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Gallo A, Bulati M, Miceli V, Amodio N, Conaldi PG. Non-Coding RNAs: Strategy for Viruses' Offensive. Noncoding RNA 2020; 6:ncrna6030038. [PMID: 32927786 PMCID: PMC7549346 DOI: 10.3390/ncrna6030038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2020] [Revised: 09/01/2020] [Accepted: 09/08/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The awareness of viruses as a constant threat for human public health is a matter of fact and in this resides the need of understanding the mechanisms they use to trick the host. Viral non-coding RNAs are gaining much value and interest for the potential impact played in host gene regulation, acting as fine tuners of host cellular defense mechanisms. The implicit importance of v-ncRNAs resides first in the limited genomes size of viruses carrying only strictly necessary genomic sequences. The other crucial and appealing characteristic of v-ncRNAs is the non-immunogenicity, making them the perfect expedient to be used in the never-ending virus-host war. In this review, we wish to examine how DNA and RNA viruses have evolved a common strategy and which the crucial host pathways are targeted through v-ncRNAs in order to grant and facilitate their life cycle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessia Gallo
- Department of Research, IRCCS ISMETT (Istituto Mediterraneo per i Trapianti e Terapie ad alta specializzazione), Via E.Tricomi 5, 90127 Palermo, Italy; (M.B.); (V.M.); (P.G.C.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +39-91-21-92-649
| | - Matteo Bulati
- Department of Research, IRCCS ISMETT (Istituto Mediterraneo per i Trapianti e Terapie ad alta specializzazione), Via E.Tricomi 5, 90127 Palermo, Italy; (M.B.); (V.M.); (P.G.C.)
| | - Vitale Miceli
- Department of Research, IRCCS ISMETT (Istituto Mediterraneo per i Trapianti e Terapie ad alta specializzazione), Via E.Tricomi 5, 90127 Palermo, Italy; (M.B.); (V.M.); (P.G.C.)
| | - Nicola Amodio
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, Magna Graecia University of Catanzaro, 88100 Catanzaro, Italy;
| | - Pier Giulio Conaldi
- Department of Research, IRCCS ISMETT (Istituto Mediterraneo per i Trapianti e Terapie ad alta specializzazione), Via E.Tricomi 5, 90127 Palermo, Italy; (M.B.); (V.M.); (P.G.C.)
- UPMC Italy (University of Pittsburgh Medical Center Italy), Discesa dei Giudici 4, 90133 Palermo, Italy
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Wang E, Ye Y, Zhang K, Yang J, Gong D, Zhang J, Hong R, Zhang H, Li L, Chen G, Yang L, Liu J, Cao H, Du T, Fraser NW, Cheng L, Cao X, Zhou J. Longitudinal transcriptomic characterization of viral genes in HSV-1 infected tree shrew trigeminal ganglia. Virol J 2020; 17:95. [PMID: 32641145 PMCID: PMC7341572 DOI: 10.1186/s12985-020-01344-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2020] [Accepted: 06/01/2020] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Following acute infection, Herpes Simplex virus-1 (HSV-1) establishes lifelong latency and recurrent reactivation in the sensory neurons of trigeminal ganglia (TG). Infected tree shrew differs from mouse and show characteristics similar to human infection. A detailed transcriptomic analysis of the tree shrew model could provide mechanistic insights into HSV-1 infection in humans. METHODS We sequenced the transcriptome of infected TGs from tree shrews and mice, and 4 human donors, then examined viral genes expression up to 58 days in infected TGs from mouse and tree shrew, and compare the latency data with that in human TGs. RESULTS Here, we found that all HSV-1 genes could be detected in mouse TGs during acute infection, but 22 viral genes necessary for viral transcription, replication and viral maturation were not expressed in tree shrew TGs during this stage. Importantly, during latency, we found that LAT could be detected both in mouse and tree shrew, but the latter also has an ICP0 transcript signal absent in mouse but present in human samples. Importantly, we observed that infected human and tree shrew TGs have a more similar LAT region transcription peak. More importantly, we observed that HSV-1 spontaneously reactivates from latently infected tree shrews with relatively high efficiency. CONCLUSIONS These results represent the first longitudinal transcriptomic characterization of HSV-1 infection in during acute, latency and recurrent phases, and revealed that tree shrew infection has important similar features with human infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erlin Wang
- Key Laboratory of Animal Models and Human Disease Mechanism of the Chinese Academy of Science/Key Laboratory of Healthy Aging Research of Yunnan Province, Kunming Institute of Zoology, the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, 650223, Yunnan, China.,Kunming College of Life Science, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Yunshuang Ye
