An ecotoxicological approach for hazard identification of energy ash

Ecotoxicity assessment of ashes from calcium-rich fuel combustion: contrasting results and regulatory implications

The European Union's (EU) regulation for the waste classification based on their ecotoxicological hazard (hazardous property HP14) came into force on 5 July 2018. The regulation advocates the utilisation of computational formulae for the hazard classification of waste associated with hazardous property HP14. Concurrently, ecotoxicological testing remains an alternative. To date, the absence of a consensus regarding test organisms and methodologies has vested EU member states with autonomy in determining the approach for conducting ecotoxicity assessments. The discussions on waste classification are also ongoing globally, namely the discussions under the Basel Convention. This paper endeavours to elucidate whether the widely employed test organisms, Daphnia magna and Aliivibrio fischeri, may serve as suitable indicators for the evaluation of the ecotoxicity of waste. The research is grounded in the examination of ashes derived from a combustion process of calcium-rich fuel. Ecotoxicity testing was conducted on 14 ash samples with a liquid-to-solid ratio of 10:1. The results of the Aliivibrio fischeri testing indicated that all 14 ash samples were non-hazardous in terms of their ecotoxicity. However, the results of the Daphnia magna testing showed the opposite, suggesting that the ash samples may have the potential to be ecotoxic. This study offers valuable insights into ecotoxicity assessment and waste classification, emphasising the need for scientific rigour and comprehensive understanding before making regulatory decisions. It also situates its findings within the broader global context of waste management discussions, particularly those related to international agreements like the Basel Convention.

An integrated characterisation of incineration bottom ashes towards sustainable application: Physicochemical, ecotoxicological, and mechanical properties

Environmental protection is a central concern regarding municipal solid waste incineration bottom ash (IBA) management, but the assessment of waste Hazardous Property HP14 (ecotoxicity) is still under debate. Civil engineering applications may be a suitable management strategy. This work aimed at evaluating IBA regarding mechanical behaviour and environmental hazardous potential, including a biotest battery for ecotoxicity assessment (comprising miniaturised tests), to explore its potential for safe utilization. Physical, chemical, ecotoxicological (Aliivibrio fischeri, Raphidocelis subcapitata, Lemna minor, Daphnia magna, Lepidium sativum), and mechanical (one-dimensional compressibility, shear strength) analyses were performed. The low leaching for potentially toxic metals and ions complied with European Union (EU) limit values for non-hazardous waste landfills. No relevant ecotoxicological effects were found. The biotest battery seems suitable for ecotoxicological assessment in the aquatic ecosystem, providing wide information on waste impact on different trophic/functional levels and chemical uptake routes, simultaneously involving short-duration tests and reduced amounts of waste. IBA presented more compressibility than sand, but its mixture with sand (30%:70%) was closer to sand compressibility. IBA (lower stresses) and the mixture (higher stresses) showed slightly higher shear strength than sand. Overall, IBA presented the potential for valorisation as loose aggregates from an environmental and mechanical viewpoint in a circular economy framework.

Ecotoxic, genotoxic, and cytotoxic potential of leachate obtained from chromated copper arsenate-treated wood ashes

Preservative treatments increase the durability of wood, and one of the alternative treatments involves the use of chromated copper arsenate (CCA). Due to the toxicity of CCA, the disposal of CCA-treated wood residues is problematic, and burning is considered to provide a solution. The ecotoxicological potential of ash can be high when these components are toxic and mutagenic. The aim of this study was to evaluate the toxicity and genotoxicity of bottom ash leachates originating from CCA-treated wood burning. Physical-chemical analysis of the leachates revealed that in treated wood ashes leachate (CCA-TWBAL), the contents of arsenic and chromium were 59.45 mg.L^-1 and 54.28 mg.L^-1, respectively. In untreated wood ashes leachate (UWBAL), these contents were 0.70 mg.L^-1 and 0.30 mg.L^-1, respectively. CCA-TWBAL caused significant toxicity in Lactuca sativa, Allium cepa, and microcrustacean Artemia spp. (LC50 = 12.12 mg.mL^-1). Comet assay analyses using NIH3T3 cells revealed that concentrations ranging from 1.0 and 2.5 mg.mL^-1 increase the damage frequency (DF) and damage index (DI). According to MTT assay results, CCA-TWBAL at concentrations as low as 1 mg.mL^-1 caused a significant decrease in cellular viability. Hemolysis assay analyses suggest that the arsenic and chromium leachate contents are important for the ecotoxic, cytotoxic, and genotoxic effects of CCA-TWBAL.

