Microbial community structures and in situ sulfate-reducing and sulfur-oxidizing activities in biofilms developed on mortar specimens in a corroded sewer system

Microbiological aspects of sewage odor problems in the urban environment - a review

Growing human population and increasing urbanization call for the need for proper wastewater treatment to reduce environmental pollution and reduce the excess use of natural resources. During the collection of municipal wastewater, the rapid aerobic respiration often causes oxygen depletion and anaerobic conditions in the sewer system resulting in the production of malodorous compounds. The odor problems may lead to public complaints, or in the case of the sewage workers the released volatile compounds even cause serious health hazards. Therefore, microbes have a dual contribution in the urban water cycle, since they have a decisive role in wastewater treatment and the removal of pollutants, but they can also cause problems in the artificial environment. In this review, I would like to summarize the processes underlying the generation of the bad smell associated with sewage and wastewater or with the collection and treatment infrastructure, tracking the way from the households to the plants, including the discussion of processes and possible mitigation related to the released hydrogen sulfide, volatile organics and other compounds.

Effects of denitrification on speciation and redistribution of arsenic in estuarine sediments

Microbially-mediated redox processes involving arsenic (As) and its host minerals significantly contribute to the mobilization of As in estuarine sediments. Despite its significance, the coupling between As dynamics and denitrification processes in these sediments is not well understood. This study employed sequential sediment extractions and simultaneous monitoring of dissolved iron (Fe), nitrogen (N), and sulfur (S) to investigate the impact of nitrate (NO3-) on the speciation and redistribution of As, alongside changes in microbial community composition. Our results indicated that NO3- additions significantly enhance anaerobic arsenite (As(III)) oxidation, facilitating its immobilization by increased adsorption onto sediment matrices in As-contaminated estuarine settings. Furthermore, NO3- promoted the conversion of As bound to troilite (FeS) and pyrite (FeS2) into forms associated with Fe oxides, challenging the previously assumed stability of FeS/FeS2-bound As in such environments. Continuous NO3- additions ensured As and Fe oxidation, thereby preventing their reductive dissolution and stabilizing the process that reduces As mobility. Changes in the abundance of bacterial communities and correlation analyses revealed that uncultured Anaerolineaceae and Thioalkalispira may be the main genus involved in these transformations. This study underscores the critical role of NO3- availability in modulating the biogeochemical cycle of As in estuarine sediments, offering profound insights for enhancing As immobilization techniques and informing environmental management and remediation strategies in As-contaminated coastal regions.

The ecology of the sewer systems: Microbial composition, function, assembly, and network in different spatial locations

Microbial induced concrete corrosion (MICC) is the primary deterioration affecting global sewers. Disentangling ecological mechanisms in the sewer system is meaningful for implementing policies to protect sewer pipes using trenchless technology. It is necessary to understand microbial compositions, interaction networks, functions, alongside assembly processes in sewer microbial communities. In this study, sewer wastewater samples and microbial samples from the upper part (UP), middle part (MP) and bottom part (BP) of different pipes were collected for 16S rRNA gene amplicon analysis. It was found that BP harbored distinct microbial communities and the largest proportion of unique species (1141) compared to UP and MP. The community in BP tended to be more clustered. Furthermore, significant differences in microbial functions existed in different spatial locations, including the carbon cycle, nitrogen cycle and sulfur cycle. Active microbial sulfur cycling indicated the corrosion risk of MICC. Among the environmental factors, the oxidation‒reduction potential drove changes in BP, while sulfate managed changes in UP and BP. Stochasticity dominated community assembly in the sewer system. Additionally, the sewer microbial community exhibited numerous positive links. BP possessed a more complex, modular network with higher modularity. These deep insights into microbial ecology in the sewer system may guide engineering safety and disaster prevention in sewer infrastructure.

Bio-corrosion in concrete sewer systems: Mechanisms and mitigation strategies

The deterioration of concrete sewer structures due to bio-corrosion presents critical and escalating challenges from structural, economic and environmental perspectives. Despite decades of research, this issue remains inadequately addressed, resulting in billions of dollars in maintenance costs and a shortened service life for sewer infrastructure worldwide. This challenge is exacerbated by the absence of standardized test methods and universally accepted mitigation strategies, leaving industries and stakeholders confronting an increasingly pressing problem. This paper aims to bridge this knowledge gap by providing a comprehensive review of the complex mechanisms of bio-corrosion, focusing on the formation and accumulation of hydrogen sulfide, its conversion into sulfuric acid and the subsequent deterioration of concrete materials. The paper also explores various factors affecting bio-corrosion rates, including environmental conditions, concrete properties and wastewater characteristics. The paper further highlights existing corrosion test strategies, such as chemical tests, in-situ tests and microbial simulations tests along with their general analytical parameters. The conversion of hydrogen sulfide into sulfuric acid is a primary cause of concrete decay and its progression is influenced by environmental conditions, inherent concrete characteristics, and the composition of wastewater. Through illustrative case studies, the paper assesses the practical implications and efficacy of prevailing mitigation techniques. Coating materials provide a protective barrier against corrosive agents among the discussed techniques, while optimised concrete mix designs enhance the inherent resistance and durability of the concrete matrix. Finally, this review also outlines the future prospects and challenges in bio-corrosion research with an aim to promote the creation of more resilient and cost-efficient materials for sewer systems.

Changes in the transformation of nitrogen and phosphorus under different microbial communities in sewage pipes

Microbial communities living in different environments can affect the transformation of nitrogen and phosphorus in sewage pipes. Two different environments were simulated to investigate the differences in the transformation of nitrogen and phosphorus under different microbial communities in the pipe. Results showed that the concentration of nitrogen and phosphorus changed greatly in the first 25-33 days and the first 21 days, respectively, and then remained stable. The decrease in amino acid nitrogen (AAN) concentration and the increase in ammonia nitrogen (NH4 + -N) concentration in the sediments were evident in the contrast group. The concentrations of total phosphorus (TP), dissolved total phosphorus (DTP), and dissolved reactive phosphorus (DRP) in the overlying water and interstitial water decreased, and that of TP in the sediment increased. Some microorganisms in the sediments of both groups are related to the transformation of nitrogen and phosphorus, such as Clostridium_sensu_stricto_1, Sporacetigenium, Norank_f__Anaerolineaceae, Norank_f__norank_o__PeM15, and Caldisericum. The relative abundance of these microorganisms was remarkably differed between the two groups, which partly caused the difference in nitrogen and phosphorus transformation among overlying water, interstitial water, and sediment in the two environments. PRACTITIONER POINTS: The concentration of N and P changed greatly in the first 20-30 days. AAN and NH4 + -N in sediments had greater concentration variation in contrast group. In two groups, TP, DTP, and DRP of water decreased, and TP of sediment increased. Microbe related to the transformation of N and P differed between the two groups.

