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Proctor C, Garner E, Hamilton KA, Ashbolt NJ, Caverly LJ, Falkinham JO, Haas CN, Prevost M, Prevots DR, Pruden A, Raskin L, Stout J, Haig SJ. Tenets of a holistic approach to drinking water-associated pathogen research, management, and communication. WATER RESEARCH 2022; 211:117997. [PMID: 34999316 PMCID: PMC8821414 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2021.117997] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2021] [Revised: 12/13/2021] [Accepted: 12/19/2021] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
In recent years, drinking water-associated pathogens that can cause infections in immunocompromised or otherwise susceptible individuals (henceforth referred to as DWPI), sometimes referred to as opportunistic pathogens or opportunistic premise plumbing pathogens, have received considerable attention. DWPI research has largely been conducted by experts focusing on specific microorganisms or within silos of expertise. The resulting mitigation approaches optimized for a single microorganism may have unintended consequences and trade-offs for other DWPI or other interests (e.g., energy costs and conservation). For example, the ecological and epidemiological issues characteristic of Legionella pneumophila diverge from those relevant for Mycobacterium avium and other nontuberculous mycobacteria. Recent advances in understanding DWPI as part of a complex microbial ecosystem inhabiting drinking water systems continues to reveal additional challenges: namely, how can all microorganisms of concern be managed simultaneously? In order to protect public health, we must take a more holistic approach in all aspects of the field, including basic research, monitoring methods, risk-based mitigation techniques, and policy. A holistic approach will (i) target multiple microorganisms simultaneously, (ii) involve experts across several disciplines, and (iii) communicate results across disciplines and more broadly, proactively addressing source water-to-customer system management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caitlin Proctor
- Department of Agricultural and Biological Engineering, Division of Environmental and Ecological Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA
| | - Emily Garner
- Wadsworth Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, USA
| | - Kerry A Hamilton
- School of Sustainable Engineering and the Built Environment and The Biodesign Centre for Environmental Health Engineering, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA
| | - Nicholas J Ashbolt
- Faculty of Science and Engineering, Southern Cross University, Gold Coast. Queensland, Australia
| | - Lindsay J Caverly
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | | | - Charles N Haas
- Department of Civil, Architectural & Environmental Engineering, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Michele Prevost
- Department of Civil, Geological and Mining Engineering, Polytechnique Montreal, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - D Rebecca Prevots
- Epidemiology Unit, Laboratory of Clinical Immunology and Microbiology, Division of Intramural Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Amy Pruden
- Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA USA
| | - Lutgarde Raskin
- Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Janet Stout
- Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, University of Pittsburgh, and Special Pathogens Laboratory, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Sarah-Jane Haig
- Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, and Department of Environmental & Occupational Health, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA.
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Maceda-Veiga A, MacNally R, Rodríguez S, Szabo S, Peeters ETHM, Ruff T, Salvadó H. Effects of two submerged macrophyte species on microbes and metazoans in rooftop water-storage ponds with different labile carbon loadings. WATER RESEARCH 2022; 211:117999. [PMID: 35042074 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2021.117999] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2021] [Revised: 12/13/2021] [Accepted: 12/20/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Nature-based solutions including rooftop-water storage ponds are increasingly adopted in cities as new eco-designs to address climate change issues, such as water scarcity and storm-water runoff. Macrophytes may be valuable additions for treating stored rooftop waters and provisioning other services, including aquaponics, esthetic and wildlife-conservation values. However, the efficacy of macrophyte treatments has not been tested with influxes of different labile carbon loadings such as those occurring in storms. Moreover, little is known about how macrophytes affect communities of metazoans and microbes, including protozoans, which are key players in the water-treatment process. Here, we experimentally investigated the effectiveness of two widely distributed macrophytes, Ceratophyllum demersum and Egeria densa, for treating drained rooftop water fed with two types of leaf litter, namely Quercus robur (high C lability) and Quercus rubra (low C lability). C. demersum was better than E. densa at reducing water conductivity (by 10 ̶ 40 µS/cm), TDS (by 10-18 mg/L), DOC (by 4-5 mg/L) and at increasing water transparency (by 4-9%), water O2 levels (by 19-27%) and daylight pH (by 0.9-1.3) compared to leaf-litter only microcosms after 30 days. Each treatment developed a different community of algae, protozoa and metazoa. Greater plant mass and epiphytic chlorophyll-a suggested that C. demersum was better at providing supporting habitat than E. densa. The two macrophytes did not differ in detritus accumulation, but E. densa was more prone to develop filamentous bacteria, which cause sludge bulking in water-treatment systems. Our study highlights the superior capacity of C. demersum and the usefulness of whole-ecosystem experiments in choosing the most adequate macrophyte species for nature-based engineered solutions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alberto Maceda-Veiga
- Integrative Zoology Lab, Department de Biologia Evolutiva, Ecologia i Ciències Ambientals, Universitat de Barcelona (UB), 08028 Barcelona, Spain; Institut de Recerca de la Biodiversitat, Universitat de Barcelona (IRBio-UB), 08028 Barcelona, Spain.