Human exposure and risk assessment of recycling incineration bottom ash for land reclamation: A showcase coupling studies of leachability, transport modeling and bioaccumulation

Incineration bottom ash (IBA) faces challenges for its sustainable recycling due to the absence of scenario-specific risk assessment. Environmental risk assessment was carried out via a case study incorporating key factors to dominate human exposures during IBA utilization in land reclamation. Three research components echoing respective IBA leaching, exposures, and consequences were performed under a supportive framework to elaborate these interlinked key factors and unveil the potential environmental risks. IBA leachability was firstly investigated using various laboratory standard leaching methods while conducted a large-scale field trial experiment for mutual confirmation, suggesting that maximum leached amounts may be achieved when liquid to solid (L/S) ratio increases to 10. Dilution and transportation models were both developed to discriminate the mitigation of IBA leachate between two periods i.e. during and after land reclamation, suggesting that dilution rather than transportation may dominate the environmental impact for metal exposures. Metal bioaccumulation from a typical mollusk species was performed coupling the calculated dietary safety limits based on Singaporean diet intake for development of the threshold of toxicology concerns on human exposures. With such, IBA benign usage in land reclamation was also conferred in the form of distance and dilution factor.

Review of leaching behavior of municipal solid waste incineration (MSWI) ash

Incineration is widely adopted in modern waste management because it provides an effective way to minimize municipal solid waste that needs to be disposed of in landfills. The ash residue is often disposed by landfilling. Alternatively, the incineration ash may be recycled and reused for various applications. The crucial issues, however, are the leaching of harmful elements during the use and the end-of-life phases. This review summarizes extensive studies on leaching behavior of municipal solid waste incineration ash. Specifically, pollutants generated through leaching, factors governing leaching, methodologies to study leaching, leaching mechanisms, and treatments to reduce leaching. Many types of pollutants are generated through leaching from municipal solid waste incineration ash, in which heavy metals and organic contaminants are the most toxic and concerned. Ash properties, pH and liquid to solid ratio are the main factors governing municipal solid waste incineration ash leaching. Leaching behavior of municipal solid waste incineration ash is complicated and existing methods to evaluate leaching may not be able to represent the field conditions. Solubility and sorption are the two major leaching mechanisms. Many treatment methods have been proposed. However, not all methods are effective and some approaches are associated with high energy and high cost, which makes them less economically feasible and attractive.

Wood ash residue causes a mixture of growth promotion and toxicity in Lemna minor

The use of wood as a sustainable biofuel results in the generation of residual wood ash. The ash contains high amounts of plant macronutrients such as phosphorus, potassium, calcium as well as several micronutrients. To explore the potential use of wood ash as a fertiliser, the growth enhancing properties of Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis Bong.) wood ash were contrasted with the potential toxic action, using common duckweed (Lemna minor L.) as a model test species. The growth of L. minor exposed to wood bottom and fly ash solids and corresponding leachates was assessed in ultra-oligotrophic and eutrophic media. Ash solids and leachates were also tested as neutralized preparations. Suspended ash solids promoted L. minor growth up to concentrations of 2.5-5g/L. Leachates promoted growth up to 10g ash equivalents per litre, but for bottom ash only. Beneficial effects of wood ash were most pronounced on ultra-oligotrophic medium. However, on such nutrient-deficient medium severe inhibition of L. minor biomass and frond growth was observed at relatively low concentrations of fly ash (EC₅₀=14g/L). On standard, eutrophic medium, higher concentrations of fly ash (EC₅₀=21g/L), or neutralized fly ash (EC₅₀=37g/L) were required to impede growth. Bottom ash, or neutralized bottom ash retarded growth at concentrations of 51g/L and 74g/L (EC₅₀), respectively, in eutrophic medium. It appears that phytotoxicity is due to the elemental composition of the ash, its alkaline character, and possible interactions between these two properties. Growth promotion was due to the substantial content of plant nutrients. This study underlines the importance of the receiving environment (nutrient status and pH) in determining the balance between toxicity and growth promotion, and shows that the margin between growth promoting and toxicity inducing concentrations can be enlarged through ash neutralization.