Transformation of sulfur in the sediment-water system of the sewage pipeline under different hydraulic retention time

Transformation of sulfur in sewage pipeline was affected by water flow, and the transformation laws at different locations in the sediment-water system were different. This work studied the changes of sulfur in sediments, sewage, and upper space of the sewage pipeline, analyzed the differences in microbial community under different hydraulic retention time (HRT) and depth, and focused on the transformation law of sulfur. Results showed that sulfate and sulfide concentrations in sewage were higher than those in sediments under anaerobic conditions. Moreover, sulfate and sulfide concentrations in sediments decreased with depth. When HRT decreased from 3 h to 1 h, H2S concentration increased evidently, whereas sulfate concentration decreased in the sewage and sediment, and sulfide concentration increased in sewage and surface sediment. Those differences were related to the relative abundances of the two microbial communities. The relative abundances of sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB), such as Desulfobacter, Desulfovibrio, and Desulfomicrobium, were higher in surface sediment. Correspondingly, those of Thiobacillus, Bacillus, and other sulfur-oxidizing bacteria (SOB) and Smithella were higher in deep sediment. The decrease of HRT might worsen the mass transfer effect of dissolved oxygen, thereby increasing the production rate of sulfur and causing H2S to easily escape from sewage.

Review on Microbially Influenced Concrete Corrosion

Microbially influenced concrete corrosion (MICC) causes substantial financial losses to modern societies. Concrete corrosion with various environmental factors has been studied extensively over several decades. With the enhancement of public awareness on the environmental and economic impacts of microbial corrosion, MICC draws increasingly public attention. In this review, the roles of various microbial communities on MICC and corresponding protective measures against MICC are described. Also, the current status and research methodology of MICC are discussed. Thus, this review aims at providing insight into MICC and its mechanisms as well as the development of protection possibilities.

Hydrogen sulfide control in sewer systems: A critical review of recent progress

In sewer systems where anaerobic conditions are present, sulfate-reducing bacteria reduce sulfate to hydrogen sulfide (H₂S), leading to sewer corrosion and odor emission. Various sulfide/corrosion control strategies have been proposed, demonstrated, and optimized in the past decades. These included (1) chemical addition to sewage to reduce sulfide formation, to remove dissolved sulfide after its formation, or to reduce H₂S emission from sewage to sewer air, (2) ventilation to reduce the H₂S and humidity levels in sewer air, and (3) amendments of pipe materials/surfaces to retard corrosion. This work aims to comprehensively review both the commonly used sulfide control measures and the emerging technologies, and to shed light on their underlying mechanisms. The optimal use of the above-stated strategies is also analyzed and discussed in depth. The key knowledge gaps and major challenges associated with these control strategies are identified and strategies dealing with these gaps and challenges are recommended. Finally, we emphasize a holistic approach to sulfide control by managing sewer networks as an integral part of an urban water system.

Elemental sulphur recovery from a sulphate-rich aqueous stream in a single hybrid linear flow channel reactor is mediated through microbial community dynamics and adaptation to reactor zones

The coupled application of biological sulphate reduction (BSR) and partial sulphide oxidation to treat sulphate-rich wastewater is an effective strategy to mitigate pollution and recover elemental sulphur for repurposing. The recent development of the hybrid linear flow channel reactor (LFCR) achieves simultaneous BSR and partial sulphide oxidation with biosulphur recovery via a floating sulphur biofilm (FSB). Here, we explore the microbial community zoning and dynamics facilitating the process. A total of three continuous LFCRs were used to evaluate the effect of reactor zones, hydraulic residence time (HRT), carbon source, namely lactate and acetate, as well as reactor geometry and scale on process performance and microbial community dynamics. Community composition of sessile and planktonic microbial consortia were resolved at a 5- and 2-day HRT through 16S rRNA amplicon sequencing. Preferential attachment and prevalence of specific phylotypes within the sessile and planktonic communities revealed clear adaptation of key microorganisms to different microenvironments. Key microbial taxa affiliated with sulphate reduction and sulphide oxidation as well as those implicated in fermentation and syntrophic metabolism, fluctuated in response to changes in HRT and process performance. Through understanding the relationship between microbial community dynamics and process performance, this research will inform better process design and optimization of the hybrid LFCR.

Biofilm formation on copper and its control by inhibitor/biocide in cooling water environment

The present study has successfully identified the nitrate reducing bacteria present in the cooling water system and also investigated the performance of industrially applied biocide and inhibitor on the bacterial inhibition. In order to carry out the objective of this study, facilities and methods such as 16S rRNA gene sequencing, Lowry assay, SEM, EIS, ICP-MS and weight loss analysis were being utilized. In this study, two out of the five morphologically dis- similar colonies identified through 16S rRNA gene sequencing, namely the Massilia timonae and the Pseudomonas, were being utilized in the biocorrosion study on copper metal. From the surface analysis using SEM demonstrated the phenomenon of biofilm formation on the copper surface. 2-methylbenzimidazole has the addition of methyl group in the diazole ring position of benzimidazole it has create basicity environment and inhibit the metal deterioration. Meanwhile, it is also deducible from the EIS and protein analysis that com- bination of biocide with either of the inhibitors gives rise to better biocorrosion suppression (0.00178 mpy and 0.00171mpy) as compared to the sole effect of either biocide or inhibitor (0.00219 mpy, 0.00162 and 0.00143). Biocorrosion system biocide with MBM was found to exhibit 65% corrosion inhibition efficiency. Moreover, adoption of 2-Methylbenzimidazole seems to display better performance as compared to Multionic 8151, which is adopted in cooling water system.

A novel granular sludge-based and highly corrosion-resistant bio-concrete in sewers

Bio-concrete is known for its self-healing capacity although the corrosion resistance was not investigated previously. This study presents an innovative bio-concrete by mixing anaerobic granular sludge into concrete to mitigate sewer corrosion. The control concrete and bio-concrete (with granular sludge at 1% and 2% of the cement weight) were partially submerged in a corrosion chamber for 6 months, simulating the tidal-region corrosion in sewers. The corrosion rates of 1% and 2% bio-concrete were about 17.2% and 42.8% less than that of the control concrete, together with 14.6% and 35.0% less sulfide uptake rates, 15.3% and 55.6% less sulfate concentrations, and higher surface pH (up to 1.8 units). Gypsum and ettringite were major corrosion products but in smaller sizes on bio-concrete than that of control concrete. The total relative abundance of corrosion-causing microorganisms, i.e. sulfide-oxidizing bacteria, was significantly reduced on bio-concrete, while more sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB) was detected. The corrosion-resistance of bio-concrete was mainly attributed to activities of SRB derived from the granular sludge, which supported the sulfur cycle between the aerobic and anaerobic corrosion sub-layers. This significantly reduced the net production of biogenic sulfuric acid and thus corrosion. The results suggested that the novel granular sludge-based bio-concrete provides a highly potential solution to reduce sewer corrosion.