| | - Ralph MacNally
- School of BioSciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville VIC, Australia
| | - Sara Rodríguez
- Protistology Lab, Department de Biologia Evolutiva, Ecologia i Ciències Ambientals & Institut de Recerca de l'Aigua, Universitat de Barcelona (IdRA-UB), 08028 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Sandor Szabo
- Department of Biology, University of Nyiregyhaza, Nyiregyhaza, Hungary
| | - Edwin T H M Peeters
- Aquatic Ecology and Water Quality Management Group, Department of Environmental Sciences, Wageningen University & Research Center, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Thomas Ruff
- School of Biosciences, Cardiff University, Cardiff, CF10 3AX, UK
| | - Humbert Salvadó
- Protistology Lab, Department de Biologia Evolutiva, Ecologia i Ciències Ambientals & Institut de Recerca de l'Aigua, Universitat de Barcelona (IdRA-UB), 08028 Barcelona, Spain
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Wu JT, Song XQ, Liang LW, Yan C. Estimating acceptable exposure time for bioaerosols emission in a wastewater treatment plant by reverse quantitative microbial risk assessment based on various risk benchmarks. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2022; 29:13345-13355. [PMID: 34590226 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-021-16699-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2021] [Accepted: 09/20/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Populations exposed to bioaerosols over time in wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) will be infected. Then, the reverse quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA) provides a quantitative framework for the estimation of acceptable exposure time to protect people from excessive exposure and then manage their health risk. In this study, the acceptable exposure time for staffs and visiting researchers exposed to S. aureus or E. coli bioaerosols emitted from aeration ponds in WWTPs was estimated and analyzed by Monte Carlo simulation-based reverse QMRA (using the 1E-4 pppy suggested by the US EPA or 1E-6 DALYs pppy suggested by the WHO as benchmarks). The 1E-3 and 1E-2 pppy were selected as a series of loose annual infection risk benchmarks to calculate a practical acceptable exposure time. The results showed that for the acceptable exposure time in each specific exposure scenario, the exposure of females was consistently 0.3-0.4 times longer than that of males; the exposure of staffs was 3.6-3.9 times shorter than that of visiting researchers; the exposures of populations in the rotating-disc aeration mode were consistently 6.3-6.6 and 2.8-3.1 times longer than those in the microporous aeration mode for S. aureus and E. coli bioaerosols, respectively. The acceptable exposure time with the use of personal protective equipment (PPE) was 33.4-35.0 times as long as that without PPE. The US EPA benchmark is stricter than the WHO benchmark with regard to the estimation of the acceptable exposure time of S. aureus or E. coli bioaerosols. The 1E-3 pppy is more appropriate and practical than the US EPA benchmark, but the 1E-2 pppy is notably too loose for health risk management. This research can assist managers of WWTPs to formulate a justified exposure time and develop applicable administrative and personal intervention strategies. The results can enrich the knowledge bases of reverse QMRA to elect a series of loose health-based target risk benchmarks for health risk management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun-Ting Wu
- School of Environmental Studies, China University of Geosciences, 388 Lumo Road, Wuhan, 430074, People's Republic of China
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Environmental Water Science in the Yangtze River Basin, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan, 430074, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiao-Qing Song
- The Pollution Control Engineering Technology Center of Taizhou, Taizhou, 318000, People's Republic of China
| | - Lan-Wei Liang
- School of Environmental Studies, China University of Geosciences, 388 Lumo Road, Wuhan, 430074, People's Republic of China
| | - Cheng Yan
- School of Environmental Studies, China University of Geosciences, 388 Lumo Road, Wuhan, 430074, People's Republic of China.
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Environmental Water Science in the Yangtze River Basin, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan, 430074, People's Republic of China.
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Wang Z, Qi F, Liu L, Chen M, Sun D, Nan J. How do urban rainfall-runoff pollution control technologies develop in China? A systematic review based on bibliometric analysis and literature summary. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2021; 789:148045. [PMID: 34062464 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.148045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2021] [Revised: 05/21/2021] [Accepted: 05/21/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Rapid urbanization in China is driving the need of urban rainfall-runoff pollution control technologies due to adverse impacts on water environment. In this study, literature from China National Knowledge Infrastructure, Web of Science and Scopus in 1995/1/1-2019/5/15 are used to review research hotspots, development process and future directions of urban rainfall-runoff pollution control technologies in China and global world. Temporal evolution of publications showed that source reduction played better growing trend in urban rainfall-runoff pollution control field for both China and global world. Furthermore, with bibliometric tool, density visualization maps and co-occurrence network maps were created to identify research hotspots in China and global world. By comprehensively analyzing research hotspots above and development process from extracted literature, future directions of urban rainfall-runoff pollution control technologies were predicted. For model and strategy, both China and global world would concern on the accuracy of models to evaluate combination technologies. For source reduction, China would explore rainwater purification in sponge city, while global world would investigate match characteristics between specific regions and control technologies, combination between model and technologies, and improvement of pollutants removal. For process control, China would enhance ecological gutter inlet performance, whereas global world would concentrate on optimization of rainwater harvesting system. For post treatment, China would estimate modified hydrocylone and coagulation technology, and improve performance of filtration systems, riparian buffers and constructed wetlands, while global world would explore ecological and landscape function of constructed wetlands. Since China ranked first in producing Western publications and was the second most cited country for Western publications recently, China would significantly influence future development of urban rainfall-runoff pollution control technologies around the world. Meanwhile, some directions including infiltration basin and rainwater harvesting system were still shortcomings for China due to a late start of urban rainfall-runoff pollution control technologies in China.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhenbei Wang
- Beijing Key Lab for Source Control Technology of Water Pollution, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, PR China
| | - Fei Qi
- Beijing Key Lab for Source Control Technology of Water Pollution, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, PR China.
| | - Longyan Liu
- North China Municipal Engineering Design & Research Institute Co. Ltd, PR China
| | - Miao Chen
- Beijing Key Lab for Source Control Technology of Water Pollution, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, PR China
| | - Dezhi Sun
- Beijing Key Lab for Source Control Technology of Water Pollution, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, PR China
| | - Jun Nan
- Skate Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment, School of Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, PR China.