Ecotoxicological assessment of dewatered drinking water treatment residue for environmental recycling

The beneficial recycle of drinking water treatment residue (DWTR) in environmental remediation has been demonstrated in many reports. However, the lack of information concerning the potential toxicity of dewatered DWTR hinders its widespread use. The present study examined the ecotoxicity of dewatered aluminum (Al) and iron (Fe) DWTR leachates to a green alga, Chlorella vulgaris. Data from the variations of cell density and chlorophyll a content suggested that algal growth in DWTR leachates was inhibited. The algal cellular oxidation stress was initially induced but completely eliminated within 72 h by antioxidant enzymes. The expression of three photosynthesis-related algae genes (psaB, psbC, and rbcL) also temporarily decreased (within 72 h). Moreover, the algal cells showed intact cytomembranes after exposure to DWTR leachates. Further investigation confirmed that inhibition of algal growth was due to DWTR-induced phosphorus (P) deficiency in growth medium, rather than potentially toxic contaminants (e.g. copper and Al) contained in DWTR. Interestingly, the leachates could potentially promote algal growth via increasing the supply of new components (e.g. calcium, kalium, magnesium, and ammonia nitrogen) from DWTR. In summary, based on the algae toxicity test, the dewatered Fe/Al DWTR was nontoxic and its environment recycling does not represent an ecotoxicological risk to algae.

Aquatic ecotoxicity of ashes from Brazilian savanna wildfires

In a global scenario of climate change, several studies have predicted an increase in fires in different parts of the world. With the occurrence of rains following the fires in the Brazilian savanna (Cerrado biome), the compounds present in ashes may enter aquatic environments and cause adverse effects to these ecosystems. In this context, this study evaluated the potential toxicity of ashes from two areas of Cerrado and an area of pasture, through ecotoxicological bioassays and using three aquatic species from distinct trophic levels, which were exposed to different dilutions of ashes: the microcrustacean Ceriodaphnia dubia, the fish Danio rerio and the mollusc Biomphalaria glabrata. The ashes from the three sampled areas showed higher concentrations of some elements in relation to the soil samples (B, Ca, K, Mg, Mn, P, S, Si, Sr, Zn), but only a small quantity of these compounds was solubilised. Our data showed that all ash samples caused acute toxicity to C. dubia (48hs-LC₅₀ = 13.4 g L^-1; 48hs-LC₅₀ = 6.33 g L^-1; 48hs-LC₅₀ = 9.73 g L^-1 respectively for transition area, pasture, typical cerrado areas), while in relation to D. rerio and B. glabrata, no acute toxicity was observed when they were exposed to ashes from native Cerrado vegetation and pasture areas. Ashes from a transition area showed toxicity for D. rerio (48hs-LC₅₀ = 25.0 g L^-1); possibly, this was due to the combination of multiple preponderant inorganic elements of ashes with other organic compounds not analysed, such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). In summary, these results suggest that wildfires may pose risks to zooplankton communities and emphasize the need for more studies to better understand the complexity of the ecological effects of fire on aquatic ecosystems.

Recommendation for a test battery for the ecotoxicological evaluation of the environmental safety of construction products

The European Construction Products Regulation allows Member States to adopt rules for evaluating the environmental impact of their buildings. The aim of the project was to develop recommendations for a test battery for the ecotoxicological assessment of the environmental impact of construction products for outdoor use and contribute to the European harmonization of test methods. From a shortlist of 39 products 20 products were included in the ecotoxicological testing program. Monolithic and plate-like construction products were eluted in the Dynamic Surface Leaching test (DSLT) in accordance with CEN/TS 16637-2, granular products were eluted in a one stage batch test in accordance with DIN EN 12457-1. The eluates were examined in four aquatic toxicity tests (algae, daphnia, luminescent bacteria, fish eggs), a genotoxicity test (umu test) and in the respirometer test (OECD 301 F). Here, low to very high ecotoxicity was observed (up to a dilution factor of 1536). Six out of 8 eluates, whose TOC exceeded 10 mg L^-1 showed a good biodegradability above 75%. The intra-laboratory repeatability of the Lowest Ineffective Dilution (LID) usually was within ±1 dilution steps (ecotoxicity tests) and ±2 dilution steps (leaching and ecotoxicity tests). This is acceptable, when considering that the overall variability of sample preparation, leaching test, and bioassays add up. The conclusions lead to practical recommendations for a suitable combination of leaching and ecotoxicity tests.

