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Riccardo V, Pablo GC. Neutralization Determinants on Poxviruses. Viruses 2023; 15:2396. [PMID: 38140637 PMCID: PMC10747254 DOI: 10.3390/v15122396] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2023] [Revised: 12/04/2023] [Accepted: 12/06/2023] [Indexed: 12/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Smallpox was a highly contagious disease caused by the variola virus. The disease affected millions of people over thousands of years and variola virus ranked as one of the deadliest viruses in human history. The complete eradication of smallpox in 1980, a major triumph in medicine, was achieved through a global vaccination campaign using a less virulent poxvirus, vaccinia virus. Despite this success, the herd immunity established by this campaign has significantly waned, and concerns are rising about the potential reintroduction of variola virus as a biological weapon or the emergence of zoonotic poxviruses. These fears were further fueled in 2022 by a global outbreak of monkeypox virus (mpox), which spread to over 100 countries, thereby boosting interest in developing new vaccines using molecular approaches. However, poxviruses are complex and creating modern vaccines against them is challenging. This review focuses on the structural biology of the six major neutralization determinants on poxviruses (D8, H3, A27, L1, B5, and A33), the localization of epitopes targeted by neutralizing antibodies, and their application in the development of subunit vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Guardado-Calvo Pablo
- Structural Biology of Infectious Diseases Unit, Institut Pasteur, Université Paris Cité, F-75015 Paris, France;
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Kao CF, Tsai MH, Carillo KJ, Tzou DL, Chang W. Structural and functional analysis of vaccinia viral fusion complex component protein A28 through NMR and molecular dynamic simulations. PLoS Pathog 2023; 19:e1011500. [PMID: 37948471 PMCID: PMC10664964 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1011500] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2023] [Revised: 11/22/2023] [Accepted: 10/31/2023] [Indexed: 11/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Host cell entry of vaccinia virus (a poxvirus) proceeds through multiple steps that involve many viral proteins to mediate cell infection. Upon binding to cells, vaccinia virus membrane fuses with host membranes via a viral entry fusion protein complex comprising 11 proteins: A16, A21, A28, F9, G3, G9, H2, J5, L1, L5 and O3. Despite vaccinia virus having two infectious forms, mature and enveloped, that have different membrane layers, both forms require an identical viral entry fusion complex for membrane fusion. Components of the poxvirus entry fusion complex that have been structurally assessed to date share no known homology with all other type I, II and III viral fusion proteins, and the large number of fusion protein components renders it a unique system to investigate poxvirus-mediated membrane fusion. Here, we determined the NMR structure of a truncated version of vaccinia A28 protein. We also expressed a soluble H2 protein and showed that A28 interacts with H2 protein at a 1:1 ratio in vitro. Furthermore, we performed extensive in vitro alanine mutagenesis to identify A28 protein residues that are critical for H2 binding, entry fusion complex formation, and virus-mediated membrane fusion. Finally, we used molecular dynamic simulations to model full-length A28-H2 subcomplex in membranes. In summary, we characterized vaccinia virus A28 protein and determined residues important in its interaction with H2 protein and membrane components. We also provide a structural model of the A28-H2 protein interaction to illustrate how it forms a 1:1 subcomplex on a modeled membrane.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chi-Fei Kao
- Institute of Molecular Biology, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Min-Hsin Tsai
- Institute of Chemistry, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
| | | | - Der-Lii Tzou
- Institute of Chemistry, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Wen Chang
- Institute of Molecular Biology, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
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Peng F, Hu N, Liu Y, Xing C, Luo L, Li X, Wang J, Chen G, Xiao H, Liu C, Shen B, Feng J, Qiao C. Functional epitopes and neutralizing antibodies of vaccinia virus. Front Microbiol 2023; 14:1255935. [PMID: 37954238 PMCID: PMC10634548 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2023.1255935] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2023] [Accepted: 10/13/2023] [Indexed: 11/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Smallpox is an infectious disease caused by the variola virus, and it has a high mortality rate. Historically it has broken out in many countries and it was a great threat to human health. Smallpox was declared eradicated in 1980, and Many countries stopped nation-wide smallpox