Laboratory Test to Evaluate the Resistance of Cementitious Materials to Biodeterioration in Sewer Network Conditions

The biodeterioration of cementitious materials in sewer networks has become a major economic, ecological, and public health issue. Establishing a suitable standardized test is essential if sustainable construction materials are to be developed and qualified for sewerage environments. Since purely chemical tests are proven to not be representative of the actual deterioration phenomena in real sewer conditions, a biological test–named the Biogenic Acid Concrete (BAC) test–was developed at the University of Toulouse to reproduce the biological reactions involved in the process of concrete biodeterioration in sewers. The test consists in trickling a solution containing a safe reduced sulfur source onto the surface of cementitious substrates previously covered with a high diversity microbial consortium. In these conditions, a sulfur-oxidizing metabolism naturally develops in the biofilm and leads to the production of biogenic sulfuric acid on the surface of the material. The representativeness of the test in terms of deterioration mechanisms has been validated in previous studies. A wide range of cementitious materials have been exposed to the biodeterioration test during half a decade. On the basis of this large database and the expertise gained, the purpose of this paper is (i) to propose a simple and robust performance criterion for the test (standardized leached calcium as a function of sulfate produced by the biofilm), and (ii) to demonstrate the repeatability, reproducibility, and discriminability of the test method. In only a 3-month period, the test was able to highlight the differences in the performances of common cement-based materials (CEM I, CEM III, and CEM V) and special calcium aluminate cement (CAC) binders with different nature of aggregates (natural silica and synthetic calcium aluminate). The proposed performance indicator (relative standardized leached calcium) allowed the materials to be classified according to their resistance to biogenic acid attack in sewer conditions. The repeatability of the test was confirmed using three different specimens of the same material within the same experiment and the reproducibility of the results was demonstrated by standardizing the results using a reference material from 5 different test campaigns. Furthermore, developing post-testing processing and calculation methods constituted a first step toward a standardized test protocol.

H2S oxidation coupled to nitrate reduction in a two-stage bioreactor: Targeting H2S-rich biogas desulfurization

A two-stage bioreactor operated under anoxic denitrifying conditions was evaluated for desulfurization of synthetic biogas laden with H₂S concentrations between 2500 and 10,000 ppm_v. H₂S removal efficiencies higher than 95% were achieved for H₂S loads ranging from 16.2 to 51.9 gS m_liquid^-3h^-1. Average H₂S oxidation performance (fraction of S-SO₄^2- produced per gram of S-H₂S absorbed) ranged between 8.2 ± 1.2 and 18.7 ± 5.3% under continuous liquid operation. Nitrogen mass balance showed that only 2-6% of the N-NO₃^- consumed was directed to biomass growth and the rest was directed to denitrification. Significant changes in the bacterial community composition did not hinder the H₂S removal efficiency. The bioreactor configuration proposed avoided clogging issues due to elemental sulfur accumulation as commonly occurs in packed bed bioreactors devoted to H₂S-rich biogas desulfurization.

"Bacterial consortium from hydrothermal vent sediments presents electrogenic activity achieved under sulfate reducing conditions in a microbial fuel cell"

PURPOSE

The aim of the present work was to assess the electrogenic activity of bacteria from hydrothermal vent sediments achieved under sulfate reducing (SR) conditions in a microbial fuel cell design with acetate, propionate and butyrate as electron donors.

METHODS

Two different mixtures of volatile fatty acids (VFA) were evaluated as the carbon source at two chemical oxygen demand (COD) proportions. The mixtures of VFA used were: acetate, propionate and butyrate COD: 3:0.5:0.5 (stage 1) and acetate - butyrate COD: 3.5:0.5 (stage 2). Periodical analysis of sulfate (SO₄ ^-2), sulfide (HS^-) and COD were conducted to assess sulfate reduction (SR) and COD removal along with measurements of voltage and current to assess the global performance of the consortium in the system.

RESULTS

Percentage of SR was of 97.5 ± 0.7 and 74.3 ± 1.5% for stage 1 and 2, respectively. The % COD removal was of 91 ± 2.1 and 75.3 ± 9.6 for stage 1 and 2, respectively. Although SR and COD removal were higher at stage 1, in regards of energy, stage 2 presented higher current and power densities and Coulombic efficiency as follows: 741.7 ± 30.5 μA/m², 376 ± 34.4 μW/m² and 5 ± 2.7%, whereas for stage 1 these values were: 419 ± 71 μA/m², 52.7 ± 18 μW/m² and 0.02%, respectively. A metagenomic analysis - stage 2 - in the anodic chamber, demonstrated that SR was due to Dethiosulfovibrionaceae (HA73), Desulfobacter and Desulfococcus and the electrogenic microorganisms were Planococcus, SHD-231, Proteiniclasticum, vadinCA02, and families Porphyromonadacea and Pseudomonadaceae.

CONCLUSIONS

It was demonstrated that microorganisms prevenient from hydrothermal vent sediments adapted to a microbial fuel cell system are able to generate electricity coupled to 74.3 ± 1.5 and 75.3 ± 9.6% of SR and COD removal respectively, with a mixture of acetate - butyrate.

Antimicrobial concrete for smart and durable infrastructures: A review

Concrete structures in sewer systems, marine engineering, underground engineering and other humid environments are easily subjected to microbial attachment, colonization and, eventually, deterioration. With careful selection and treatment, some additives including inorganic and organic antimicrobial agents were found to be able to endow concrete with excellent antimicrobial performance. This paper reviews various types of antimicrobial concrete fabricated with different types of antimicrobial agents. The classification and methods of applying antimicrobial agents into concrete are briefly introduced. The antimicrobial and mechanical properties as well as mass/weight loss of concrete incorporating antimicrobial agents are summarized. Applications reported in this field are presented and future research opportunities and challenges of antimicrobial concrete are also discussed in this review.