Evaluation of frameworks for ecotoxicological hazard classification of waste

A new harmonized EU regulation for the classification of waste came into effect on 1st June 2015, in which the criteria and assessment methods for the classification of hazardous waste are harmonized with other internationally agreed-upon systems for hazard classification of chemicals (CLP). However, criteria and guidance for the assessment of ecotoxicological hazard (Hazard Property 14, HP14) are still lacking for waste classification. This paper have evaluated and compared two HP14 classification frameworks: (i) a calculation method (summation) for mixtures, and (ii) leaching tests. The two frameworks were evaluated by surveying and evaluating ecotoxicological data for Cu, Zn, K and Ca species in bottom ash from incinerated waste, together with geochemical speciation modelling. Classification based on the summation method proved to be highly sensitive to the choice of speciation and ecotoxicological classification. This results in a wide range of critical concentrations triggering hazardous classification (in particular for Cu and Zn). Important parameters governing the availability of toxic elements, such as transformation from one species to another and complexation on organic or inorganic sorbents, are not accounted for. Geochemical modelling revealed that a testing strategy built on CLP based leaching tests (liquid/solid ratio (L/S)⩾10,000, pH range 5.5-8.5) avoids bias and is superior to the summation method with respect to both precision and accuracy. A testing strategy built on leaching tests, designed for risk assessment purposes, (L/S ratio of 10, natural pH of the ash) severely underestimate the hazard associated with the presence of toxic compounds (Cu and Zn), while simultaneously falsely indicate a hazardousness due to the presence of non-toxic compounds (Ca and K). However, the testing methods adopted by CLP are problematic from a practical and functional point of view. To conclude, the L/S ratio and pH were found to be critical for hazard classification based on leaching test methods. Further studies are needed to develop a relevant, practical and functional testing strategy for HP14 hazardous waste classification.

COSMOS-rice technology abrogates the biotoxic effects of municipal solid waste incinerator residues

Fly ashes generated by municipal solid waste incinerator (MSWI) are classified as hazardous waste and usually landfilled. For the sustainable reuse of these materials is necessary to reduce the resulting impact on human health and environment. The COSMOS-rice technology has been recently proposed for the treatment of fly ashes mixed with rice husk ash, to obtain a low-cost composite material with significant performances. Here, aquatic biotoxicity assays, including daphnidae and zebrafish embryo-based tests, were used to assess the biosafety efficacy of this technology. Exposure to lixiviated MSWI fly ash caused dose-dependent biotoxic effects on daphnidae and zebrafish embryos with alterations of embryonic development, teratogenous defects and apoptotic events. On the contrary, no biotoxic effects were observed in daphnidae and zebrafish embryos exposed to lixiviated COSMOS-rice material. Accordingly, whole-mount in situ hybridization analysis of the expression of various tissue-specific genes in zebrafish embryos provided genetic evidence about the ability of COSMOS-rice stabilization process to minimize the biotoxic effects of MSWI fly ash. These results demonstrate at the biological level that the newly developed COSMOS-rice technology is an efficient and cost-effective method to process MSWI fly ash, producing a biologically safe and reusable material.

Rapid toxicity screening of gasification ashes

The solid residues including bottom ashes and fly ashes produced by waste gasification technology could be reused as secondary raw materials. However, the applications and utilizations of these ashes are very often restricted by their toxicity. Therefore, toxicity screening of ash is the primary condition for reusing the ash. In this manuscript, we establish a standard for rapid screening of gasification ashes on the basis of in vitro and in vivo testing, and henceforth guide the proper disposal of the ashes. We used three different test models comprising human cell lines (liver and lung cells), Drosophila melanogaster and Daphnia magna to examine the toxicity of six different types of ashes. For each ash, different leachate concentrations were used to examine the toxicity, with C0 being the original extracted leachate concentration, while C/C0 being subsequent diluted concentrations. The IC50 for each leachate was also quantified for use as an index to classify toxicity levels. The results demonstrated that the toxicity evaluation of different types of ashes using different models is consistent with each other. As the different models show consistent qualitative results, we chose one or two of the models (liver cells or lung cells models) as the standard for rapid toxicity screening of gasification ashes. We may classify the gasification ashes into three categories according to the IC50, 24h value on liver cells or lung cells models, namely "toxic level I" (IC50, 24h>C/C0=0.5), "toxic level II" (C/C0=0.05<IC50, 24h<C/C0=0.5) and "toxic level III" (IC50, 24h<C/C0=0.05). Such a simple yet informative approach can help to determine the toxic effects of various types of ashes generated in gasification plants every day. Subsequently, appropriate disposal methods can be recommended for each toxicity category.