vaccinations at that time. In recent years the potential threat of bioterrorism using smallpox has led to resumed research on the treatment and prevention of smallpox. Effective ways of preventing and treating smallpox infection have been reported, including vaccination, chemical drugs, neutralizing antibodies, and clinical symptomatic therapies. Antibody treatments include anti-sera, murine monoclonal antibodies, and engineered humanized or human antibodies. Engineered antibodies are homologous, safe, and effective. The development of humanized and genetically engineered antibodies against variola virus via molecular biology and bioinformatics is therefore a potentially fruitful prospect with respect to field application. Natural smallpox virus is inaccessible, therefore most research about prevention and/or treatment of smallpox were done using vaccinia virus, which is much safer and highly homologous to smallpox. Herein we summarize vaccinia virus epitope information reported to date, and discuss neutralizing antibodies with potential value for field application.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fenghao Peng
- State Key Laboratory of Toxicology and Medical Countermeasures, Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Beijing, China
| | - Naijing Hu
- State Key Laboratory of Toxicology and Medical Countermeasures, Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Beijing, China
| | - Yingjun Liu
- School of Medicine and Holistic Integrative Medicine, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, China
| | - Cong Xing
- Joint National Laboratory for Antibody Drug Engineering, The First Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Henan University, Kaifeng, China
| | - Longlong Luo
- State Key Laboratory of Toxicology and Medical Countermeasures, Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Beijing, China
| | - Xinying Li
- State Key Laboratory of Toxicology and Medical Countermeasures, Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Beijing, China
| | - Jing Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Toxicology and Medical Countermeasures, Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Beijing, China
| | - Guojiang Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Toxicology and Medical Countermeasures, Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Beijing, China
| | - He Xiao
- State Key Laboratory of Toxicology and Medical Countermeasures, Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Beijing, China
| | - Chenghua Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Toxicology and Medical Countermeasures, Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Beijing, China
| | - Beifen Shen
- State Key Laboratory of Toxicology and Medical Countermeasures, Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Beijing, China
| | - Jiannan Feng
- State Key Laboratory of Toxicology and Medical Countermeasures, Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Beijing, China
| | - Chunxia Qiao
- State Key Laboratory of Toxicology and Medical Countermeasures, Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Beijing, China
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Sobhy H. A comparative review of viral entry and attachment during large and giant dsDNA virus infections. Arch Virol 2017; 162:3567-3585. [PMID: 28866775 PMCID: PMC5671522 DOI: 10.1007/s00705-017-3497-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2017] [Accepted: 07/13/2017] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Viruses enter host cells via several mechanisms, including endocytosis, macropinocytosis, and phagocytosis. They can also fuse at the plasma membrane and can spread within the host via cell-to-cell fusion or syncytia. The mechanism used by a given viral strain depends on its external topology and proteome and the type of cell being entered. This comparative review discusses the cellular attachment receptors and entry pathways of dsDNA viruses belonging to the families Adenoviridae, Baculoviridae, Herpesviridae and nucleocytoplasmic large DNA viruses (NCLDVs) belonging to the families Ascoviridae, Asfarviridae, Iridoviridae, Phycodnaviridae, and Poxviridae, and giant viruses belonging to the families Mimiviridae and Marseilleviridae as well as the proposed families Pandoraviridae and Pithoviridae. Although these viruses have several common features (e.g., topology, replication and protein sequence similarities) they utilize different entry pathways to infect wide-range of hosts, including humans, other mammals, invertebrates, fish, protozoa and algae. Similarities and differences between the entry methods used by these virus families are highlighted, with particular emphasis on viral topology and proteins that mediate viral attachment and entry. Cell types that are frequently used to study viral entry are also reviewed, along with other factors that affect virus-host cell interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haitham Sobhy
- Department of Molecular Biology, Umeå University, 901 87, Umeå, Sweden.
