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Dhankher S, Yadav P, Sharma S, Gupta E, Yadav RG, Dash PK, Parida M. Structural and genomic evolutionary dynamics of Omicron variant of SARS-CoV-2 circulating in Madhya Pradesh, India. Front Med (Lausanne) 2024; 11:1416006. [PMID: 39323472 PMCID: PMC11422100 DOI: 10.3389/fmed.2024.1416006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2024] [Accepted: 08/06/2024] [Indexed: 09/27/2024] Open
Abstract
The SARS-CoV-2 Omicron (B.1.1.529) variant emerged in early November 2021 and its rapid spread created fear worldwide. This was attributed to its increased infectivity and escaping immune mechanisms. The spike protein of Omicron has more mutations (>30) than any other previous variants and was declared as the variant of concern (VOC) by the WHO. The concern among the scientific community was huge about this variant, and a piece of updated information on circulating viral strains is important in order to better understand the epidemiology, virus pathogenicity, transmission, therapeutic interventions, and vaccine development. A total of 710 samples were processed for sequencing and identification up to a resolution of sub-lineage. The sequence analysis revealed Omicron variant with distribution as follows: B.1.1, B.1.1.529, BA.1, BA.2, BA.2.10, BA.2.10.1, BA.2.23, BA.2.37, BA.2.38, BA.2.43, BA.2.74, BA.2.75, BA.2.76, and BA.4 sub-lineages. There is a shift noted in circulating lineage from BA.1 to BA.2 to BA.4 over a period from January to September 2022. Multiple signature mutations were identified in S protein T376A, D405N, and R408S mutations, which were new and common to all BA.2 variants. Additionally, R346T was seen in emerging BA.2.74 and BA.2.76 variants. The emerging BA.4 retained the common T376A, D405N, and R408S mutations of BA.2 along with a new mutation F486V. The samples sequenced were from different districts of Madhya Pradesh and showed a predominance of BA.2 and its variants circulating in this region. The current study identified circulation of BA.1 and BA.1.1 variants during initial phase. The predominant Delta strain of the second wave has been replaced by the Omicron variant in this region over a period of time. This study successfully deciphers the dynamics of the emergence and replacement of various sub-lineages of SARS-CoV-2 in central India on real real-time basis.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | - Paban Kumar Dash
- Virology Division, Defence Research and Development Establishment, Gwalior, India
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Negi SS, Sharma K, Bhargava A, Singh P. A comprehensive profile of SARS-CoV-2 variants spreading during the COVID-19 pandemic: a genomic characterization study from Chhattisgarh State, India. Arch Microbiol 2024; 206:68. [PMID: 38238530 DOI: 10.1007/s00203-023-03807-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2023] [Revised: 12/09/2023] [Accepted: 12/19/2023] [Indexed: 01/23/2024]
Abstract
SARS-CoV-2 has expressively changed its sequences during the COVID-19 pandemic situation by encompassing persistent evolutionary mutational changes resulting in the emergence of many clades and lineages. Evolution of these SARS-CoV-2 variants have significantly imparted fitness advantage to the virus, enhanced its transmissibility and severity of the disease. These new variants are a potential threat to the vaccine efficacy as well. It is therefore pertinent to monitor the evolution of these variants and their epidemiological and clinical impact, in a geographic setting. This study has thus looked into the geographic distribution and genetic diversity of SARS-CoV-2 variants and the evolutionary circulation of different clades in Chhattisgarh (CG) state from March 2020 to July 2023. A total of 3018 sequences were retrieved from the GISAID database, in which 558 were submitted by us. The demographic data revealed male preponderance of 56.45% versus 43.54% females, with the overall mean age of 36.5 years. SARS-CoV-2 sequences represented many variants viz., Delta (55%), Omicron (22%) and others (15%) with a small proportion of recombinant (5%), Kappa (2%), and Alpha (1%). The viral clades G was found predominant for a year from initial days of pandemic in March, 2020 to January, 2021 which then subsequently evoluted to subclade GK (Delta B.1.617.2) and remained in circulation in CG till November, 2021. From December 2021, the GRA (Omicron B.1.1.529) variant had replaced GK to become the dominant strain and continues to predominate in present time. GRA clade is however continuously encompassing new recombinant strains, having various non-synonymous mutations especially in spike protein. The non-synonymous mutation P314L in ORF1b, S84L in ORF8 and D614G in spike protein were found as the pan mutation carried over from clade G to GRA. The continuous evolution in SARS-CoV2 warrants periodical geographic genomic surveillance monitoring to timely detect any new variants having the potential of causing future outbreak.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sanjay Singh Negi
- Department of Microbiology, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Raipur, Chhattisgarh, India
| | - Kuldeep Sharma
- Department of Microbiology, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Raipur, Chhattisgarh, India
| | - Anudita Bhargava
- Department of Microbiology, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Raipur, Chhattisgarh, India
| | - Pushpendra Singh
- Department of Microbiology, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Raipur, Chhattisgarh, India.