Upstream Natural Pulsed Ventilation: A simple measure to control the sulfide and methane production in gravity sewer

Production of sulfide and methane due to anaerobic biological transformations in sewer pipes causes serious problems to sewer maintenance. For gravity sewers, enhancing ventilation is a practical method that reduces the production of both sulfide and methane. This study aimed to determine the effectiveness of a new method, Upstream Natural Pulsed Ventilation (UNPV), to control sulfide and methane production in gravity sewers. Two lab-scale reactors simulating the gravity sewer pipe with and without ventilation were set up to assess the effectiveness. The results show that compared with the gravity sewer pipe without ventilation, under the UNPV condition, the total sulfide concentration reduced by 39.08% and 58.74%, and the methane concentration reduced by 42.29% and 35.70% in the upstream and downstream sewer pipe, respectively. High-throughput sequencing analysis showed that the UNPV method could inhibit the proliferation of sulfate-reducing bacteria and stimulate the proliferation of sulfur-oxidizing bacteria within the whole sewer pipe. The composition of methanogenic archaea that are responsible for methane production was changed by ventilation. The increased oxidation-reduction potential and organic carbon transportation in wastewater under ventilation may be responsible for the microbial community changes. The findings of this study may provide new insight to reduce sulfide and methane production in gravity sewers.

Tetracycline Induces the Formation of Biofilm of Bacteria from Different Phases of Wastewater Treatment

The study monitored the effect of tetracycline on bacterial biofilm formation and compared biofilm formation by resistant bacterial strains in different phases of the wastewater treatment process in wastewater treatment plant (WWTP). The crystal violet staining method was used to evaluate the biofilm formation. Biofilm-related bacterial properties were characterized by hydrophobicity, autoaggregation and motility tests. The relative abundance of tetracycline resistance genes (tetW, tetM, tetO, tetA and tetB) in wastewaters were subsequently quantified using qPCR. The results show that the isolates from the nitrification tank produce biofilm with up to 10 times greater intensity relative to the isolates from the sedimentation tank. In isolates of Aeromonas sp. from the nitrification tank, increased biofilm production in the occurrence of tetracycline from a concentration of 0.03125 µg/mL was observed. The tetW gene showed the highest relative abundance out of all the tested genes. From the sampling points, its abundance was the highest in the sedimentation tank of the WWTP. Based on these results, it can be assumed that resistant bacteria are able to form a biofilm and sub-inhibitory tetracycline concentrations induce biofilm formation. WWTPs thus represent a reservoir of antibiotic resistance genes and contribute to the spread of resistance in the natural environment.

Increased Resistance of Nitrite-Admixed Concrete to Microbially Induced Corrosion in Real Sewers

Microbially induced concrete corrosion is a major deterioration process in sewers, causing a huge economic burden, and improved mitigating technologies are required. This study reports a novel and promising effective solution to attenuate the corrosion in sewers using calcium nitrite-admixed concrete. This strategy aims to suppress the development and activity of corrosion-inducing microorganisms with the antimicrobial free nitrous acid, which is generated in situ from calcium nitrite that is added to the concrete. Concrete coupons with calcium nitrite as an admixture were exposed in a sewer manhole, together with control coupons that had no nitrite admixture, for 18 months. The corrosion process was monitored by measuring the surface pH, corrosion product composition, concrete corrosion loss, and the microbial community on the corrosion layer. During the exposure, the corrosion loss of the admixed concrete coupons was 30% lower than that of the control coupons. The sulfide uptake rate of the admixed concrete was also 30% lower, leading to a higher surface pH (0.5-0.6 unit), in comparison to that of the control coupons. A negative correlation between the calcium nitrite admixture in concrete and the abundance of sulfide-oxidizing microorganisms was determined by DNA sequencing. The results obtained in this field study demonstrated that this novel use of calcium nitrite as an admixture in concrete is a promising strategy to mitigate the microbially induced corrosion in sewers.

Impact and Role of Bacterial Communities on Biocorrosion of Metals Used in the Processing Industry

In the present study, the effects of the corrosive bacterial community and the biofilm on cooling water systems made from mild steel (MS) and brass (BR) were studied under field exposure conditions using electrochemical impedance spectroscopy measurements, scanning electron microscope, and X-ray diffraction methods. Results from16S rRNA gene sequences showed that the predominant bacteria species detected in the biofilm of MS and BR metals during 360 days of exposure were Bacillus cereus EN14, Achromobacter xylosoxidans EN15, A. xylosoxidans EN16, and B. cereus EN17. The weight loss results revealed that a higher corrosion rate was observed in MS (0.7 ± 0.1 mm/y) compared with that in BR (0.17 ± 0.05 mm/y) at the end of the exposure period. This can be explained by the bacterial communities enhancing the corrosion rates by creating a local corrosive environment. Scanning electron microscope images revealed the adsorption of biofilm on the MS and BR surfaces following180 days of exposure. From the electrochemical impedance study, a higher charge transfer resistance (R _ct) was obtained for BR (119.6 Ω cm²) when compared with that of MS (43.4 Ω cm²). This study explains the role of bacterial communities and their mechanisms in the corrosion of MS and BR in cooling water systems.

The rapid chemically induced corrosion of concrete sewers at high H2S concentration

Concrete corrosion in sewers is primarily caused by H₂S in sewer atmosphere. H₂S concentration can vary from several ppm to hundreds of ppm in real sewers. Our understanding of sewer corrosion has increased dramatically in recent years, however, there is limited knowledge of the concrete corrosion at high H₂S levels. This study examined the corrosion development in sewers with high H₂S concentrations. Fresh concrete coupons, manufactured according to sewer pipe standards, were exposed to corrosive conditions in a pilot-scale gravity sewer system with gaseous H₂S at 1100 ± 100 ppm. The corrosion process was continuously monitored by measuring the surface pH, corrosion product composition, corrosion loss and the microbial community. The surface pH of concrete was reduced from 10.5 ± 0.3 to 3.1 ± 0.5 within 20 days and this coincided with a rapid corrosion rate of 3.5 ± 0.3 mm year ^-1. Microbial community analysis based on 16S rRNA gene sequencing indicated the absence of sulfide-oxidizing microorganisms in the corrosion layer. The chemical analysis of corrosion products supported the reaction of cement with sulfuric acid formed by the chemical oxidation of H₂S. The rapid corrosion of concrete in the gravity pipe was confirmed to be caused by the chemical oxidation of hydrogen sulfide at high concentrations. This is in contrast to the conventional knowledge that is focused on microbially induced corrosion. This first-ever systematic investigation shows that chemically induced oxidation of H₂S leads to the rapid corrosion of new concrete sewers within a few weeks. These findings contribute novel understanding of in-sewer corrosion processes and hold profound implications for sewer operation and corrosion management.