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Moss B. Membrane fusion during poxvirus entry. Semin Cell Dev Biol 2016; 60:89-96. [PMID: 27423915 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2016.07.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2016] [Revised: 07/11/2016] [Accepted: 07/12/2016] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Poxviruses comprise a large family of enveloped DNA viruses that infect vertebrates and invertebrates. Poxviruses, unlike most DNA viruses, replicate in the cytoplasm and encode enzymes and other proteins that enable entry, gene expression, genome replication, virion assembly and resistance to host defenses. Entry of vaccinia virus, the prototype member of the family, can occur at the plasma membrane or following endocytosis. Whereas many viruses encode one or two proteins for attachment and membrane fusion, vaccinia virus encodes four proteins for attachment and eleven more for membrane fusion and core entry. The entry-fusion proteins are conserved in all poxviruses and form a complex, known as the Entry Fusion Complex (EFC), which is embedded in the membrane of the mature virion. An additional membrane that encloses the mature virion and is discarded prior to entry is present on an extracellular form of the virus. The EFC is held together by multiple interactions that depend on nine of the eleven proteins. The entry process can be divided into attachment, hemifusion and core entry. All eleven EFC proteins are required for core entry and at least eight for hemifusion. To mediate fusion the virus particle is activated by low pH, which removes one or more fusion repressors that interact with EFC components. Additional EFC-interacting fusion repressors insert into cell membranes and prevent secondary infection. The absence of detailed structural information, except for two attachment proteins and one EFC protein, is delaying efforts to determine the fusion mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bernard Moss
- Laboratory of Viral Diseases, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA.
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Davies DH, Chun S, Hermanson G, Tucker JA, Jain A, Nakajima R, Pablo J, Felgner PL, Liang X. T cell antigen discovery using soluble vaccinia proteome reveals recognition of antigens with both virion and nonvirion association. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2014; 193:1812-27. [PMID: 25024392 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1400663] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Vaccinia virus (VACV) is a useful model system for understanding the immune response to a complex pathogen. Proteome-wide Ab profiling studies reveal the humoral response to be strongly biased toward virion-associated Ags, and several membrane proteins induce Ab-mediated protection against VACV challenge in mice. Some studies have indicated that the CD4 response is also skewed toward proteins with virion association, whereas the CD8 response is more biased toward proteins with early expression. In this study, we have leveraged a VACV strain Western Reserve (VACV-WR) plasmid expression library, produced previously for proteome microarrays for Ab profiling, to make a solubilized full VACV-WR proteome for T cell Ag profiling. Splenocytes from VACV-WR-infected mice were assayed without prior expansion against the soluble proteome in assays for Th1 and Th2 signature cytokines. The response to infection was polarized toward a Th1 response, with the distribution of reactive T cell Ags comprising both early and late VACV proteins. Interestingly, the proportions of different functional subsets were similar to that present in the whole proteome. In contrast, the targets of Abs from the same mice were enriched for membrane and other virion components, as described previously. We conclude that a "nonbiasing" approach to T cell Ag discovery reveals a T cell Ag profile in VACV that is broader and less skewed to virion association than the Ab profile. The T cell Ag mapping method developed in the present study should be applicable to other organisms where expressible "ORFeome" libraries are also available, and it is readily scalable for larger pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Huw Davies
- Division of Infectious Diseases, School of Medicine, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697; Antigen Discovery, Inc., Irvine, CA 92618; and
| | - Sookhee Chun
- Division of Infectious Diseases, School of Medicine, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697
| | | | - Jo Anne Tucker
- Division of Hematology and Oncology, School of Medicine, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697
| | - Aarti Jain
- Division of Infectious Diseases, School of Medicine, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697
| | - Rie Nakajima
- Division of Infectious Diseases, School of Medicine, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697
| | - Jozelyn Pablo