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Haddad-Boubaker S, Arbi M, Souiai O, Chouikha A, Fares W, Edington K, Sims S, Camma C, Lorusso A, Diagne MM, Diallo A, Boubaker IBB, Ferjani S, Mastouri M, Mhalla S, Karray H, Gargouri S, Bahri O, Trabelsi A, Kallala O, Hannachi N, Chaabouni Y, Smaoui H, Meftah K, Bouhalila SB, Foughali S, Zribi M, Lamari A, Touzi H, Safer M, Alaya NB, Kahla AB, Gdoura M, Triki H. The Delta variant wave in Tunisia: Genetic diversity, spatio-temporal distribution and evidence of the spread of a divergent AY.122 sub-lineage. Front Public Health 2023; 10:990832. [PMID: 36684874 PMCID: PMC9846204 DOI: 10.3389/fpubh.2022.990832] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2022] [Accepted: 12/09/2022] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction The Delta variant posed an increased risk to global public health and rapidly replaced the pre-existent variants worldwide. In this study, the genetic diversity and the spatio-temporal dynamics of 662 SARS-CoV2 genomes obtained during the Delta wave across Tunisia were investigated. Methods Viral whole genome and partial S-segment sequencing was performed using Illumina and Sanger platforms, respectively and lineage assignemnt was assessed using Pangolin version 1.2.4 and scorpio version 3.4.X. Phylogenetic and phylogeographic analyses were achieved using IQ-Tree and Beast programs. Results The age distribution of the infected cases showed a large peak between 25 to 50 years. Twelve Delta sub-lineages were detected nation-wide with AY.122 being the predominant variant representing 94.6% of sequences. AY.122 sequences were highly related and shared the amino-acid change ORF1a:A498V, the synonymous mutations 2746T>C, 3037C>T, 8986C>T, 11332A>G in ORF1a and 23683C>T in the S gene with respect to the Wuhan reference genome (NC_045512.2). Spatio-temporal analysis indicates that the larger cities of Nabeul, Tunis and Kairouan constituted epicenters for the AY.122 sub-lineage and subsequent dispersion to the rest of the country. Discussion This study adds more knowledge about the Delta variant and sub-variants distribution worldwide by documenting genomic and epidemiological data from Tunisia, a North African region. Such results may be helpful to the understanding of future COVID-19 waves and variants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sondes Haddad-Boubaker
- Laboratory of Clinical Virology, WHO Regional Reference Laboratory for Poliomyelitis and Measles for the EMR, Institute Pasteur de Tunis, University of Tunis El-Manar, Tunis, Tunisia
- Laboratory of Viruses, Hosts and Vectors, Institute Pasteur de Tunis, University of Tunis El Manar, Tunis, Tunisia
- Clinical Investigation Center (CIC), Institute Pasteur de Tunis, University of Tunis El Manar, Tunis, Tunisia
| | - Marwa Arbi
- Laboratory of Clinical Virology, WHO Regional Reference Laboratory for Poliomyelitis and Measles for the EMR, Institute Pasteur de Tunis, University of Tunis El-Manar, Tunis, Tunisia
- Laboratory of Bioinformatics, Biomathematics and Biostatistics, Institute Pasteur de Tunis, University of Tunis El-Manar, Tunis, Tunisia
| | - Oussema Souiai
- Laboratory of Bioinformatics, Biomathematics and Biostatistics, Institute Pasteur de Tunis, University of Tunis El-Manar, Tunis, Tunisia
| | - Anissa Chouikha
- Laboratory of Clinical Virology, WHO Regional Reference Laboratory for Poliomyelitis and Measles for the EMR, Institute Pasteur de Tunis, University of Tunis El-Manar, Tunis, Tunisia
- Laboratory of Viruses, Hosts and Vectors, Institute Pasteur de Tunis, University of Tunis El Manar, Tunis, Tunisia
- Clinical Investigation Center (CIC), Institute Pasteur de Tunis, University of Tunis El Manar, Tunis, Tunisia
| | - Wasfi Fares
- Laboratory of Clinical Virology, WHO Regional Reference Laboratory for Poliomyelitis and Measles for the EMR, Institute Pasteur de Tunis, University of Tunis El-Manar, Tunis, Tunisia
- Laboratory of Viruses, Hosts and Vectors, Institute Pasteur de Tunis, University of Tunis El Manar, Tunis, Tunisia
- Clinical Investigation Center (CIC), Institute Pasteur de Tunis, University of Tunis El Manar, Tunis, Tunisia
| | - Kate Edington
- New Variant Assessment Platform (NVAP), UK Health Security Agency, London, United Kingdom
| | - Sam Sims
- New Variant Assessment Platform (NVAP), UK Health Security Agency, London, United Kingdom