Evaluation of interactions between soil and coal fly ash leachates using column percolation tests

The aim of this work was the assessment of the environmental impact of different origin fly ashes with regard to their final disposal. The experimental procedure included the performance of single column tests and column tests of fly ash and soil in series. The appraisal of the potential environmental hazards was implemented using physicochemical analyses and bioassays. Two different fly ash samples were examined, one fly ash produced from the combustion of sub-bituminous coal (CFA) and one fly ash produced from the combustion of lignite (LFA). Single column percolation tests were performed according to NEN 7343 protocol, while fly ash/soil experiments were conducted incorporating slight modifications to this protocol. The study focused on the release of metals Ba, Cr, Cu, Mo, Se and Zn and the ecotoxic behavior of leachates on crustacean Daphnia magna and bacteria Vibrio fischeri. The infiltration of the leachates of both fly ashes through soil affected considerably their leaching profile. The transport of Cu and Zn was facilitated by the dynamic leaching conditions and influenced by the pH of the leachates. Moreover, the release and bioavailability of Cr, Cu and Zn was probably altered during the infiltration experiments and organisms' response was not always correlated with the concentration of metals. Nevertheless, the results are signalling that possible manipulations and final disposal of fly ash should be considered when environmental threats are investigated.

PAHs in leachates from thermal power plant wastes and ash-based construction materials

The focus of the current study is to characterise the leaching behaviour of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) from oil shale ashes (OSAs) of pulverised firing (PF) and circulating fluidised-bed (CFB) boilers from Estonian Thermal Power Plant (Estonia) as well as from mortars and concrete based on OSAs. The target substances were 16 PAHs from the EPA priority pollutant list. OSA samples and OSA-based mortars were tested for leaching, according to European standard EN 12457-2 (2002). European standard CEN/TC 15862(2012) for monolithic matter was used for OSA-based concrete. Water extracts were analysed by GC-MS for the concentration of PAHs. Naphthalene, acenaphthene, fluorene, phenanthrene, anthracene, fluoranthene and pyrene were detected. Still, the release of PAHs was below the threshold limit value for inert waste. The amount of the finest fraction (particle size <0.045 mm), the content of the Al-Si glass phase and the surface characteristics were the main factors, which could affect the accessibility of PAHs for leaching. The mobility of PAHs from OSA of CFB and PF boilers was 20.2 and 9.9%, respectively. Hardening of OSA-based materials did not lead to the immobilisation of soluble PAHs. Release of PAHs from the monolith samples did not exceed 0.5 μg/m(2). In terms of leaching of PAHs, OSA is safe to be used for construction purposes.

Assessment of mobility and bioavailability of contaminants in MSW incineration ash with aquatic and terrestrial bioassays

Incineration of municipal solid waste (MSW) is a waste treatment method which can be sustainable in terms of waste volume reduction as well as a source of renewable energy. In the process fly and bottom ash is generated as a waste material. The ash residue may vary greatly in composition depending on the type of waste incinerated and it can contain elevated levels of harmful contaminants such as heavy metals. In this study, the ecotoxicity of a weathered, untreated incineration bottom ash was characterized as defined by the H14 criterion of the EU Waste Framework Directive by means of an elemental analysis, leaching tests followed by a chemical analysis and a combination of aquatic and solid-phase bioassays. The experiments were conducted to assess the mobility and bioavailability of ash contaminants. A combination of aquatic and terrestrial bioassays was used to determine potentially adverse acute effects of exposure to the solid ash and aqueous ash leachates. The results from the study showed that the bottom ash from a municipal waste incineration plant in mid-Sweden contained levels of metals such as Cu, Pb and Zn, which exceeded the Swedish EPA limit values for inert wastes. The chemical analysis of the ash leachates showed high concentrations of particularly Cr. The leachate concentration of Cr exceeded the limit value for L/S 10 leaching for inert wastes. Filtration of leachates prior to analysis may have underestimated the leachability of complex-forming metals such as Cu and Pb. The germination test of solid ash and ash leachates using T. repens showed a higher inhibition of seedling emergence of seeds exposed to the solid ash than the seeds exposed to ash leachates. This indicated a relatively low mobility of toxicants from the solid ash into the leachates, although some metals exceeded the L/S 10 leaching limit values for inert wastes. The Microtox® toxicity test showed only a very low toxic response to the ash leachate exposure, while the D. magna immobility test showed a moderately high toxic effect of the ash leachates. Overall, the results from this study showed an ecotoxic effect of the solid MSW bottom ash and the corresponding ash leachates. The material may therefore pose an environmental risk if used in construction applications. However, as the testing of the solid ash was rather limited and the ash leachate showed an unusually high leaching of Cr, further assessments are required in order to conclusively characterize the bottom ash studied herein as hazardous according to the H14 criterion.