- Key Laboratory of Animal Models and Human Disease Mechanism of the Chinese Academy of Science/Key Laboratory of Healthy Aging Research of Yunnan Province, Kunming Institute of Zoology, the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, 650223, Yunnan, China.,Kunming College of Life Science, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Ke Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Second Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, Kunming, 650000, Yunnan, China.,Department of medicine laboratory, Fuwai Central China Cardiovascular Hospital, Zhengzhou, 450003, Henan, China
| | - Jinlong Yang
- BGI-Yunnan, BGI-Shenzhen, Kunming, 650000, Yunnan, China.,College of Forensic Science, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, 710049, Shaanxi, China
| | - Daohua Gong
- Key Laboratory of Animal Models and Human Disease Mechanism of the Chinese Academy of Science/Key Laboratory of Healthy Aging Research of Yunnan Province, Kunming Institute of Zoology, the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, 650223, Yunnan, China.,Kunming College of Life Science, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Jianhua Zhang
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Forensic Medicine, Shanghai Forensic Service Platform, Academy of Forensic Science, Shanghai, 200063, China
| | - Renjun Hong
- School of Forensic Medicine, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, 650101, Yunnan, China
| | - Huan Zhang
- School of Forensic Medicine, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, 650101, Yunnan, China
| | - Lihong Li
- Key Laboratory of Animal Models and Human Disease Mechanism of the Chinese Academy of Science/Key Laboratory of Healthy Aging Research of Yunnan Province, Kunming Institute of Zoology, the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, 650223, Yunnan, China
| | - Guijun Chen
- Key Laboratory of Animal Models and Human Disease Mechanism of the Chinese Academy of Science/Key Laboratory of Healthy Aging Research of Yunnan Province, Kunming Institute of Zoology, the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, 650223, Yunnan, China
| | - Liping Yang
- Key Laboratory of Animal Models and Human Disease Mechanism of the Chinese Academy of Science/Key Laboratory of Healthy Aging Research of Yunnan Province, Kunming Institute of Zoology, the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, 650223, Yunnan, China
| | - Jianmei Liu
- BGI-Yunnan, BGI-Shenzhen, Kunming, 650000, Yunnan, China
| | - Hanyu Cao
- Key Laboratory of Second Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, Kunming, 650000, Yunnan, China
| | - Ting Du
- Key Laboratory of Second Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, Kunming, 650000, Yunnan, China
| | - Nigel W Fraser
- Department of Microbiology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA19104, USA
| | - Le Cheng
- BGI-Yunnan, BGI-Shenzhen, Kunming, 650000, Yunnan, China.
| | - Xia Cao
- Key Laboratory of Second Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, Kunming, 650000, Yunnan, China.
| | - Jumin Zhou
- Key Laboratory of Animal Models and Human Disease Mechanism of the Chinese Academy of Science/Key Laboratory of Healthy Aging Research of Yunnan Province, Kunming Institute of Zoology, the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, 650223, Yunnan, China.
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Fortes P, Morris KV. Long noncoding RNAs in viral infections. Virus Res 2015; 212:1-11. [PMID: 26454188 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2015.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2015] [Accepted: 10/01/2015] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Viral infections induce strong modifications in the cell transcriptome. Among the RNAs whose expression is altered by infection are long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs). LncRNAs are transcripts with potential to function as RNA molecules. Infected cells may express viral lncRNAs, cellular lncRNAs and chimeric lncRNAs formed by viral and cellular sequences. Some viruses express viral lncRNAs whose function is essential for viral viability. They are transcribed by polymerase II or III and some of them can be processed by unique maturation steps performed by host cell machineries. Some viral lncRNAs control transcription, stability or translation of cellular and viral genes. Surprisingly, similar functions can be exerted by cellular lncRNAs induced by infection. Expression of cellular lncRNAs may be altered in response to viral replication or viral protein expression. However, many cellular lncRNAs respond to the antiviral pathways induced by infection. In fact, many lncRNAs function as positive or negative regulators of the innate antiviral response. Our current knowledge about the identity and function of lncRNAs in infected cells is very limited. However, research into this field has already helped in the identification of novel cellular pathways and may help in the development of therapeutic tools for the treatment of viral infections, autoimmune diseases, neurological disorders and cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Puri Fortes
- Center for Applied Medical Research (CIMA) and Navarra Institute for Health Research (IdiSNA), Department of Gene Therapy and Hepatology, University of Navarra, Pamplona, Spain.