| | - Cesare Camma
- Department of Virology, Instituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell'Abruzzo e del Molise G. Caporale (IZSAM), Teramo, Italy
| | - Alessio Lorusso
- Department of Virology, Instituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell'Abruzzo e del Molise G. Caporale (IZSAM), Teramo, Italy
| | | | - Amadou Diallo
- Department of Virology, Pasteur Institute of Dakar, Dakar, Senegal
| | - Ilhem Boutiba Ben Boubaker
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Charles Nicolle Hospital, Tunis, Tunisia
- Laboratory Research Antimicrobial Resistance, Faculty of Medicine of Tunis, University of Tunis El-Manar, Tunis, Tunisia
| | - Sana Ferjani
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Charles Nicolle Hospital, Tunis, Tunisia
- Laboratory Research Antimicrobial Resistance, Faculty of Medicine of Tunis, University of Tunis El-Manar, Tunis, Tunisia
| | - Maha Mastouri
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Fattouma Bourguiba Hospital, Monastir, Tunisia
- Laboratory Research Laboratoire des Maladies Transmissibles et Substances Biologiquement Actives, Faculty of Pharmacy of Monastir, University of Monastir, Monastir, Tunisia
| | - Salma Mhalla
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Fattouma Bourguiba Hospital, Monastir, Tunisia
- Laboratory Research Laboratoire des Maladies Transmissibles et Substances Biologiquement Actives, Faculty of Pharmacy of Monastir, University of Monastir, Monastir, Tunisia
| | - Hela Karray
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Habib Bourguiba Hospital, Sfax, Tunisia
| | - Saba Gargouri
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Habib Bourguiba Hospital, Sfax, Tunisia
| | - Olfa Bahri
- Laboratory of Microbiology and Biochemistry, Aziza Othmana Hospital, Tunis, Tunisia
| | | | - Ouafa Kallala
- Laboratory of Virology, Sahloul Hospital of Sousse, Sousse, Tunisia
| | - Naila Hannachi
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Farhat Hached Hospital of Sousse, Sousse, Tunisia
| | - Yassine Chaabouni
- Laboratory of Medical Biology, Ibn El Jazzar Hospital, Kairouan, Tunisia
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine of Tunis, University of Tunis El Manar, Tunis, Tunisia
| | - Hanen Smaoui
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine of Tunis, University of Tunis El Manar, Tunis, Tunisia
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Microbiology of Children and Immunocompromised, Faculty of Medicine of Tunis, University of Tunis El Manar, Tunis, Tunisia
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Bechir Hamza Children's Hospital, Tunis, Tunisia
| | - Khaoula Meftah
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine of Tunis, University of Tunis El Manar, Tunis, Tunisia
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Microbiology of Children and Immunocompromised, Faculty of Medicine of Tunis, University of Tunis El Manar, Tunis, Tunisia
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Bechir Hamza Children's Hospital, Tunis, Tunisia
| | - Sophia Besbes Bouhalila
- Laboratory of Medical Biology and Blood Bank, Institute Mohamed Kassab d'orthopédie, Manouba, Tunisia
| | - Soumaya Foughali
- Laboratory of Medical Biology, Menzel Bourguiba Hospital, Bizerte, Tunisia
| | - Mariem Zribi
- Laboratory of Microbiology, La Rabta Hospital, Tunis, Tunisia
| | - Asma Lamari
- Laboratory of Clinical Virology, WHO Regional Reference Laboratory for Poliomyelitis and Measles for the EMR, Institute Pasteur de Tunis, University of Tunis El-Manar, Tunis, Tunisia
- Laboratory of Viruses, Hosts and Vectors, Institute Pasteur de Tunis, University of Tunis El Manar, Tunis, Tunisia
| | - Henda Touzi
- Laboratory of Clinical Virology, WHO Regional Reference Laboratory for Poliomyelitis and Measles for the EMR, Institute Pasteur de Tunis, University of Tunis El-Manar, Tunis, Tunisia
- Laboratory of Viruses, Hosts and Vectors, Institute Pasteur de Tunis, University of Tunis El Manar, Tunis, Tunisia
- Clinical Investigation Center (CIC), Institute Pasteur de Tunis, University of Tunis El Manar, Tunis, Tunisia
| | - Mouna Safer
- National Observatory of New and Emergent Diseases, Tunis, Tunisia
| | - Nissaf Ben Alaya
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine of Tunis, University of Tunis El Manar, Tunis, Tunisia
- National Observatory of New and Emergent Diseases, Tunis, Tunisia
