourd using different botanicals in pots

A pot experiment was conducted to study the efficacy of different botanicals in varying doses for management of root-knot nematode, M. incognita in bottle gourd. The results exhibited that madar (Calotropis procera) and neem (Azadirachta indica) leaves application proved to be more effective in improving plant growth characters and reducing root-knot index and final nematode population. Among the doses tested, higher dose of 1.5 % (w/w) was more effective than lower ones.

Characterization and screening of pyrrolizidine alkaloids and N-oxides from botanicals and dietary supplements using UHPLC-high resolution mass spectrometry

The UHPLC-QToF-MS analysis of pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs) from various parts of 37 botanicals and 7 products was performed. A separation by LC was achieved using a reversed-phase column and a gradient of water/acetonitrile each containing formic acid as the mobile phase. MS-MS detection was used because of its high selectivity, and ability to provide structural information. Free base and N-oxides were observed by this method. PAs were analyzed and detected in plants from three different families, viz., Asteraceae, Boraginaceae and Fabaceae. The Asteraceae family was found to contain senecionine and lycopsamine type PAs. The Boraginaceae family contained lycopsamine and heliotrine type PAs and the Fabaceae family contained senecionine and monocrotaline type PAs. These PAs may serve as important markers for the detection of these plant materials in food and dietary supplements. PAs were identified in 44 samples by comparing their retention times, accurate mass and mass fragmentation patterns with those of 25 reference standards.

Evaluation of the mosquitocidal effect of Birbira (Mellitia ferruginea) seed extract against Anopheles arabiensis (Diptera: Culicidae) from Ethiopia

Mosquito control using insecticides has been the most successful intervention known to reduce malaria prevalence and/or incidence. However, over time success has been hampered due to the development of resistance by mosquitoes against chemical insecticides recommended for public health use. Development of effective botanical mosquitocidal compounds however can be potential alternatives tool in malaria vector control. Thus, the present study aimed at investigating the mosquitocidal effect of "Birbira" (Mellitia ferruginea) seed extract against the primary malaria vector, Anopheles arabiensis from Ethiopia. The mosquitocidal activity of M. ferruginea was assessed following WHO susceptibility test procedure. Methanol extract of M. ferruginea seeds was evaluated against third & fourth instar larvae, pupae and, non-blood fed 3-5 days old laboratory strains and field populations of A. arabiensis under laboratory condition. Mortality was then recorded after 24h exposure. The seed extract of M. ferruginea showed high mosquitocidal activity against larvae, pupae and adult stages of both the laboratory strain and field population of A. arabiensis. The LC50 values for larvae and pupae population from a laboratory strains was, respectively, 14.7 and 41.33mg/L. While the LC50 values for the larvae and a pupa of the field population were, respectively, 30.88 and 74.54mg/L. In addition, the LC99 and LD99 values were also identified. The findings of this study indicated that, the extract could be applied on mosquito breeding sites. The plant extract could be also used for indoor residual sprays after conducting the persistency test.