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5
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Kongprajug A, Denpetkul T, Chyerochana N, Mongkolsuk S, Sirikanchana K. Human Fecal Pollution Monitoring and Microbial Risk Assessment for Water Reuse Potential in a Coastal Industrial-Residential Mixed-Use Watershed. Front Microbiol 2021; 12:647602. [PMID: 33959110 PMCID: PMC8093506 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.647602] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2020] [Accepted: 03/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Rapid economic development has caused industrial expansion into residential communities, leading to higher fecal pollution loads that could be discharged into aquatic environments. However, little is known regarding the potential microbial impact on human health. This study investigated microbial contamination from coastal industrial–residential community areas in nine sampling sites in waterways during three dry events. A general microbial source tracking (MST) marker, GenBac3, was detected in all samples from all three events, indicating continuing fecal pollution in the area, mostly from human sewage contamination. This was shown by the human-specific genetic marker crAssphage (88.9%) and human polyomavirus (HPyVs; 92.6%) detection. Enteric human adenovirus (HAdV40/41) showed three positive results only from residential sites in the first event. No spatial difference was observed for MST markers and traditional fecal indicators (total coliforms and Escherichia coli) in each event. Still, a significantly lower abundance of GenBac3, HPyVs, and total coliforms in the first sampling event was detected. Spearman’s rho analysis indicated a strong correlation among certain pairs of microbial parameters. Multivariate analysis revealed two clusters of samples separated by land use type (industrial vs. residential). According to factor analysis of mixed data, the land use parameter was more associated with physicochemical parameters (i.e., salinity, conductivity, water temperature, and dissolved oxygen). A Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment (QMRA) was then conducted to estimate the annual infection risks of HAdV40/41 for non-potable water reuse purposes using predicted concentrations from crAssphage and HPyVs. The highest risks (95th percentiles) were ranked by food crop irrigation, aquaculture, and toilet flushing, at 10–1, 10–2, and 10–3 per person per year (pppy). Required treatment levels to achieve a 10–4 pppy annual infection risk were estimated. QMRA-based water treatment scenarios were suggested, including chlorination for toilet flushing reuse and depth filtration prior to chlorination for aquaculture and food crop irrigation. Microbial monitoring combined with a QMRA could provide better insights into fecal pollution patterns and the associated risks, facilitating effective water quality management and appropriate prior treatments for water reuse.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akechai Kongprajug
- Research Laboratory of Biotechnology, Chulabhorn Research Institute, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Thammanitchpol Denpetkul
- Department of Social and Environmental Medicine, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Natcha Chyerochana
- Research Laboratory of Biotechnology, Chulabhorn Research Institute, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Skorn Mongkolsuk
- Research Laboratory of Biotechnology, Chulabhorn Research Institute, Bangkok, Thailand.,Center of Excellence on Environmental Health and Toxicology (EHT), Ministry of Education, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Kwanrawee Sirikanchana
- Research Laboratory of Biotechnology, Chulabhorn Research Institute, Bangkok, Thailand.,Center of Excellence on Environmental Health and Toxicology (EHT), Ministry of Education, Bangkok, Thailand
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6
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Shi KW, Huang YH, Quon H, Ou-Yang ZL, Wang C, Jiang SC. Quantifying the risk of indoor drainage system in multi-unit apartment building as a transmission route of SARS-CoV-2. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2021; 762:143056. [PMID: 33268249 PMCID: PMC7560110 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.143056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2020] [Revised: 10/08/2020] [Accepted: 10/10/2020] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
The COVID-19 pandemic has had a profound impact on human society. The isolation of SARS-CoV-2 from patients' feces on human cell line raised concerns of possible transmission through human feces including exposure to aerosols generated by toilet flushing and through the indoor drainage system. Currently, routes of transmission, other than the close contact droplet transmission, are still not well understood. A quantitative microbial risk assessment was conducted to estimate the health risks associated with two aerosol exposure scenarios: 1) toilet flushing, and 2) faulty connection of a floor drain with the building's main sewer pipe. SARS-CoV-2 data were collected from the emerging literature. The infectivity of the virus in feces was estimated based on a range of assumption between viral genome equivalence and infectious unit. The human exposure dose was calculated using Monte Carlo simulation of viral concentrations in aerosols under each scenario and human breathing rates. The probability of COVID-19 illness was generated using the dose-response model for SARS-CoV-1, a close relative of SARS-CoV-2, that was responsible for the SARS outbreak in 2003. The results indicate the median risks of developing COVID-19 for a single day exposure is 1.11 × 10-10 and 3.52 × 10-11 for toilet flushing and faulty drain scenario, respectively. The worst case scenario predicted the high end of COVID-19 risk for the toilet flushing scenario was 5.78 × 10-4 (at 95th percentile). The infectious viral loads in human feces are the most sensitive input parameter and contribute significantly to model uncertainty.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kuang-Wei Shi
- School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
| | - Yen-Hsiang Huang
- Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Irvine, USA
| | - Hunter Quon
- Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Irvine, USA
| | - Zi-Lu Ou-Yang
- School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
| | - Chengwen Wang
- School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China.
| | - Sunny C Jiang
- Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Irvine, USA.
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7
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Chen YH, Yan C, Yang YF, Ma JX. Quantitative microbial risk assessment and sensitivity analysis for workers exposed to pathogenic bacterial bioaerosols under various aeration modes in two wastewater treatment plants. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2021; 755:142615. [PMID: 33038813 PMCID: PMC7527313 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.142615] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2020] [Revised: 09/20/2020] [Accepted: 09/21/2020] [Indexed: 04/14/2023]
Abstract
Wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) could emit a large amount of bioaerosols containing pathogenic bacteria. Assessing the health risks of exposure to these bioaerosols by using quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA) is important to protect workers in WWTPs. However, the relative impacts of the stochastic input variables on the health risks determined in QMRA remain vague. Hence, this study performed a Monte Carlo simulation-based QMRA case study for workers exposing to S. aureus or E. coli bioaerosols and a sensitivity analysis in two WWTPs with various aeration modes. Results showed that when workers equipped without personal protective equipment (PPE) were exposed to S. aureus or E. coli bioaerosol in the two WWTPs, the annual probability of infection considerably exceeded the U.S. EPA benchmark (≤10E-4 pppy), and the disease burden did not satisfy the WHO benchmark (≤10E-6 DALYs pppy) (except exposure to E. coli bioaerosol for disease health risk burden). Nevertheless, the use of PPE effectively reduced the annual infection health risk to an acceptable level and converted the disease health risk burden to a highly acceptable level. Referring to the sensitivity analysis, the contribution of mechanical aeration modes to the variability of the health risks was absolutely dominated in the WWTPs. On the aeration mode that showed high exposure concentration, the three input exposure parameters (exposure time, aerosol ingestion rate, and breathing rate) had a great impact on health risks. The health risks were also prone to being highly influenced by the various choices of the dose-response model and related parameters. Current research systematically delivered new data and a novel perspective on the sensitivity analysis of QMRA. Then, management decisions could be executed by authorities on the basis of the results of this sensitivity analysis to reduce related occupational health risks of workers in WWTPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan-Huan Chen
- School of Environmental Studies, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan 430074, PR China
| | - Cheng Yan
- School of Environmental Studies, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan 430074, PR China.