Transient-state operation of an anoxic biotrickling filter for H2S removal

The application of an anoxic biotrickling filter (BTF) for H₂S removal from contaminated gas streams is a promising technology for simultaneous H₂S and NO₃^- removal. Three transient-state conditions, i.e. different liquid flow rates, wet-dry bed operations and H₂S shock loads, were applied to a laboratory-scale anoxic BTF. In addition, bioaugmentation of the BTF with a H₂S removing-strain, Paracoccus MAL 1HM19, to enhance the biomass stability was investigated. Liquid flow rates (120, 60 and 30 L d^-1) affected the pH and NO₃^- removal efficiency (RE) in the liquid phase. Wet-dry bed operations at 2-2 h and 24-24 h reduced the H₂S elimination capacity (EC) by 60-80%, while the operations at 1-1 h and 12-12 h had a lower effect on the BTF performance. When the BTF was subjected to H₂S shock loads by instantly increasing the gas flow rate (from 60 to 200 L h^-1) and H₂S inlet concentration (from 112 (± 15) to 947 (± 151) ppm_v), the BTF still showed a good H₂S RE (>93%, EC of 37.8 g S m^-3 h^-1). Bioaugmentation with Paracoccus MAL 1HM19 enhanced the oxidation of the accumulated S⁰ to sulfate in the anoxic BTF.

Molecular biological tools in concrete biodeterioration - a mini review

Concrete structures develop biofilms when exposed to various environments. At a certain stage, the microbial films destroy the concrete structures leading to significant deterioration. Culture-dependent techniques give an incomplete picture of the microbial communities on the concrete surface. Culture-independent techniques or molecular biological tools pave a new way to analyse microbial communities involved in concrete biodeterioration. This study highlights the need to 'build' a database, for Microbiologically Influenced Concrete Corrosion (MICC) involving microbial groups that are being identified using culture-dependent and independent techniques. The role of molecular tools such as 16S rRNA sequencing, denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE), Fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH), Real-time Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-PCR), microarray analysis, 2-Dimensional gel electrophoresis (2-DE) in analysing microbial communities on the concrete structures have been reviewed in this paper.

Advances in concrete materials for sewer systems affected by microbial induced concrete corrosion: A review

Microbial induced concrete corrosion (MICC) is recognized as one of the main degradation mechanisms of subsurface infrastructure worldwide, raising the demand for sustainable construction materials in corrosive environments. This review aims to summarize the key research progress acquired during the last decade regarding the understanding of MICC reaction mechanisms and the development of durable materials from an interdisciplinary perspective. Special focus was laid on aspects governing concrete - micoorganisms interaction since being the central process steering biogenic acid corrosion. The insufficient knowledge regarding the latter is proposed as a central reason for insufficient progress in tailored material development for aggressive wastewater systems. To date no cement-based material exists, suitable to withstand the aggressive conditions related to MICC over its entire service life. Research is in particular needed on the impact of physiochemical material parameters on microbial community structure, growth characteristics and limitations within individual concrete speciation. Herein an interdisciplinary approach is presented by combining results from material sciences, microbiology, mineralogy and hydrochemistry to stimulate the development of novel and sustainable materials and mitigation strategies for MICC. For instance, the application of antibacteriostatic agents is introduced as an effective instrument to limit microbial growth on concrete surfaces in aggressive sewer environments. Additionally, geopolymer concretes are introduced as highly resistent in acid environments, thus representing a possible green alternative to conventional cement-based construction materials.

Anaerobic bacteria in wastewater treatment plant

Purpose

The objective of this study was to assess exposure to anaerobic bacteria released into air from sewage and sludge at workplaces from a wastewater treatment plant (WWTP).

Methods

Samples of both sewage and sludge were collected at six sampling points and bioaerosol samples were additionally collected (with the use of a 6-stage Andersen impactor) at ten workplaces covering different stages of the technological process. Qualitative identification of all isolated strains was performed using the biochemical API 20A test. Additionally, the determination of Clostridium pathogens was carried out using 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis.

Results

The average concentration of anaerobic bacteria in the sewage samples was 5.49 × 10⁴ CFU/mL (GSD = 85.4) and in sludge—1.42 × 10⁶ CFU/g (GSD = 5.1). In turn, the average airborne bacterial concentration was at the level of 50 CFU/m³ (GSD = 5.83) and the highest bacterial contamination (4.06 × 10³ CFU/m³) was found in winter at the bar screens. In total, 16 bacterial species were determined, from which the predominant strains belonged to Actinomyces, Bifidobacterium, Clostridium, Propionibacterium and Peptostreptococcus genera. The analysis revealed that mechanical treatment processes were responsible for a substantial emission of anaerobic bacteria into the air. In both the sewage and air samples, Clostridium perfringens pathogen was identified.

Conclusions

Anaerobic bacteria were widely present both in the sewage and in the air at workplaces from the WWTP, especially when the technological process was performed in closed spaces. Anaerobic bacteria formed small aggregates with both wastewater droplets and dust particles of sewage sludge origin and as such may be responsible for adverse health outcomes in exposed workers.

Bioengineered silver nanoparticles as potent anti-corrosive inhibitor for mild steel in cooling towers

Silver nanoparticle-aided enhancement in the anti-corrosion potential and stability of plant extract as ecologically benign alternative for microbially induced corrosion treatment is demonstrated. Bioengineered silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) surface functionalized with plant extract material (proteinacious) was generated in vitro in a test tube by treating ionic AgNO₃ with the leaf extract of Azadirachta indica that acted as dual reducing as well as stabilizing agent. Purity and crystallinity of the AgNPs, along with physical and surface characterizations, were evaluated by performing transmission electron microscopy, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, energy dispersive x-ray spectra, single-area electron diffractions, zeta potential, and dynamic light scattering measurements. Anti-corrosion studies against mild steel (MS1010) by corrosion-inducive bacterium, Bacillus thuringiensis EN2 isolated from cooling towers, were evaluated by performing electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS), weight loss analysis, and surface analysis by infrared spectroscopy. Our studies revealed that AgNPs profoundly inhibited the biofilm on MS1010 surface and reduced the corrosion rates with the CR of 0.5 mm/y and an inhibition efficiency of 77% when compared to plant extract alone with a CR of 2.2 mm/y and an inhibition efficiency of 52%. Further surface analysis by infrared spectra revealed that AgNPs formed a protective layer of self-assembled film on the surface of MS1010. Additionally, EIS and surface analysis revealed that the AgNPs have inhibited the bacterial biofilm and reduced the pit on MS1010. This is the first report disclosing the application of bioengineered AgNP formulations as potent anti-corrosive inhibitor upon forming a protective layer over mild steel in cooling water towers. Graphical Abstract ᅟ.