Biosafe inertization of municipal solid waste incinerator residues by COSMOS technology

Municipal solid waste incinerator (MSWI) residues can generate negative environmental impacts when improperly handled. The COlloidal Silica Medium to Obtain Safe inert (COSMOS) technology represents a new method to stabilize MSWI residues and to produce inert safe material. Here we report the results about aquatic biotoxicity of lixiviated MSWI fly ash and the corresponding inertized COSMOS material using a zebrafish (Danio rerio) embryo toxicity test. Quantitative assessment of waste biotoxicity included evaluation of mortality rate and of different morphological and teratogenous endpoints in zebrafish embryos exposed to tested materials from 3 to 72h post-fertilization. The results demonstrate that lixiviated MSWI fly ash exerts a dose-dependent lethal effect paralleled by dramatic morphological/teratogenous alterations and apoptotic events in the whole embryo body. Similar effects were observed following MSWI fly ash stabilization in classical concrete matrices, demonstrating that the obtained materials are not biologically safe. On the contrary, no significant mortality and developmental defects were observed in zebrafish embryos exposed to COSMOS inert solution. Our results provide the first experimental in vivo evidence that, in contrast with concrete stabilization procedure, COSMOS technology provides a biologically safe inert.

Environmental impact assessment of a WtE plant after structural upgrade measures

The study focuses on analysing the evolution of environmental impacts caused by a medium-large Italian WtE plant before and after revamping and maintenance operations, with the aim of providing an evaluation of how much these structural upgrade measures may affect the total environmental performance. LCA methodology was applied for the modelling and comparison of six WtE scenarios, each describing the main structural upgrades carried out in the plant over the years 1996-2011. The comparison was conducted by adopting 1ton of MSW as the functional unit, and the net contribution from energy recovery to power generation was distinguished by defining consistent national grid electricity mixes for every year considered. The Ecoindicator99 2.09 impact assessment method was used to evaluate the contribution to midpoint and endpoint categories (e.g. carcinogens, respiratory inorganics and organics, climate change, damage to human health). Lastly, the "Pedigree quality matrix" was applied to verify the reliability and robustness of the model created. As expected, the results showed better environmental scores after both the implementation of new procedures and the integration of operations. However, while a net reduction of air emissions seems to be achievable through dedicated flue gas treatment technologies, outcomes underscored potentials for improving the management of bottom ash through the adoption of alternative options aimed to use that solid residue mainly as filler, and to decrease risks from its current disposal in landfill. If the same effort that is put into flue gas treatment were devoted to energy recovery, the targets for the WtE plant could be easily met, achieving a higher sustainability. This aspect is even more complex: national policies for implementing greener and renewable energy sources would result in a lower impact of the national energy mix and, hence, in a lower net avoided burden from energy recovery. The study confirmed the expected improvements, indicating quantitatively the lower environmental impact resulting from structural upgrade operations in a WtE plant. Furthermore, the work highlights the importance of considering the evolution of the national energy mix in LCA studies, especially during the present years of transition from fossil fuels to renewable sources.

Influence of leaching conditions for ecotoxicological classification of ash

The Waste Framework Directive (WFD; 2008/98/EC) states that classification of hazardous ecotoxicological properties of wastes (i.e. criteria H-14), should be based on the Community legislation on chemicals (i.e. CLP Regulation 1272/2008). However, harmonizing the waste and chemical classification may involve drastic changes related to choice of leaching tests as compared to e.g. the current European standard for ecotoxic characterization of waste (CEN 14735). The primary aim of the present study was therefore to evaluate the influence of leaching conditions, i.e. pH (inherent pH (∼10), and 7), liquid to solid (L/S) ratio (10 and 1000 L/kg) and particle size (<4 mm, <1 mm, and <0.125 mm), for subsequent chemical analysis and ecotoxicity testing in relation to classification of municipal waste incineration bottom ash. The hazard potential, based on either comparisons between element levels in leachate and literature toxicity data or ecotoxicity testing of the leachates, was overall significantly higher at low particle size (<0.125 mm) as compared to particle fractions <1mm and <4mm, at pH 10 as compared to pH 7, and at L/S 10 as compared to L/S 1000. These results show that the choice of leaching conditions is crucial for H-14 classification of ash and must be carefully considered in deciding on future guidance procedures in Europe.