| | - Ya-Fei Yang
- School of Environmental Studies, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan 430074, PR China
| | - Jia-Xin Ma
- School of Environmental Studies, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan 430074, PR China
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Reyneke B, Hamilton KA, Fernández-Ibáñez P, Polo-López MI, McGuigan KG, Khan S, Khan W. EMA-amplicon-based sequencing informs risk assessment analysis of water treatment systems. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2020; 743:140717. [PMID: 32679496 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.140717] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2020] [Revised: 06/29/2020] [Accepted: 07/01/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Illumina amplicon-based sequencing was coupled with ethidium monoazide bromide (EMA) pre-treatment to monitor the total viable bacterial community and subsequently identify and prioritise the target organisms for the health risk assessment of the untreated rainwater and rainwater treated using large-volume batch solar reactor prototypes installed in an informal settlement and rural farming community. Taxonomic assignments indicated that Legionella and Pseudomonas were the most frequently detected genera containing opportunistic bacterial pathogens in the untreated and treated rainwater at both sites. Additionally, Mycobacterium, Clostridium sensu stricto and Escherichia/Shigella displayed high (≥80%) detection frequencies in the untreated and/or treated rainwater samples at one or both sites. Numerous exposure scenarios (e.g. drinking, cleaning) were subsequently investigated and the health risk of using untreated and solar reactor treated rainwater in developing countries was quantified based on the presence of L. pneumophila, P. aeruginosa and E. coli. The solar reactor prototypes were able to reduce the health risk associated with E. coli and P. aeruginosa to below the 1 × 10-4 annual benchmark limit for all the non-potable uses of rainwater within the target communities (exception of showering for E. coli). However, the risk associated with intentional drinking of untreated or treated rainwater exceeded the benchmark limit (E. coli and P. aeruginosa). Additionally, while the solar reactor treatment reduced the risk associated with garden hosing and showering based on the presence of L. pneumophila, the risk estimates for both activities still exceeded the annual benchmark limit. The large-volume batch solar reactor prototypes were thus able to reduce the risk posed by the target bacteria for non-potable activities rainwater is commonly used for in water scarce regions of sub-Saharan Africa. This study highlights the need to assess water treatment systems in field trials using QMRA.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Reyneke
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Stellenbosch University, Private Bag X1, Stellenbosch 7602, South Africa
| | - K A Hamilton
- School for Sustainable Engineering and the Built Environment, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85281, United States; The Biodesign Institute Center for Environmental Health Engineering, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85281, United States
| | - P Fernández-Ibáñez
- Plataforma Solar de Almeria-CIEMAT, P.O. Box 22, Tabernas, Almería, Spain; Nanotechnology and Integrated BioEngineering Centre, School of Engineering, University of Ulster, Newtownabbey, Northern Ireland, United Kingdom
| | - M I Polo-López
- Plataforma Solar de Almeria-CIEMAT, P.O. Box 22, Tabernas, Almería, Spain
| | - K G McGuigan
- Department of Physiology and Medical Physics, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Dublin, Ireland
| | - S Khan
- Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Johannesburg, PO Box 17011, Doornfontein 2028, South Africa
| | - W Khan
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Stellenbosch University, Private Bag X1, Stellenbosch 7602, South Africa.
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Clark GG, Jamal R, Weidhaas J. Roofing material and irrigation frequency influence microbial risk from consuming homegrown lettuce irrigated with harvested rainwater. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2019; 651:1011-1019. [PMID: 30266046 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.09.277] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2018] [Revised: 09/20/2018] [Accepted: 09/20/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Rooftop harvested rainwater has become an alternative, potable, and non-potable water source used around the world. In the United States, rooftop harvested rainwater is most commonly used for irrigation. Rooftop harvested rainwater may contain contaminants from bird or animal feces that may present a risk to water users. Different roofing materials may influence the survival of fecal bacteria on the rooftop prior to runoff during rainfall. In this study, three pathogen groups (E. coli, enterococci and Salmonella enterica) in rooftop runoff from three, replicated roof types (asphalt shingle, synthetic slate, and wood shake) were quantified in multiple rain events. Matched roofs were selected from locations with differing amounts of tree cover. Enterococci were the most frequently detected bacteria from all roof types. Wood shake and asphalt shingle roofing materials had the poorest microbial water quality. Rainwater runoff from two of the six buildings failed to meet United States Food and Drug Administration microbial standards for irrigation water. A quantitative microbial risk assessment indicated that the annual probability of illness from consuming lettuce irrigated with rooftop harvested rainwater varied by roofing material, irrigation water withholding period, and exposure frequency. Consuming lettuce immediately after irrigation with rooftop rainwater presented the highest human health risk based on the probability of illness from E. coli and enterococci exposure. Withholding irrigation by 1 day prior to harvest decreased the annual probability of illness from E. coli by 2 log, but had a minimal effect on the risk from enterococci.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gemma G Clark
- Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Utah, 110 Central Campus Drive Suite 2000, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, USA
| | - Rubayat Jamal
- Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Utah, 110 Central Campus Drive Suite 2000, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, USA
| | - Jennifer Weidhaas
- Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Utah, 110 Central Campus Drive Suite 2000, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, USA.
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10
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Chandrasekaran S, Jiang SC. A dynamic transport model for quantification of norovirus internalization in lettuce from irrigation water and associated health risk. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2018; 643:751-761. [PMID: 30189580 PMCID: PMC6138827 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.06.158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2018] [Revised: 06/12/2018] [Accepted: 06/13/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Food production using recycled wastewater offers a sustainable way forward in light of limited freshwater resources. However, concerns of food safety should be addressed to protect public health. To this end, we developed a dynamic transport model to track norovirus from the irrigation water to the root and shoot of lettuce during the growth period. These processes were embodied in a system of ordinary differential equations that also incorporated plant growth, transpiration rate, viral attachment and detachment to culture media, viral decay, and plant barrier effects. Model parameters were either obtained from the literature or through fitting the model to experimental data from a study reporting human norovirus transport in hydroponically grown lettuce. The results showed that lettuce grown hydroponically resulted in a higher risk than lettuce grown in soil. In both cases, the risk predicted failed to meet the risk benchmarks established by the U.S. EPA and WHO. Viral attachment to growth media, such as the soil particles, was an important mechanism for risk reduction. A sensitivity analysis revealed that harvesting time and irrigation time are important factors influencing the viral loads in lettuce. Hence, this pathogen transport model provides a framework for investigating the effects of time and other factors on disease burdens from water reuse in agriculture, underscoring the utility of a dynamic model. In the absence of a routine monitoring of contaminants in the recycled irrigation water and food crops, a quantitative risk assessment based on objective scientific knowledge is the best approach to guide the policy decisions on water reuse practices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Srikiran Chandrasekaran
- Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Irvine, United States of America
| | - Sunny C Jiang
- Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Irvine, United States of America.