The Ecology of Acidophilic Microorganisms in the Corroding Concrete Sewer Environment

Concrete corrosion is one of the most significant problems affecting valuable sewer infrastructure on a global scale. This problem occurs in the aerobic zone of the sewer, where a layer of surface corrosion develops on the exposed concrete and the surface pH is typically lowered from around 11–10 (pristine concrete) to pH 2–4. Acidophilic microorganisms become established as biofilms within the concrete corrosion layer and enhance the loss of concrete mass. Until recently, the acidophilic community was considered to comprise relatively few species of microorganisms, however, the biodiversity of the corrosion community is now recognized as being extensive and varying from different sewer environmental conditions. The diversity of acidophiles in the corrosion communities includes chemolithoautotrophs, chemolithoheterotrophs, and chemoorganoheterotrophs. The activity of these microorganisms is strongly affected by H₂S levels in the sewer gas phase, although CO₂, organic matter, and iron in the corrosion layer influence this acidic ecosystem. This paper briefly presents the conditions within the sewer that lead to the development of concrete corrosion in that environment. The review focuses on the acidophilic microorganisms detected in sewer corrosion environments, and then summarizes their proposed functions and physiology, especially in relation to the corrosion process. To our knowledge, this is the first review of acidophilic corrosion microbial communities, in which, the ecology and the environmental conditions (when available) are considered. Ecological studies of sewer corrosion are limited, however, where possible, we summarize the important metabolic functions of the different acidophilic species detected in sewer concrete corrosion layers. It is evident that microbial functions in the acidic sewer corrosion environment can be linked to those occurring in the analogous acidic environments of acid mine drainage and bioleaching.

Microbial Character Related Sulfur Cycle under Dynamic Environmental Factors Based on the Microbial Population Analysis in Sewerage System

The undesired sulfur cycle derived by microbial population can ultimately causes the serious problems of sewerage systems. However, the microbial community characters under dynamic environment factors in actual sewerage system is still not enough. This current study aimed to character the distributions and compositions of microbial communities that participate in the sulfur cycle under the dynamic environmental conditions in a local sewerage system. To accomplish this, microbial community compositions were assessed using 454 high-throughput sequencing (16S rDNA) combined with dsrB gene-based denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis. The results indicated that a higher diversity of microbial species was present at locations in sewers with high concentrations of H₂S. Actinobacteria and Proteobacteria were dominant in the sewerage system, while Actinobacteria alone were dominant in regions with high concentrations of H₂S. Specifically, the unique operational taxonomic units could aid to characterize the distinct microbial communities within a sewerage manhole. The proportion of sulfate-reducing bacteria, each sulfur-oxidizing bacteria (SOB) were strongly correlated with the liquid parameters (DO, ORP, COD, Sulfide, NH₃-N), while the Mycobacterium and Acidophilic SOB (M&A) was strongly correlated with gaseous factors within the sewer, such as H₂S, CH₄, and CO. Identifying the distributions and proportions of critical microbial communities within sewerage systems could provide insights into how the microbial sulfur cycle is affected by the dynamic environmental conditions that exist in sewers and might be useful for explaining the potential sewerage problems.

Reciprocal interaction between dental alloy biocorrosion and Streptococcus mutans virulent gene expression

Corrosion of dental alloys is a major concern in dental restorations. Streptococcus mutans reduces the pH in oral cavity and induces demineralization of the enamel as well as corrosion of restorative dental materials. The rough surfaces of dental alloys induced by corrosion enhance the subsequent accumulation of plaque. In this study, the corrosion process of nickel-chromium (Ni-Cr) and cobalt-chromium (Co-Cr) alloys in a nutrient-rich medium containing S. mutans was studied using inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometry (ICP-AES), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and electrochemical corrosion test. Our results showed that the release of Ni and Co ions increased, particularly after incubation for 3 days. The electrochemical corrosion results showed a significant decrease in the corrosion resistance (Rp) value after the alloys were immersed in the media containing S. mutans for 3 days. Correspondingly, XPS revealed a reduction in the relative dominance of Ni, Co, and Cr in the surface oxides after the alloys were immersed in the S. mutans culture. After removal of the biofilm, the pre-corroded alloys were re-incubated in S. mutans medium, and the expressions of genes associated with the adhesion and acidogenesis of S. mutans, including gtfBCD, gbpB, fif and ldh, were evaluated by detecting the mRNA levels using real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). We found that the gtfBCD, gbpB, ftf and Idh expression of S. mutans were noticeably increased after incubation with pre-corroded alloys for 24 h. This study demonstrated that S. mutans enhanced the corrosion behavior of the dental alloys, on the other hand, the presence of corroded alloy surfaces up-regulated the virulent gene expression in S. mutans. Compared with smooth surfaces, the rough corroded surfaces of dental alloys accelerated the bacteria-adhesion and corrosion process by changing the virulence gene expression of S. mutans.

Review of concrete biodeterioration in relation to nuclear waste

Storage of radioactive waste in concrete structures is a means of containing wastes and related radionuclides generated from nuclear operations in many countries. Previous efforts related to microbial impacts on concrete structures that are used to contain radioactive waste showed that microbial activity can play a significant role in the process of concrete degradation and ultimately structural deterioration. This literature review examines the research in this field and is focused on specific parameters that are applicable to modeling and prediction of the fate of concrete structures used to store or dispose of radioactive waste. Rates of concrete biodegradation vary with the environmental conditions, illustrating a need to understand the bioavailability of key compounds involved in microbial activity. Specific parameters require pH and osmotic pressure to be within a certain range to allow for microbial growth as well as the availability and abundance of energy sources such as components involved in sulfur, iron and nitrogen oxidation. Carbon flow and availability are also factors to consider in predicting concrete biodegradation. The microbial contribution to degradation of the concrete structures containing radioactive waste is a constant possibility. The rate and degree of concrete biodegradation is dependent on numerous physical, chemical and biological parameters. Parameters to focus on for modeling activities and possible options for mitigation that would minimize concrete biodegradation are discussed and include key conditions that drive microbial activity on concrete surfaces.