| | - Alia Ben Kahla
- Laboratory of Bioinformatics, Biomathematics and Biostatistics, Institute Pasteur de Tunis, University of Tunis El-Manar, Tunis, Tunisia
| | - Mariem Gdoura
- Laboratory of Clinical Virology, WHO Regional Reference Laboratory for Poliomyelitis and Measles for the EMR, Institute Pasteur de Tunis, University of Tunis El-Manar, Tunis, Tunisia
- Laboratory of Viruses, Hosts and Vectors, Institute Pasteur de Tunis, University of Tunis El Manar, Tunis, Tunisia
- Clinical Investigation Center (CIC), Institute Pasteur de Tunis, University of Tunis El Manar, Tunis, Tunisia
- Department of Virology, Faculty of Pharmacy of Monastir, University of Monastir, Monastir, Tunisia
| | - Henda Triki
- Laboratory of Clinical Virology, WHO Regional Reference Laboratory for Poliomyelitis and Measles for the EMR, Institute Pasteur de Tunis, University of Tunis El-Manar, Tunis, Tunisia
- Laboratory of Viruses, Hosts and Vectors, Institute Pasteur de Tunis, University of Tunis El Manar, Tunis, Tunisia
- Clinical Investigation Center (CIC), Institute Pasteur de Tunis, University of Tunis El Manar, Tunis, Tunisia
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine of Tunis, University of Tunis El Manar, Tunis, Tunisia
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Sharma RP, Gautam S, Sharma P, Singh R, Sharma H, Parsoya D, Deeba F, Bhomia N, Pal N, Potdar V, Yadav PD, Gupta N, Bhandari S, Kumar A, Joshi Y, Pandit P, Malhotra B. Genomic profile of SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant and its correlation with disease severity in Rajasthan. Front Med (Lausanne) 2022; 9:888408. [PMID: 36213661 PMCID: PMC9538571 DOI: 10.3389/fmed.2022.888408] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2022] [Accepted: 08/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Omicron, a new variant of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome-Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), was first detected in November 2021. This was believed to be highly transmissible and was reported to evade immunity. As a result, an urgent need was felt to screen all positive samples so as to rapidly identify Omicron cases and isolate them to prevent the spread of infection. Genomic surveillance of SARS-CoV-2 was planned to correlate disease severity with the genomic profile. Methods All the SARS-CoV-2 positive cases detected in the state of Rajasthan were sent to our Lab. Samples received from 24 November 2021 to 4 January 2022 were selected for Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS). Processing was done as per protocol on the Ion Torrent S5 System for 1,210 samples and bioinformatics analysis was done. Results Among the 1,210 samples tested, 762 (62.9%) were Delta/Delta-like and other lineages, 291 (24%) were Omicron, and 157 (12.9%) were invalid or repeat samples. Within a month, the proportion of Delta and other variants was reversed, 6% Omicron became 81%, and Delta and other variants became 19%, initially all Omicron cases were seen in international travelers and their contacts but soon community transmission was seen. The majority of patients with Omicron were asymptomatic (56.7%) or had mild disease (33%), 9.2% had moderate symptoms, and two (0.7%) had severe disease requiring hospitalization, of which one (0.3%) died and the rest were (99.7%) recovered. History of vaccination was seen in 81.1%, of the previous infection in 43.2% of cases. Among the Omicron cases, BA.1 (62.8%) was the predominant lineage followed by BA.2 (23.7%) and B.1.529 (13.4%), rising trends were seen initially for BA.1 and later for BA.2 also. Although 8.9% of patients with Delta lineage during that period were hospitalized, 7.2% required oxygen, and 0.9% died. To conclude, the community spread of Omicron occurred in a short time and became the predominant circulating variant; BA.1 was the predominant lineage detected. Most of the cases with Omicron were asymptomatic or had mild disease, and the mortality rate was very low as compared to Delta and other lineages.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Swati Gautam
- Department of Microbiology, Sawai Man Singh Medical College, Jaipur, India
| | - Pratibha Sharma
- Department of Microbiology, Sawai Man Singh Medical College, Jaipur, India
| | | | - Himanshu Sharma
- Department of Microbiology, Sawai Man Singh Medical College, Jaipur, India