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11
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Shi KW, Wang CW, Jiang SC. Quantitative microbial risk assessment of Greywater on-site reuse. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2018; 635:1507-1519. [PMID: 29710672 PMCID: PMC6024565 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.04.197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2018] [Revised: 04/14/2018] [Accepted: 04/15/2018] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Recycle domestic greywater for on-site non-potable uses can lessen the demand on potable water and the burden on wastewater treatment plants. However, lack of studies to assess health risk associated with such practices has hindered their popularity. A Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment was conducted to estimate the public health risks for two greywater reuse scenarios: toilet flushing and food-crop irrigation. Household greywater quality from three sources (bathroom, laundry and kitchen) was analyzed. Mathematical exposure rates of different scenarios were established based on human behavior using Monte-Carlo simulation. The results showed that, greywater from all three household sources could be safely used for toilet flushing after a simple treatment of microfiltration. The median range of annual infection risk was 8.8 × 10-15-8.3 × 10-11 per-person-per-year (pppy); and the median range of disease burden was 7.6 × 10-19-7.3 × 10-15 disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) pppy. In food-crop irrigation scenario, the annual infection risks and disease burdens of treated greywater from bathroom and laundry (2.8 × 10-8, 4.9 × 10-8 pppy; 2.3 × 10-12-4.2 × 10-12 DALYs pppy) were within the acceptable levels of U.S. EPA annual infection risk (≤10-4 pppy) and WHO disease burden (≤10-6 DALYs pppy) benchmarks, while kitchen greywater was not suitable for food-crop irrigation (4.9 × 10-6 pppy; 4.3 × 10-10 DALYs pppy) based on these benchmarks. The model uncertainties were discussed, which suggests that a more accurate risk estimation requires improvements on data collection and model refinement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kuang-Wei Shi
- School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China; Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Irvine, USA
| | - Cheng-Wen Wang
- School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China.
| | - Sunny C Jiang
- Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Irvine, USA.
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12
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Hamilton KA, Chen A, de-Graft Johnson E, Gitter A, Kozak S, Niquice C, Zimmer-Faust AG, Weir MH, Mitchell J, Gurian P. Salmonella risks due to consumption of aquaculture-produced shrimp. MICROBIAL RISK ANALYSIS 2018; 9:22-32. [PMID: 30525084 PMCID: PMC6277047 DOI: 10.1016/j.mran.2018.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
The use of aquaculture is increasing to meet the growing global demand for seafood. However, the use of aquaculture for seafood production incurs potential human health risks, especially from enteric bacteria such as Salmonella spp. Salmonella spp. was the most frequently reported cause of outbreaks associated with crustaceans from 1998 to 2004. Among crustacean species, shrimp are the most economically important, internationally traded seafood commodity, and the most commonly aquaculture-raised seafood imported to the United States. To inform safe aquaculture practices, a quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA) was performed for wastewater-fed aquaculture, incorporating stochastic variability in shrimp growth, processing, and consumer preparation. Several scenarios including gamma irradiation, proper cooking, and improper cooking were considered in order to examine the relative importance of these practices in terms of their impact on risk. Median annual infection risks for all scenarios considered were below 10-4, however 95th percentile risks were above 10-4 annual probability of infection and 10-6 DALY per person per year for scenarios with improper cooking and lack of gamma irradiation. The greatest difference between microbiological risks for the scenarios tested was observed when comparing proper vs. improper cooking (5 to 6 orders of magnitude) and gamma irradiation (4 to 5 orders of magnitude) compared to (up to less than 1 order of magnitude) for peeling and deveining vs. peeling only. The findings from this research suggest that restriction of Salmonella spp. to low levels (median 5 to 30 per L aquaculture pond water) may be necessary for scenarios in which proper downstream food handling and processing cannot be guaranteed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kerry A. Hamilton
- Department of Civil, Architectural, and Environmental Engineering, Drexel University, 3141 Chestnut Street, Philadelphia, PA 19104
| | - Arlene Chen
- Maryland Pathogen Research Center, Department of Cell Biology and Molecular Genetics, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742
| | - Emmanuel de-Graft Johnson
- Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Physical and Computational Sciences, College of Science, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, SCB/AMC SF 24/B6-KNUST, Kumasi Ghana
| | - Anna Gitter
- Water Management and Hydrological Sciences Program, Texas A&M University, 400 Bizzell Street, College Station, Texas 77843
| | - Sonya Kozak
- School of Medicine, Griffith University, Gold Coast, Australia
| | - Celma Niquice
- Faculty of Civil Engineering and Geosciences, Technical University of Delft, Netherlands
| | - Amity G. Zimmer-Faust
- Western Ecology Division, National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, USA
| | - Mark H. Weir
- Division of Environmental Health Sciences and Department of Civil Environmental and Geodetic Engineering, The Ohio State University
| | - Jade Mitchell
- Department of Biosystems and Agricultural Engineering, Michigan State University, 524 S. Shaw Lane, East Lansing, MI 48824
| | - Patrick Gurian
- Department of Civil, Architectural, and Environmental Engineering, Drexel University, 3141 Chestnut Street, Philadelphia, PA 19104
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13
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Lundy L, Revitt M, Ellis B. An impact assessment for urban stormwater use. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2018; 25:19259-19270. [PMID: 29082472 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-017-0547-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2017] [Accepted: 10/23/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Stormwater has the potential to provide a non-potable water supply which requires less treatment than municipal wastewaters with the added benefit of reducing pollution and erosion issues in receiving water bodies. However, the adoption of stormwater collection and use as an accepted practice requires that the perceived risks, particularly those associated with public health, are addressed. This paper considers the human health concerns associated with stormwater quality when used for a range of non-potable applications using E. coli, a commonly found pollutant in urban stormwater which is also widely included in human health-based water quality standards and guidelines. Based on a source-pathway-receptor model, scores are allocated, on a scale of 0 to 5, to benchmark increasing the likelihoods of exposure to stormwater during different occupational and non-occupational applications and magnitude of impacts which may result. The impacts are assessed by comparing median stormwater E. coli levels with the reported guideline levels relating to different stormwater uses. Combination of the exposure and impact scores provides an overall risk score for each stormwater application. Low or medium risks are shown to be associated with most stormwater uses except for domestic car washing and occupational irrigation of edible raw food crops where the predicted highest levels of risk posed by median E. coli levels in stormwater necessitate the introduction of remedial actions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lian Lundy
- Urban Pollution Research Centre, Middlesex University, The Burroughs, Hendon, London, NW4 4BT, UK.