Impact of fluctuations in gaseous H2S concentrations on sulfide uptake by sewer concrete: The effect of high H2S loads

The acid production from the oxidation of hydrogen sulfide (H2S) in sewer air results in serious corrosion of exposed concrete surfaces in sewers. Large fluctuations of gaseous H2S concentrations occur in sewers due to the diurnal profiles of sewage flow and retention times and the necessity of intermittent pumping of sewage from pressure pipes into gravity pipes. How the high concentrations of H2S due to these events may affect H2S uptake and subsequent corrosion by concrete sewers is largely unknown. This study determined the effect of short- and long-term increases in H2S levels on the sulfide uptake rate (SUR) of concrete surfaces with an active corrosion layer. The results showed that during the high load situation the SUR increased significantly but then decreased (compared to the baseline SUR) by about 7-14% and 41-50% immediately after short- and long-term H2S high-load periods, respectively. For both exposure conditions, the SUR gradually (over several hours) recovered to approximately 90% of the baseline SUR. Further tests suggest multiple factors may contribute to the observed decrease of SUR directly after the high H2S load. This includes the temporary storage of elemental sulfur in the corrosion layer and inhibition of sulfide oxidizing bacteria (SOB) due to high H2S level and temporary acid surge. Additionally, the delay of the corrosion layer to fully recover the SUR after the high H2S load suggests that there is a longer-term inhibitive effect of the high H2S levels on the activity of the SOB in the corrosion layer. Due to the observed activity reductions, concrete exposed to occasional short-term high H2S load periods had an overall lower H2S uptake compared to concrete exposed to constant H2S levels at the same average concentration. To accurately predict H2S uptake by sewer concrete and hence the likely maximum corrosion rates, a correction factor should be adopted for the H2S fluctuations when average H2S levels are used in the prediction.

A Post-Genomic View of the Ecophysiology, Catabolism and Biotechnological Relevance of Sulphate-Reducing Prokaryotes

Dissimilatory sulphate reduction is the unifying and defining trait of sulphate-reducing prokaryotes (SRP). In their predominant habitats, sulphate-rich marine sediments, SRP have long been recognized to be major players in the carbon and sulphur cycles. Other, more recently appreciated, ecophysiological roles include activity in the deep biosphere, symbiotic relations, syntrophic associations, human microbiome/health and long-distance electron transfer. SRP include a high diversity of organisms, with large nutritional versatility and broad metabolic capacities, including anaerobic degradation of aromatic compounds and hydrocarbons. Elucidation of novel catabolic capacities as well as progress in the understanding of metabolic and regulatory networks, energy metabolism, evolutionary processes and adaptation to changing environmental conditions has greatly benefited from genomics, functional OMICS approaches and advances in genetic accessibility and biochemical studies. Important biotechnological roles of SRP range from (i) wastewater and off gas treatment, (ii) bioremediation of metals and hydrocarbons and (iii) bioelectrochemistry, to undesired impacts such as (iv) souring in oil reservoirs and other environments, and (v) corrosion of iron and concrete. Here we review recent advances in our understanding of SRPs focusing mainly on works published after 2000. The wealth of publications in this period, covering many diverse areas, is a testimony to the large environmental, biogeochemical and technological relevance of these organisms and how much the field has progressed in these years, although many important questions and applications remain to be explored.

High-resolution microbial community succession of microbially induced concrete corrosion in working sanitary manholes

Microbially-induced concrete corrosion in headspaces threatens wastewater infrastructure worldwide. Models for predicting corrosion rates in sewer pipe networks rely largely on information from culture-based investigations. In this study, the succession of microbes associated with corroding concrete was characterized over a one-year monitoring campaign using rRNA sequence-based phylogenetic methods. New concrete specimens were exposed in two highly corrosive manholes (high concentrations of hydrogen sulfide and carbon dioxide gas) on the Colorado Front Range for up to a year. Community succession on corroding surfaces was assessed using Illumina MiSeq sequencing of 16S bacterial rRNA amplicons and Sanger sequencing of 16S universal rRNA clones. Microbial communities associated with corrosion fronts presented distinct succession patterns which converged to markedly low α-diversity levels (< 10 taxa) in conjunction with decreasing pH. The microbial community succession pattern observed in this study agreed with culture-based models that implicate acidophilic sulfur-oxidizer Acidithiobacillus spp. in advanced communities, with two notable exceptions. Early communities exposed to alkaline surface pH presented relatively high α-diversity, including heterotrophic, nitrogen-fixing, and sulfur-oxidizing genera, and one community exposed to neutral surface pH presented a diverse transition community comprised of less than 20% sulfur-oxidizers.

A rapid, non-destructive methodology to monitor activity of sulfide-induced corrosion of concrete based on H2S uptake rate

Many existing methods to monitor the corrosion of concrete in sewers are either very slow or destructive measurements. To overcome these limitations, a rapid, non-invasive methodology was developed to monitor the sulfide-induced corrosion process on concrete through the measurement of the H2S uptake rates of concrete at various corrosion stages. The H2S uptake rate for a concrete coupon was determined by measuring the gaseous H2S concentrations over time in a temperature- and humidity-controlled gas-tight reactor. The reliability of this method was evaluated by carrying out repeated tests on different concrete coupons previously exposed to 50 ppm of H2S, at 30 °C and 100% relative humidity for over 32 months. The H2S uptake measurements showed good reproducibility. It was also shown that a severely corroded coupon exhibited higher sulfide uptake rates than a less corroded coupon. This could be explained by the corrosion layer in the more corroded coupon having a higher biological sulfide oxidation activity than the less corroded coupon. Additionally, temperature changes had a stronger effect on the uptake rate of the heavily corroded coupon compared to the less corroded coupon. A corrosion rate of 8.9 ± 0.5 mm/year, estimated from the H2S uptake results, agreed well with the corrosion rate observed in real sewers under similar conditions. The method could be applied to investigate important factors affecting sulfide-induced concrete corrosion, particularly temperature, fluctuating gaseous H2S concentrations, oxygen concentrations, surface pH and relative humidity.

Carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide associations with regional bacterial diversity patterns in microbially induced concrete corrosion

The microbial communities associated with deteriorating concrete corrosion fronts were characterized in 35 samples taken from wastewater collection and treatment systems in ten utilities. Bacterial communities were described using Illumina MiSeq sequencing of the V1V2 region of the small subunit ribosomal ribonucleic acid (SSU-rRNA) gene recovered from fresh corrosion products. Headspace gas concentrations (hydrogen sulfide, carbon dioxide, and methane), pore water pH, moisture content, and select mineralogy were tested for correlation to community outcomes and corrosion extent using pairwise linear regressions and canonical correspondence analysis. Corroding concrete was most commonly characterized by moisture contents greater than 10%, pore water pH below one, and limited richness (<10 taxa). Bacterial community composition was not correlated to geographic location when considered independently from other environmental factors. Corrosion was most severe in sites with high levels of hydrogen sulfide (>100 ppm) and carbon dioxide (>1%) gases, conditions which also were associated with low diversity biofilms dominated by members of the acidophilic sulfur-oxidizer genus Acidithiobacillus.

Microbiologically induced deterioration of concrete--a review

Microbiologically induced deterioration (MID) causes corrosion of concrete by producing acids (including organic and inorganic acids) that degrade concrete components and thus compromise the integrity of sewer pipelines and other structures, creating significant problems worldwide. Understanding of the fundamental corrosion process and the causal agents will help us develop an appropriate strategy to minimize the costs in repairs. This review presents how microorganisms induce the deterioration of concrete, including the organisms involved and their colonization and succession on concrete, the microbial deterioration mechanism, the approaches of studying MID and safeguards against concrete biodeterioration. In addition, the uninvestigated research area of MID is also proposed.