| | - Dinesh Parsoya
- Department of Microbiology, Sawai Man Singh Medical College, Jaipur, India
| | - Farah Deeba
- Department of Microbiology, Sawai Man Singh Medical College, Jaipur, India
| | - Neha Bhomia
- Department of Microbiology, Sawai Man Singh Medical College, Jaipur, India
| | - Nita Pal
- Department of Microbiology, Sawai Man Singh Medical College, Jaipur, India
| | - Varsha Potdar
- Virology Department, National Institute of Virology (ICMR), Pune, India
| | - Pragya D. Yadav
- Virology Department, National Institute of Virology (ICMR), Pune, India
| | - Nivedita Gupta
- Virology Department, Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR), New Delhi, India
| | - Sudhir Bhandari
- Department of Microbiology, Sawai Man Singh Medical College, Jaipur, India
| | - Abhinendra Kumar
- Virology Department, National Institute of Virology (ICMR), Pune, India
| | - Yash Joshi
- Virology Department, National Institute of Virology (ICMR), Pune, India
| | - Priyanka Pandit
- Virology Department, National Institute of Virology (ICMR), Pune, India
| | - Bharti Malhotra
- Department of Microbiology, Sawai Man Singh Medical College, Jaipur, India
- *Correspondence: Bharti Malhotra
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Yu CY, Wong SY, Liew NWC, Joseph N, Zakaria Z, Nurulfiza I, Soe HJ, Kairon R, Amin-Nordin S, Chee HY. Whole genome sequencing analysis of SARS-CoV-2 from Malaysia: From alpha to Omicron. Front Med (Lausanne) 2022; 9:1001022. [PMID: 36213636 PMCID: PMC9537942 DOI: 10.3389/fmed.2022.1001022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2022] [Accepted: 09/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Countries around the world are gearing for the transition of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) from pandemic to endemic phase but the emergence of new severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) variants could lead to a prolonged pandemic. SARS-CoV-2 has continued to evolve as it optimizes its adaptation to the human host and the successive waves of COVID-19 have been linked to the explosion of particular variant of concern. As the genetic diversity and epidemiological landscape of SARS-CoV-2 differ from country to country, this study aims to provide insights into the variants that are circulating in Malaysia. Whole genome sequencing was performed for 204 SARS-CoV-2 from COVID-19 cases and an additional 18,667 SARS-CoV-2 genome sequences were retrieved from the GISAID EpiCoV database for clade, lineage and genetic variation analyses. Complete genome sequences with high coverage were then used for phylogeny investigation and the resulting phylogenetic tree was constructed from 8,716 sequences. We found that the different waves of COVID-19 in Malaysia were dominated by different clades with the L and O clade for first and second wave, respectively, whereas the progressive replacement by G, GH, and GK of the GRA clade were observed in the subsequence waves. Continuous monitoring of the genetic diversity of SARS-CoV-2 is important to identify the emergence and dominance of new variant in different locality so that the appropriate countermeasures can be taken to effectively contain the spread of SARS-CoV-2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Choo Yee Yu
- Laboratory of Vaccine and Biomolecules, Institute of Bioscience, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Malaysia
| | - Sie Yeng Wong
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Malaysia
| | - Nancy Woan Charn Liew
- Laboratory of Vaccine and Biomolecules, Institute of Bioscience, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Malaysia
| | - Narcisse Joseph
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Malaysia
| | - Zunita Zakaria
- Institute of Bioscience, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Malaysia
- Department of Veterinary Pathology and Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Malaysia
| | - Isa Nurulfiza
- Laboratory of Vaccine and Biomolecules, Institute of Bioscience, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Malaysia
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Malaysia
| | | | | | - Syafinaz Amin-Nordin
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Malaysia
| | - Hui Yee Chee
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Malaysia
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