| | - Michael Revitt
- Urban Pollution Research Centre, Middlesex University, The Burroughs, Hendon, London, NW4 4BT, UK
| | - Bryan Ellis
- Urban Pollution Research Centre, Middlesex University, The Burroughs, Hendon, London, NW4 4BT, UK
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14
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Gikas GD, Tsihrintzis VA. Effect of first-flush device, roofing material, and antecedent dry days on water quality of harvested rainwater. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2017; 24:21997-22006. [PMID: 28785942 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-017-9868-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2017] [Accepted: 07/31/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Two rainwater harvesting systems, which included first-flush diversion devices, connected to the roofs of two adjacent buildings, were monitored for water quality. The roofs were constructed from different materials, i.e., one roof was covered with ceramic tiles and the other was made of concrete. Water quality samples from the two storage tanks and the first-flush devices were collected and analyzed, showing satisfactory water quality in the tanks for residential non-potable use, while the water in the first-flush device was of poorer quality. Between the two collection surfaces, statistically significant differences were found only in the concentrations of NH4-N, orthophosphate, and Ca2+. Total coliforms were detected in both the storage tanks and the first-flush devices, indicating that disinfection of harvested rainwater may be necessary if it is collected for potable uses. Finally, first-flush water quality was related to antecedent dry days, showing that when the number of dry days increased, the accumulation of materials on the concrete roof was reduced while it was increased on the ceramic tile roof. This is attributed to the fact that the concrete roof is nearly horizontal (very slightly sloped), and the wind action easily removes various materials which accumulate on it.
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Affiliation(s)
- Georgios D Gikas
- Laboratory of Ecological Engineering and Technology, Department of Environmental Engineering, School of Engineering, Democritus University of Thrace, 67100, Xanthi, Greece
| | - Vassilios A Tsihrintzis
- Centre for the Assessment of Natural Hazards and Proactive Planning, & Laboratory of Reclamation Works and Water Resources Management, Department of Infrastructure and Rural Development, School of Rural and Surveying Engineering, National Technical University of Athens, Zografou, 157 80, Athens, Greece.
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15
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Hamilton KA, Ahmed W, Toze S, Haas CN. Human health risks for Legionella and Mycobacterium avium complex (MAC) from potable and non-potable uses of roof-harvested rainwater. WATER RESEARCH 2017; 119:288-303. [PMID: 28500949 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2017.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2016] [Revised: 03/30/2017] [Accepted: 04/02/2017] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
A quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA) of opportunistic pathogens Legionella pneumophila (LP) and Mycobacterium avium complex (MAC) was undertaken for various uses of roof-harvested rainwater (RHRW) reported in Queensland, Australia to identify appropriate usages and guide risk management practices. Risks from inhalation of aerosols due to showering, swimming in pools topped up with RHRW, use of a garden hose, car washing, and toilet flushing with RHRW were considered for LP while both ingestion (drinking, produce consumption, and accidental ingestion from various activities) and inhalation risks were considered for MAC. The drinking water route of exposure presented the greatest risks due to cervical lymphadenitis and disseminated infection health endpoints for children and immune-compromised populations, respectively. It is therefore not recommended that these populations consume untreated rainwater. LP risks were up to 6 orders of magnitude higher than MAC risks for the inhalation route of exposure for all scenarios. Both inhalation and ingestion QMRA simulations support that while drinking, showering, and garden hosing with RHRW may present the highest risks, car washing and clothes washing could constitute appropriate uses of RHRW for all populations, and toilet flushing and consumption of lettuce irrigation with RHRW would be appropriate for non- immune-compromised populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kerry A Hamilton
- CSIRO Land and Water, Ecosciences Precinct, 41 Boggo Road, Qld 4102, Australia; Drexel University, 3141 Chestnut Street, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA.
| | - Warish Ahmed
- CSIRO Land and Water, Ecosciences Precinct, 41 Boggo Road, Qld 4102, Australia
| | - Simon Toze
- CSIRO Land and Water, Ecosciences Precinct, 41 Boggo Road, Qld 4102, Australia
| | - Charles N Haas
- Drexel University, 3141 Chestnut Street, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
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16
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Chhipi-Shrestha G, Hewage K, Sadiq R. Microbial quality of reclaimed water for urban reuses: Probabilistic risk-based investigation and recommendations. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2017; 576:738-751. [PMID: 27810759 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.10.105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2016] [Revised: 10/14/2016] [Accepted: 10/15/2016] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Although Canada has abundant freshwater resources, many cities still experience seasonal water shortage. Supply-side and demand-side management is a core strategy to address this water shortage. Under this strategy, reclaimed water, which the Canadian public is willing to use for non-potable purposes, is an option. However, no universal guidelines exist for reclaimed water use. Despite the federal government's long-term goal to develop guidelines for many water reuse applications, guidelines have only been prescribed for reclaimed water use in toilet and urinal flushing in Canada. At the provincial level, British Columbia (BC) has promulgated guidelines for wide applications of reclaimed water but only at broad class levels. This research has investigated and proposed probabilistic risk-based recommended values for microbial quality of reclaimed water in various non-potable urban reuses. The health risk was estimated by using quantitative microbial risk assessment. Two-dimensional Monte Carlo simulations were used in the analysis to include variability and uncertainty in input data. The proposed recommended values are based on the indicator organism E. coli. The required treatment levels for reuse were also estimated. In addition, the recommended values were successfully applied to three wastewater treatment effluents in the Okanagan Valley, BC, Canada. The health risks associated with other bacterial pathogens (Campylobacter jejuni and Salmonella spp.), virus (adenovirus, norovirus, and rotavirus), and protozoa (Cryptosporidium parvum and Giardia spp.), were also estimated. The estimated risks indicate the effectiveness of the E. coli-based water quality recommended values. Sensitivity analysis shows the pathogenic E. coli ratio and morbidity are the most sensitive input parameters for all water reuses. The proposed recommended values could be further improved by using national or regional data on water exposures, disease burden per case, and the susceptibility fraction of population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gyan Chhipi-Shrestha
- School of Engineering, University of British Columbia, Okanagan Campus, 3333 University Way, Kelowna, BC V1V 1V7, Canada.