An ecotoxicological evaluation of aged bottom ash for use in constructions

Municipal and Industrial Solid Waste Incineration (MISWI) bottom ash is mainly deposited in landfills, but natural resources and energy could be saved if these ash materials would be used in geotechnical constructions. To enable such usage, knowledge is needed on their potential environmental impact. The aim of this study was to evaluate the ecotoxicity of leachates from MISWI bottom ash, aged for five years, in an environmental relevant way using a sequential batch leaching method at the Liquid/Solid-ratio interval 1-3, and to test the leachates in a (sub)chronic ecotoxicity test. Also, the leachates were characterized chemically and with the technique of diffusive gradients in thin films (DGTs). By comparing established ecotoxicity data for each element with chemically analysed and labile concentrations in the leachates, potentially problematic elements were identified by calculating Hazard Quotients (HQ). Overall, our results show that the ecotoxicity was in general low and decreased with increased leaching. A strong correspondence between calculated HQs and observed toxicity over the full L/S range was observed for K. However, K will likely not be problematic from a long-term environmental perspective when using the ash, since it is a naturally occurring essential macro element which is not classified as ecotoxic in the chemical legislation. Although Cu was measured in total concentrations close to where a toxic response is expected, even at L/S 3, the DGT-analysis showed that less than 50% was present in a labile fraction, indicating that Cu is complexed by organic ligands which reduce its bioavailability.

Improved understanding of key elements governing the toxicity of energy ash eluates

Ash from incinerated waste consists mainly of a complex mixture of metals and other inorganic elements and should be classified based on its inherent hazardous effects according to EUs Waste Framework Directive. In a previous study, we classified eight eluates from ash materials from Swedish incineration plants, both chemically and ecotoxicologically (using bacteria, algae, crustacean and fish). Based on measured concentrations in the eluates together with literature acute toxicity data on the crustacean Nitocra spinipes we identified six elements (i.e. Zn, Cu, Pb, Al, K and Ca) potentially responsible for the observed ecotoxicity. However, comparing the used test methods with N. spinipes, the acute test was relatively insensitive to the eluates, whereas the (sub)chronic test (i.e. a partial life cycle test, investigating larval development ratio) was very sensitive. The overall aim of this follow-up study was to verify if the pinpointed elements could be responsible for the observed (sub)chronic toxicity of the eluates. Individual effect levels (i.e. NOEC values) for these six elements were therefore generated using the (sub)chronic test. Our results show that for six of the eight eluates, the observed ecotoxicity can be explained by individual elements not classified as ecotoxic (Al, K and Ca) according to chemical legislation. These elements will not be considered using summation models on elements classified as ecotoxic in solid material for the classification of H-14, but will have significant implications using ecotoxicological test methods for this purpose.

Toxicity of 15 veterinary pharmaceuticals in zebrafish (Danio rerio) embryos

Extensive use of veterinary pharmaceuticals may result in contamination of water bodies adjacent to pasture land or areas where animal manure has been applied. In order to evaluate the potential risk to fish embryos 15 veterinary pharmaceuticals were investigated by use of an extended zebrafish embryo toxicity test. Chemical analysis of the exposure medium was performed by solid phase extraction-liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (SPE-LC-MS/MS) for 11 of the compounds and potential metabolism by the embryos was studied for albendazole, febantel, fenbendazole and oxfendazole. Newly fertilized zebrafish eggs were exposed under static conditions in 96-well plates for 6 days to the pharmaceuticals: 5 antibacterials and 10 antiparasitics. Endpoints including mortality, malformations and other sublethal responses were recorded at 24, 48 and 144 h post fertilization (hpf). The pharmaceuticals causing the highest toxicity were antiparasitics whereas the tested antibacterials, danofloxacin, enrofloxacin, tylosine, trimethoprim and oxytetracyclin had a much lower toxic potency in zebrafish embryos. Most toxic were fenbendazole, albendazole and flumethrin with no observed effect concentrations (NOECs) around 0.02 mg/L. The overall NOEC was determined by lethality for the following pharmaceuticals: albendazole, fenbendazole and oxfendazole. Sublethal endpoints, including malformations, side-laying embryos, tremors, reduced movements and altered heart rate increased the sensitivity of the tests and determined the overall NOECs for febantel, doramectin, ivermectin, flumethrin and toltrazuril. Exposure to doramectin and ivermectin caused a decrease in movements at 24 hpf and a decrease in heart rate at 48 hpf. Flumethrin exposure resulted in decreased time to hatching, except at the highest concentrations, and caused an increase in heart rate at 48 hpf. In contrast, toltrazuril caused an increased time to hatching and a decrease in heart rate. Chemical analysis of the exposure medium after the tests revealed great differences between nominal and measured concentrations, emphasizing the need of including analysis of the actual exposure concentrations. The results indicated that metabolism of albendazole into its sulfoxide protected the embryos from toxicity. Albendazole was metabolized efficiently into albendazole sulfoxide at lower exposure concentrations, resulting in reduced toxicity. At higher concentrations, an increasing proportion of albendazole remained unmetabolized and embryo mortality occurred. Metabolism by the embryos of febantel into fenbendazole and oxfendazole and of fenbendazole into oxfendazole was demonstrated. It is suggested that the toxic effect of febantel in zebrafish embryos is due to metabolism into fenbendazole.