The role of iron in sulfide induced corrosion of sewer concrete

The sulfide-induced corrosion of concrete sewer is a widespread and expensive problem for water utilities worldwide. Fundamental knowledge of the initiation and propagation of sewer corrosion, especially the interactions between chemical reactions and physical structure changes, is still largely unknown. Advanced mineral analytical techniques were applied to identify the distribution of corrosion products and the micro-cracking that developed along the corrosion boundary. It was found that sewer concrete corrosion caused by reactions with sulfuric acid progressed uniformly in the cement of concrete. In contrast to conventional knowledge, iron rust rather than gypsum and ettringite was likely the factor responsible for cracking ahead of the corrosion front. The analysis also allowed quantitative determination of the major corrosion products, i.e., gypsum and ettringite, with the latter found closer to the corrosion front. The conceptual model based on these findings clearly demonstrated the complex interactions among different chemical reactions, diffusion, and micro-structure changes.

Biofilm-growing bacteria involved in the corrosion of concrete wastewater pipes: protocols for comparative metagenomic analyses

Advances in high-throughput next-generation sequencing (NGS) technology for direct sequencing of environmental DNA (i.e., shotgun metagenomics) are transforming the field of microbiology. NGS technologies are now regularly being applied in comparative metagenomic studies, which provide the data for functional annotations, taxonomic comparisons, community profile, and metabolic reconstructions. For example, comparative metagenomic analysis of corroded pipes unveiled novel insights on the bacterial populations associated with the sulfur and nitrogen cycle, which may be directly or indirectly implicated in concrete wastewater pipe corrosion. The objective of this chapter is to describe the steps involved in the taxonomic and functional analysis of metagenome datasets from biofilm involved in microbial-induced concrete corrosion (MICC).

Corrosion behavior of pure titanium in the presence of Actinomyces naeslundii

It is well known that some microorganisms affect the corrosion of dental metal. Oral bacteria such as Actinomyces naeslundii may alter the corrosion behavior and stability of titanium. In this study, the corrosion behavior of titanium was studied in a nutrient-rich medium both in the presence and the absence of A. naeslundii using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS). A. naeslundii was able to colonize the surface of titanium and then form a dense biofilm. The SEM images revealed the occurrence of micropitting corrosion on the metal surface after removal of the biofilm. The electrochemical corrosion results from EIS showed a significant decrease in the corrosion resistant (R(p)) value after immersing the metal in A. naeslundii culture for 3 days. Correspondingly, XPS revealed a reduction in the relative levels of titanium and oxygen and an obvious reduction of dominant titanium dioxide (TiO₂) in the surface oxides after immersion of the metal in A. naeslundii culture. These results suggest that the metabolites produced by A. naeslundii can weaken the integrity and stability of the protective TiO₂ in the surface oxides, which in turn decreases the corrosion resistance of titanium, resulting in increased corrosion of titanium immersed in A. naeslundii solution as a function of time.

Metagenome analyses of corroded concrete wastewater pipe biofilms reveal a complex microbial system

Background

Concrete corrosion of wastewater collection systems is a significant cause of deterioration and premature collapse. Failure to adequately address the deteriorating infrastructure networks threatens our environment, public health, and safety. Analysis of whole-metagenome pyrosequencing data and 16S rRNA gene clone libraries was used to determine microbial composition and functional genes associated with biomass harvested from crown (top) and invert (bottom) sections of a corroded wastewater pipe.

Results

Taxonomic and functional analysis demonstrated that approximately 90% of the total diversity was associated with the phyla Actinobacteria, Bacteroidetes, Firmicutes and Proteobacteria. The top (TP) and bottom pipe (BP) communities were different in composition, with some of the differences attributed to the abundance of sulfide-oxidizing and sulfate-reducing bacteria. Additionally, human fecal bacteria were more abundant in the BP communities. Among the functional categories, proteins involved in sulfur and nitrogen metabolism showed the most significant differences between biofilms. There was also an enrichment of genes associated with heavy metal resistance, virulence (protein secretion systems) and stress response in the TP biofilm, while a higher number of genes related to motility and chemotaxis were identified in the BP biofilm. Both biofilms contain a high number of genes associated with resistance to antibiotics and toxic compounds subsystems.

Conclusions

The function potential of wastewater biofilms was highly diverse with level of COG diversity similar to that described for soil. On the basis of the metagenomic data, some factors that may contribute to niche differentiation were pH, aerobic conditions and availability of substrate, such as nitrogen and sulfur. The results from this study will help us better understand the genetic network and functional capability of microbial members of wastewater concrete biofilms.

Acinetobacter, Aeromonas and Trichococcus populations dominate the microbial community within urban sewer infrastructure

We evaluated the population structure and temporal dynamics of the dominant community members within sewage influent from two wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) in Milwaukee, WI. We generated > 1.1 M bacterial pyrotag sequences from the V6 hypervariable region of 16S rRNA genes from 38 influent samples and two samples taken upstream in the sanitary sewer system. Only a small fraction of pyrotags from influent samples (∼ 15%) matched sequences from human faecal samples. The faecal components of the sewage samples included enriched pyrotag populations from Lactococcus and Enterobacteriaceae relative to their fractional representation in human faecal samples. In contrast to the large number of distinct pyrotags that represent faecal bacteria such as Lachnospiraceae and Bacteroides, only one or two unique V6 sequences represented Acinetobacter, Aeromonas and Trichococcus, which collectively account for nearly 35% of the total sewage community. Two dominant Acinetobacter V6 pyrotags (designated Acineto tag 1 and Acineto tag 2) fluctuated inversely with a seasonal pattern over a 3-year period, suggesting two distinct Acinetobacter populations respond differently to ecological forcings in the system. A single nucleotide change in the V6 pyrotags accounted for the difference in these populations and corresponded to two phylogenetically distinct clades based on full-length sequences. Analysis of wavelet functions, derived from a mathematical model of temporal fluctuations, demonstrated that other abundant sewer associated populations including Trichococcus and Aeromonas had temporal patterns similar to either Acineto tag 1 or Acineto tag 2. Populations with related temporal fluctuations were found to significantly correlate with the same WWTP variables (5-day BOD, flow, ammonia, total phosphorous and suspended solids). These findings illustrate that small differences in V6 sequences can represent phylogenetically and ecologically distinct taxa. This work provides insight into microbial community composition and dynamics within the defined environment of urban sewer infrastructure.