| | - Kasun Hewage
- School of Engineering, University of British Columbia, Okanagan Campus, 3333 University Way, Kelowna, BC V1V 1V7, Canada
| | - Rehan Sadiq
- School of Engineering, University of British Columbia, Okanagan Campus, 3333 University Way, Kelowna, BC V1V 1V7, Canada
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17
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Schoen ME, Ashbolt NJ, Jahne MA, Garland J. Risk-based enteric pathogen reduction targets for non-potable and direct potable use of roof runoff, stormwater, and greywater. MICROBIAL RISK ANALYSIS 2017; 5:32-43. [PMID: 31534999 PMCID: PMC6750756 DOI: 10.1016/j.mran.2017.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
This paper presents risk-based enteric pathogen log reduction targets for non-potable and potable uses of a variety of alternative source waters (i.e., locally-collected greywater, roof runoff, and stormwater). A probabilistic Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment (QMRA) was used to derive the pathogen log10 reduction targets (LRTs) that corresponded with an infection risk of either 10-4 per person per year (ppy) or 10-2 ppy. The QMRA accounted for variation in pathogen concentration and sporadic pathogen occurrence (when data were available) in source waters for reference pathogens in the genera Rotavirus, Mastadenovirus(human adenoviruses), Norovirus, Campylobacter, Salmonella, Giardia and Cryptosporidium. Non-potable uses included indoor use (for toilet flushing and clothes washing) with occasional accidental ingestion of treated non-potable water (or cross-connection with potable water), and unrestricted irrigation for outdoor use. Various exposure scenarios captured the uncertainty from key inputs, i.e., the pathogen concentration in source water; the volume of water ingested; and for the indoor use, the frequency of and the fraction of the population exposed to accidental ingestion. Both potable and non-potable uses required pathogen treatment for the selected waters and the LRT was generally greater for potable use than non-potable indoor use and unrestricted irrigation. The difference in treatment requirements among source waters was driven by the microbial quality of the water - both the density and occurrence of reference pathogens. Greywater from collection systems with 1000 people had the highest LRTs; however, those for greywater collected from a smaller population (~ 5 people), which have less frequent pathogen occurrences, were lower. Stormwater had highly variable microbial quality, which resulted in a range of possible treatment requirements. The microbial quality of roof runoff, and thus the resulting LRTs, remains uncertain due to lack of relevant pathogen data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mary E Schoen
- Soller Environmental, Inc., 3022 King St., Berkeley, CA 94703, USA
| | - Nicholas J Ashbolt
- Rm. 3-57D South Academic Building, School of Public Health, University of Alberta, Edmonton AB T6G 2G7, Canada
| | - Michael A Jahne
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 26 W. Martin Luther King Drive, Cincinnati OH 45268, USA
| | - Jay Garland
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 26 W. Martin Luther King Drive, Cincinnati OH 45268, USA
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18
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Askarizadeh A, Rippy MA, Fletcher TD, Feldman DL, Peng J, Bowler P, Mehring AS, Winfrey BK, Vrugt JA, AghaKouchak A, Jiang SC, Sanders BF, Levin LA, Taylor S, Grant SB. From Rain Tanks to Catchments: Use of Low-Impact Development To Address Hydrologic Symptoms of the Urban Stream Syndrome. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2015; 49:11264-11280. [PMID: 26317612 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.5b01635] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Catchment urbanization perturbs the water and sediment budgets of streams, degrades stream health and function, and causes a constellation of flow, water quality, and ecological symptoms collectively known as the urban stream syndrome. Low-impact development (LID) technologies address the hydrologic symptoms of the urban stream syndrome by mimicking natural flow paths and restoring a natural water balance. Over annual time scales, the volumes of stormwater that should be infiltrated and harvested can be estimated from a catchment-scale water-balance given local climate conditions and preurban land cover. For all but the wettest regions of the world, a much larger volume of stormwater runoff should be harvested than infiltrated to maintain stream hydrology in a preurban state. Efforts to prevent or reverse hydrologic symptoms associated with the urban stream syndrome will therefore require: (1) selecting the right mix of LID technologies that provide regionally tailored ratios of stormwater harvesting and infiltration; (2) integrating these LID technologies into next-generation drainage systems; (3) maximizing potential cobenefits including water supply augmentation, flood protection, improved water quality, and urban amenities; and (4) long-term hydrologic monitoring to evaluate the efficacy of LID interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Asal Askarizadeh
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Henry Samueli School of Engineering, University of California, Irvine , Irvine, California 92697, United States
| | - Megan A Rippy
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Henry Samueli School of Engineering, University of California, Irvine , Irvine, California 92697, United States
| | - Tim D Fletcher
- School of Ecosystem and Forest Sciences, Faculty of Science, The University of Melbourne, Burnley Campus , 500 Yarra Boulevard, Richmond, Victoria 3121, Australia
| | - David L Feldman
- Department of Planning, Policy, and Design, School of Social Ecology, University of California, Irvine , Irvine, California 92697, United States
| | - Jian Peng
- Orange County Watersheds Program , 2301 N. Glassell Street, Orange, California 92865, United States
| | - Peter Bowler
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, School of Biology, University of California, Irvine , Irvine, California 92697, United States
| | - Andrew S Mehring
- Center for Marine Biodiversity and Conservation, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California, San Diego , La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Brandon K Winfrey
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Jonathan and Karen Fielding School of Public Health, University of California, Los Angeles , Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
| | - Jasper A Vrugt
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Henry Samueli School of Engineering, University of California, Irvine , Irvine, California 92697, United States
| | - Amir AghaKouchak
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Henry Samueli School of Engineering, University of California, Irvine , Irvine, California 92697, United States
| | - Sunny C Jiang
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Henry Samueli School of Engineering, University of California, Irvine , Irvine, California 92697, United States
| | - Brett F Sanders
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Henry Samueli School of Engineering, University of California, Irvine , Irvine, California 92697, United States
| | - Lisa A Levin