| | - Kevin V Morris
- Department of Molecular and Experimental Medicine, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA, USA; School of Biotechnology and Biomedical Sciences, University of New South Wales, Kensington, NSW, Australia
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Abstract
Viral infections induce strong modifications in the cell transcriptome. Among the RNAs whose expression is altered by infection are long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs). LncRNAs are transcripts with potential to function as RNA molecules. Infected cells may express viral lncRNAs, cellular lncRNAs and chimeric lncRNAs formed by viral and cellular sequences. Some viruses express viral lncRNAs whose function is essential for viral viability. They are transcribed by polymerase II or III and some of them can be processed by unique maturation steps performed by host cell machineries. Some viral lncRNAs control transcription, stability or translation of cellular and viral genes. Surprisingly, similar functions can be exerted by cellular lncRNAs induced by infection. Expression of cellular lncRNAs may be altered in response to viral replication or viral protein expression. However, many cellular lncRNAs respond to the antiviral pathways induced by infection. In fact, many lncRNAs function as positive or negative regulators of the innate antiviral response. Our current knowledge about the identity and function of lncRNAs in infected cells is very limited. However, research into this field has already helped in the identification of novel cellular pathways and may help in the development of therapeutic tools for the treatment of viral infections, autoimmune diseases, neurological disorders and cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Puri Fortes
- Center for Applied Medical Research (CIMA) and Navarra Institute for Health Research (IdiSNA), Department of Gene Therapy and Hepatology, University of Navarra, Pamplona, Spain.
| | - Kevin V Morris
- Department of Molecular and Experimental Medicine, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA, USA; School of Biotechnology and Biomedical Sciences, University of New South Wales, Kensington, NSW, Australia
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Abstract
Eukaryotic cells produce several classes of long and small noncoding RNA (ncRNA). Many DNA and RNA viruses synthesize their own ncRNAs. Like their host counterparts, viral ncRNAs associate with proteins that are essential for their stability, function, or both. Diverse biological roles--including the regulation of viral replication, viral persistence, host immune evasion, and cellular transformation--have been ascribed to viral ncRNAs. In this review, we focus on the multitude of functions played by ncRNAs produced by animal viruses. We also discuss their biogenesis and mechanisms of action.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kazimierz T Tycowski
- Department of Molecular Biophysics and Biochemistry, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Boyer Center for Molecular Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut 06536, USA
| | - Yang Eric Guo
- Department of Molecular Biophysics and Biochemistry, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Boyer Center for Molecular Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut 06536, USA
| | - Nara Lee
- Department of Molecular Biophysics and Biochemistry, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Boyer Center for Molecular Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut 06536, USA
| | - Walter N Moss
- Department of Molecular Biophysics and Biochemistry, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Boyer Center for Molecular Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut 06536, USA
| | - Tenaya K Vallery
- Department of Molecular Biophysics and Biochemistry, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Boyer Center for Molecular Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut 06536, USA
| | - Mingyi Xie
- Department of Molecular Biophysics and Biochemistry, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Boyer Center for Molecular Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut 06536, USA
| | - Joan A Steitz
- Department of Molecular Biophysics and Biochemistry, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Boyer Center for Molecular Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut 06536, USA
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HSV-1 gene expression from reactivated ganglia is disordered and concurrent with suppression of latency-associated transcript and miRNAs. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2011; 108:18820-4. [PMID: 22065742 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1117203108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
In cell cultures, HSV-1 replication is initiated by recruitment by virion protein 16 of transcriptional factors and histone-modifying enzymes to immediate early (α) gene promoters. HSV establishes latent infections characterized by suppression of viral gene expression except for latency-associated transcripts (LATs) and miRNAs. The latent virus reactivates in stressed neurons. A fundamental question is how reactivation initiates in the absence of virion protein 16. We report the following findings in the ganglion explant model. (i) Anti-nerve growth factor antibody accelerated the reactivation of latent virus. Viral mRNAs were detected as early as 9 h after explantation. (ii) After explantation the amounts of viral mRNAs increased whereas amounts of miRNAs and LATs decreased. The decrease in miRNAs and LATs required ongoing protein synthesis, raising the possibility that LAT and miRNAs were degraded by a viral gene product. (iii) The expression of viral genes in explanted ganglia was disordered rather than sequentially ordered as in infected cells in culture. These findings suggest that in reactivating ganglia gene expression is totally derepressed and challenge the current models in that establishment of or exit from latency could not be dependent on the suppression or activation of single or small clusters of viral genes. Finally, miRNAs and LATs reached peak levels 9-11 d after corneal inoculation, thus approximating the pattern of virus replication in these ganglia. These findings suggest that the patterns of accumulation of LATs and miRNAs reflect many different stages in the infection of neurons.