- Division of Infectious Diseases, School of Medicine, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697; Antigen Discovery, Inc., Irvine, CA 92618; and
| | - Philip L Felgner
- Division of Infectious Diseases, School of Medicine, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697
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Townsend MB, Keckler MS, Patel N, Davies DH, Felgner P, Damon IK, Karem KL. Humoral immunity to smallpox vaccines and monkeypox virus challenge: proteomic assessment and clinical correlations. J Virol 2013; 87:900-11. [PMID: 23135728 PMCID: PMC3554095 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02089-12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2012] [Accepted: 10/25/2012] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite the eradication of smallpox, orthopoxviruses (OPV) remain public health concerns. Efforts to develop new therapeutics and vaccines for smallpox continue through their evaluation in animal models despite limited understanding of the specific correlates of protective immunity. Recent monkeypox virus challenge studies have established the black-tailed prairie dog (Cynomys ludovicianus) as a model of human systemic OPV infections. In this study, we assess the induction of humoral immunity in humans and prairie dogs receiving Dryvax, Acam2000, or Imvamune vaccine and characterize the proteomic profile of immune recognition using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA), neutralization assays, and protein microarrays. We confirm anticipated similarities of antigenic protein targets of smallpox vaccine-induced responses in humans and prairie dogs and identify several differences. Subsequent monkeypox virus intranasal infection of vaccinated prairie dogs resulted in a significant boost in humoral immunity characterized by a shift in reactivity of increased intensity to a broader range of OPV proteins. This work provides evidence of similarities between the vaccine responses in prairie dogs and humans that enhance the value of the prairie dog model system as an OPV vaccination model and offers novel findings that form a framework for examining the humoral immune response induced by systemic orthopoxvirus infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- M B Townsend
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Division of High Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Atlanta, GA, USA.
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Wei Y, Sun Y, Song C, Li H, Li Y, Zhang K, Gong J, Liu F, Liu Z, August JT, Jin B, Yang K. Enhancement of DNA vaccine efficacy by targeting the xenogeneic human chorionic gonadotropin, survivin and vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 2 combined tumor antigen to the major histocompatibility complex class II pathway. J Gene Med 2012; 14:353-62. [PMID: 22438278 DOI: 10.1002/jgm.2624] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND A number of strategies have been used to improve the efficacy of the DNA vaccine for the treatment of tumors. These strategies, ranging from activating CD4+ T cell, manipulating antigen presentation and/or processing to anti-angiogenesis, focus on one certain aspect in the functioning of the vaccine. Therefore, their combination is necessary for rational DNA vaccines design by synergizing different regimens and overcoming the limitations of each strategy. METHODS A DNA fragment (HSV) encoding the C terminal 37 amino acids of human chorionic gonadotropin β chain (hCGβ), 5 different HLA-restricted cytotoxic T lymphocyte epitopes from human survivin and the third and fourth extracellular domains of vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 2 (VEGFR2) was inserted into the sequence between the luminal and transmembrane domain of human lysosome-associated membrane protein-1 cDNA for the construction of a novel DNA vaccine. RESULTS This novel vaccine, named p-L/HSV, has a potent antitumor effect on the LL/2 lung carcinoma model in syngeneic C57BL/6 mice. The immunologic mechanism involved in the antitumor effect referred to the activation of both cellular and humoral immune response. In addition, the tumor vasculature was abrogated as observed by immunohistochemistry in p-L/HSV immunized mice. Furthermore, the immunized mice received an additional boost with p-L/HSV 6 months later and showed a strong immune recall response. CONCLUSIONS The present study indicates that the strategies of combining antitumor with antiangiogenesis and targeting the tumor antigen to the major histocompatibility complex class II pathway cooperate well. Such a study may shed new light on designing vaccine for cancer in the future.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Antigens, Neoplasm/genetics
- CD8-Positive T-Lymphocytes
- Cancer Vaccines/administration & dosage
- Cancer Vaccines/genetics
- Carcinoma, Lewis Lung/genetics
- Carcinoma, Lewis Lung/therapy
- Chorionic Gonadotropin, beta Subunit, Human/genetics
- Epitopes/genetics
- Female
- Genetic Vectors/administration & dosage
- HEK293 Cells
- Humans
- Immunity, Active/genetics
- Inhibitor of Apoptosis Proteins/genetics