Environmental hazard assessment of coal fly ashes using leaching and ecotoxicity tests

The environmental hazard of six coal fly ash samples collected from various coal incineration plants were examined in the present study, using various leaching tests along with physicochemical and ecotoxicological analyses. Physicochemical analyses indicated that the concentration of Ba, Cr, Mo, Se, sulfates and total dissolved solids (TDS) exceeded the threshold values, according to the European Council decision 2003/33/EC for inert, non-hazardous or hazardous waste. The highest sensitivity, among examined organisms, was presented by Daphnia magna and was ascribed to the lowest tolerance of the organism to Cr. The toxic effect profile of the leachates toward Vibrio fischeri revealed that its bioluminescence was significantly altered by the presence of heavy metals in the leachates (such as Cu, Ni and Zn) in low or sub-lethal doses. Although the toxicity of the leachates toward Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata was relatively high, the correlation between the toxicity and heavy metals concentration was rather poor, indicating the significance of the bioavailability of constituents and the importance of toxicity testing. Based on the classification of the samples resulted by physicochemical analyses of the leachates and the results of ecotoxicity tests, Physicochemical and Ecotoxicological indices were also defined, for an overall evaluation of the environmental impact assessment of fly ashes. The suggested indices showed that ecotoxicity tests were in some cases inconsistent with the outcome of waste classification based on physicochemical analyses. Moreover, the examination of leaching protocols and obtained results showed that one stage leaching test (L/S=10 L/kg) underestimated the fly ash classification, when compared with the two stage test EN 12457-3 at the cumulative ratio L/S=10 L/kg. In addition, the application of availability test NEN 7341 provided useful results about the ecotoxicity wastes. Thus, NEN 7341 is strongly suggested for the implementation of such studies, since the bioavailability of constituents may not be altered by pH adjustment tactics and pH-originated toxicity effects may be avoided.

An evaluation of free water surface wetlands as tertiary sewage water treatment of micro-pollutants

Increased attention is currently directed towards potential negative effects of pharmaceuticals and other micro-pollutants discharged into the aquatic environment via municipal sewage water. A number of additional treatment technologies, such as ozonation, have therefore been suggested as promising tools for improving the removal efficiency of pharmaceuticals in existing Sewage Treatment Plants (STPs). Constructed wetlands are also capable of removing a variety of micro-pollutants, including some pharmaceuticals, and could hence be a resource efficient complement to more advanced treatment technologies. The purpose of the present study was therefore to increase the knowledge base concerning the potential use of constructed wetlands as a treatment step to reduce emissions of organic micro-pollutants from municipal sewage effluents. Under cold winter conditions, incoming and outgoing waters from four Swedish free water surface wetlands, operated as final treatment steps of sewage effluent from municipal STPs, were sampled and analyzed for levels of a set of 92 pharmaceuticals and 22 inorganic components as well as assessed using subchronic ecotoxicity tests with a macro-alga and a crustacean. Sixty-five pharmaceuticals were detected in the range from 1 ng L(-1) to 7.6 μg L(-1) in incoming and outgoing waters from the four investigated wetlands. Although the sampling design used in the present study lacks the robustness of volume proportional to 24h composite samples, the average estimated removal rates ranged from 42% to 52%, which correlates to previous published values. The effects observed in the ecotoxicity tests with the macro-alga (EC(50)s in the range of 7.5-46%) and the crustacean (LOECs in the range of 11.25-90%) could not be assigned to either pharmaceutical residues or metals, but in general showed that these treatment facilities release water with a relatively low toxic potential, comparable to water that has been treated with advanced tertiary treatments. From the present study it can be concluded that constructed wetlands may provide a complementary sewage treatment option, especially where other treatment is lacking today. To fully remove micro-pollutants from sewage effluent, however, other more advanced treatment technologies are likely needed.