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Steitz J, Borah S, Cazalla D, Fok V, Lytle R, Mitton-Fry R, Riley K, Samji T. Noncoding RNPs of viral origin. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol 2011; 3:cshperspect.a005165. [PMID: 20719877 DOI: 10.1101/cshperspect.a005165] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Like their host cells, many viruses produce noncoding (nc)RNAs. These show diversity with respect to time of expression during viral infection, length and structure, protein-binding partners and relative abundance compared with their host-cell counterparts. Viruses, with their limited genomic capacity, presumably evolve or acquire ncRNAs only if they selectively enhance the viral life cycle or assist the virus in combating the host's response to infection. Despite much effort, identifying the functions of viral ncRNAs has been extremely challenging. Recent technical advances and enhanced understanding of host-cell ncRNAs promise accelerated insights into the RNA warfare mounted by this fascinating class of RNPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joan Steitz
- Department of Molecular Biophysics and Biochemistry, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut 06536-0812, USA.
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Abstract
Primary infection by varicella zoster virus (VZV) typically results in childhood chickenpox, at which time latency is established in the neurons of the cranial nerve, dorsal root and autonomic ganglia along the entire neuraxis. During latency, the histone-associated virus genome assumes a circular episomal configuration from which transcription is epigenetically regulated. The lack of an animal model in which VZV latency and reactivation can be studied, along with the difficulty in obtaining high-titer cell-free virus, has limited much of our understanding of VZV latency to descriptive studies of ganglia removed at autopsy and analogy to HSV-1, the prototype alphaherpesvirus. However, the lack of miRNA, detectable latency-associated transcript and T-cell surveillance during VZV latency highlight basic differences between the two neurotropic herpesviruses. This article focuses on VZV latency: establishment, maintenance and reactivation. Comparisons are made with HSV-1, with specific attention to differences that make these viruses unique human pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Aamir Shahzad
- Department for Biomolecular Structural Chemistry Max F. Perutz Laboratories, University of Vienna, Austria
| | - Randall J Cohrs
- Author for correspondence: University of Colorado Denver Medical School, Aurora, CO, USA, Tel.: +1 303 742 4325
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Analysis of human alphaherpesvirus microRNA expression in latently infected human trigeminal ganglia. J Virol 2009; 83:10677-83. [PMID: 19656888 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01185-09] [Citation(s) in RCA: 139] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Analysis of cells infected by a wide range of herpesviruses has identified numerous virally encoded microRNAs (miRNAs), and several reports suggest that these viral miRNAs are likely to play key roles in several aspects of the herpesvirus life cycle. Here we report the first analysis of human ganglia for the presence of virally encoded miRNAs. Deep sequencing of human trigeminal ganglia latently infected with two pathogenic alphaherpesviruses, herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) and varicella-zoster virus (VZV), confirmed the expression of five HSV-1 miRNAs, miR-H2 through miR-H6, which had previously been observed in mice latently infected with HSV-1. In addition, two novel HSV-1 miRNAs, termed miR-H7 and miR-H8, were also identified. Like four of the previously reported HSV-1 miRNAs, miR-H7 and miR-H8 are encoded within the second exon of the HSV-1 latency-associated transcript. Although VZV genomic DNA was readily detectable in the three human trigeminal ganglia analyzed, we failed to detect any VZV miRNAs, suggesting that VZV, unlike other herpesviruses examined so far, may not express viral miRNAs in latently infected cells.
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MicroRNAs expressed by herpes simplex virus 1 during latent infection regulate viral mRNAs. Nature 2008; 454:780-3. [PMID: 18596690 DOI: 10.1038/nature07103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 514] [Impact Index Per Article: 32.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2008] [Accepted: 05/16/2008] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Herpesviruses are characterized by their ability to maintain life-long latent infections in their animal hosts. However, the mechanisms that allow establishment and maintenance of the latent state remain poorly understood. Herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) establishes latency in neurons of sensory ganglia, where the only abundant viral gene product is a non-coding RNA, the latency associated transcript (LAT). Here we show that LAT functions as a primary microRNA (miRNA) precursor that encodes four distinct miRNAs in HSV-1 infected cells. One of these miRNAs, miR-H2-3p, is transcribed in an antisense orientation to ICP0-a viral immediate-early transcriptional activator that is important for productive HSV-1 replication and thought to have a role in reactivation from latency. We show that miR-H2-3p is able to reduce ICP0 protein expression, but does not significantly affect ICP0 messenger RNA levels. We also identified a fifth HSV-1 miRNA in latently infected trigeminal ganglia, miR-H6, which derives from a previously unknown transcript distinct from LAT. miR-H6 shows extended seed complementarity to the mRNA encoding a second HSV-1 transcription factor, ICP4, and inhibits expression of ICP4, which is required for expression of most HSV-1 genes during productive infection. These results may explain the reported ability of LAT to promote latency. Thus, HSV-1 expresses at least two primary miRNA precursors in latently infected neurons that may facilitate the establishment and maintenance of viral latency by post-transcriptionally regulating viral gene expression.
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