- Inhibitor of Apoptosis Proteins/immunology
- Lysosomal Membrane Proteins/genetics
- Lysosomal Membrane Proteins/immunology
- Major Histocompatibility Complex/genetics
- Major Histocompatibility Complex/immunology
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Survivin
- T-Lymphocytes, Cytotoxic/immunology
- Vaccines, DNA/administration & dosage
- Vaccines, DNA/genetics
- Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor Receptor-2/genetics
- Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor Receptor-2/immunology
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuying Wei
- Department of Immunology, The Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, Shaanxi Province, People's Republic of China
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Poxvirus cell entry: how many proteins does it take? Viruses 2012; 4:688-707. [PMID: 22754644 PMCID: PMC3386626 DOI: 10.3390/v4050688] [Citation(s) in RCA: 147] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2012] [Revised: 04/21/2012] [Accepted: 04/23/2012] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
For many viruses, one or two proteins enable cell binding, membrane fusion and entry. The large number of proteins employed by poxviruses is unprecedented and may be related to their ability to infect a wide range of cells. There are two main infectious forms of vaccinia virus, the prototype poxvirus: the mature virion (MV), which has a single membrane, and the extracellular enveloped virion (EV), which has an additional outer membrane that is disrupted prior to fusion. Four viral proteins associated with the MV membrane facilitate attachment by binding to glycosaminoglycans or laminin on the cell surface, whereas EV attachment proteins have not yet been identified. Entry can occur at the plasma membrane or in acidified endosomes following macropinocytosis and involves actin dynamics and cell signaling. Regardless of the pathway or whether the MV or EV mediates infection, fusion is dependent on 11 to 12 non-glycosylated, transmembrane proteins ranging in size from 4- to 43-kDa that are associated in a complex. These proteins are conserved in poxviruses making it likely that a common entry mechanism exists. Biochemical studies support a two-step process in which lipid mixing of viral and cellular membranes is followed by pore expansion and core penetration.
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Golden JW, Hooper JW. The strategic use of novel smallpox vaccines in the post-eradication world. Expert Rev Vaccines 2012; 10:1021-35. [PMID: 21806397 PMCID: PMC9491137 DOI: 10.1586/erv.11.46] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
We still face a threat of orthopoxviruses in the form of biological weapons and emerging zoonoses. Therefore, there is a need to maintain a comprehensive defense strategy to counter the low-probability, high-impact threat of smallpox, as well as the ongoing threat of naturally occurring orthopoxvirus disease. The currently licensed live-virus smallpox vaccine ACAM2000 is effective, but associated with serious and even life-threatening adverse events. The health threat posed by this vaccine, and other previously licensed vaccines, has prevented many first responders, and even many in the military, from receiving a vaccine against smallpox. At the same time, global immunity produced during the smallpox eradication campaign is waning. Here, we review novel subunit/component vaccines and how they might play roles in unconventional strategies to defend against emerging orthopoxvirus diseases throughout the world and against smallpox used as a weapon of mass destruction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph W Golden
- Department of Molecular Virology, Virology Division, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Fort Detrick, MD 21702, USA
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Abstract
The eradication of smallpox, one of the great triumphs of medicine, was accomplished through the prophylactic administration of live vaccinia virus, a comparatively benign relative of variola virus, the causative agent of smallpox. Nevertheless, recent fears that variola virus may be used as a biological weapon together with the present susceptibility of unimmunized populations have spurred the development of new-generation vaccines that are safer than the original and can be produced by modern methods. Predicting the efficacy of such vaccines in the absence of human smallpox, however, depends on understanding the correlates of protection. This review outlines the biology of poxviruses with particular relevance to vaccine development, describes protein targets of humoral and cellular immunity, compares animal models of orthopoxvirus disease with human smallpox, and considers the status of second- and third-generation smallpox vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bernard Moss
- Laboratory of Viral Diseases, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892-3210, USA.
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