- Center for Marine Biodiversity and Conservation, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California, San Diego , La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Scott Taylor
- RBF Consulting/Michael Baker International , 5050 Avenue Encinas, Suite 260, Carlsbad, California 92008, United States
| | - Stanley B Grant
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Henry Samueli School of Engineering, University of California, Irvine , Irvine, California 92697, United States
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, Henry Samueli School of Engineering, University of California, Irvine , Irvine, California 92697, United States
- Department of Infrastructure Engineering, School of Engineering, University of Melbourne , Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia
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19
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Gwenzi W, Dunjana N, Pisa C, Tauro T, Nyamadzawo G. Water quality and public health risks associated with roof rainwater harvesting systems for potable supply: Review and perspectives. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.swaqe.2015.01.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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20
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Sánchez A, Cohim E, Kalid R. A review on physicochemical and microbiological contamination of roof-harvested rainwater in urban areas. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.swaqe.2015.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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21
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Lim KY, Hamilton AJ, Jiang SC. Assessment of public health risk associated with viral contamination in harvested urban stormwater for domestic applications. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2015; 523:95-108. [PMID: 25863500 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.03.077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2015] [Revised: 03/18/2015] [Accepted: 03/18/2015] [Indexed: 04/14/2023]
Abstract
Capturing stormwater is becoming a new standard for sustainable urban stormwater management, which can be used to supplement water supply portfolios in water-stressed cities. The key advantage of harvesting stormwater is to use low impact development (LID) systems for treatment to meet water quality requirement for non-potable uses. However, the lack of scientific studies to validate the safety of such practice has limited its adoption. Microbial hazards in stormwater, especially human viruses, represent the primary public health threat. Using adenovirus and norovirus as target pathogens, we investigated the viral health risk associated with a generic scenario of urban stormwater harvesting practice and its application for three non-potable uses: 1) toilet flushing, 2) showering, and 3) food-crop irrigation. The Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment (QMRA) results showed that food-crop irrigation has the highest annual viral infection risk (median range: 6.8×10(-4)-9.7×10(-1) per-person-per-year or pppy), followed by showering (3.6×10(-7)-4.3×10(-2)pppy), and toilet flushing (1.1×10(-7)-1.3×10(-4)pppy). Disease burden of each stormwater use was ranked in the same order as its viral infection risk: food-crop irrigation>showering>toilet flushing. The median and 95th percentile risk values of toilet-flushing using treated stormwater are below U.S. EPA annual risk benchmark of ≤10(-4)pppy, whereas the disease burdens of both toilet-flushing and showering are within the WHO recommended disease burdens of ≤10(-6)DALYspppy. However, the acceptability of showering risk interpreted based on the U.S. EPA and WHO benchmarks is in disagreement. These results confirm the safety of stormwater application in toilet flushing, but call for further research to fill the data gaps in risk modeling as well as risk benchmarks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keah-Ying Lim
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Irvine, CA 92617-2175, USA
| | - Andrew J Hamilton
- Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Dookie Campus, Currawa, VIC 3647, Australia; Federation University Australia, Mt Helen Campus, VIC 3353, Australia
| | - Sunny C Jiang
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Irvine, CA 92617-2175, USA.
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22
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De Keuckelaere A, Jacxsens L, Amoah P, Medema G, McClure P, Jaykus LA, Uyttendaele M. Zero Risk Does Not Exist: Lessons Learned from Microbial Risk Assessment Related to Use of Water and Safety of Fresh Produce. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 2015. [DOI: 10.1111/1541-4337.12140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Ann De Keuckelaere
- Dept. of Food Safety & Food Quality; Faculty of Bio-Science Engineering; Ghent Univ; Belgium
| | - Liesbeth Jacxsens
- Dept. of Food Safety & Food Quality; Faculty of Bio-Science Engineering; Ghent Univ; Belgium
| | - Philip Amoah
- Intl. Water Management Inst. (IWMI); Accra Ghana
| | - Gertjan Medema
- Water Quality & Health, KWR Watercycle Research Inst. and Water Management, Faculty of Civil Engineering & Geosciences; Delft Univ. of Technology; the Netherlands
| | | | | | - Mieke Uyttendaele
- Dept. of Food Safety & Food Quality; Faculty of Bio-Science Engineering; Ghent Univ; Belgium
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23
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de Man H, Bouwknegt M, van Heijnsbergen E, Leenen EJTM, van Knapen F, de Roda Husman AM. Health risk assessment for splash parks that use rainwater as source water. WATER RESEARCH 2014; 54:254-61. [PMID: 24576701 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2014.02.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2013] [Revised: 01/30/2014] [Accepted: 02/02/2014] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
In the Netherlands, rainwater becomes more and more popular as an economic and environmentally sustainable water source for splash parks, however, the associated public health risk and underlying risk factors are unknown. Since splash parks have been associated with outbreaks of infectious diseases, a quantitative microbial risk assessment was performed using Legionella pneumophila as a target pathogen to quantify the risk of infection for exposure due to inhalation and Campylobacter jejuni for ingestion. Data for L. pneumophila and C. jejuni concentrations in rainfall generated surface runoff from streets were extracted from literature. Data for exposure were obtained by observing 604 people at splash parks, of whom 259 were children. Exposure volumes were estimated using data from literature to determine the volume of exposure through inhalation at 0.394 μL/min (95% CI-range 0.0446-1.27 μL/min), hand-to-mouth contact at 22.6 μL/min, (95% CI-range 2.02-81.0 μL/min), ingestion of water droplets at 94.4 μL/min (95% CI-range 5.1-279 μL/min) and ingestion of mouthfuls of water at 21.5·10(3) μL/min (95% CI-range 1.17 ·10(3)-67.0·10(3) μL/min). The corresponding risk of infection for the mean exposure duration of 3.5 min was 9.3·10(-5) (95% CI-range 0-2.4·10(-4)) for inhalation of L. pneumophila and 3.6·10(-2) (95% CI-range 0-5.3·10(-1)) for ingestion of C. jejuni. This study provided a methodology to quantify exposure volumes using observations on site. We estimated that using rainwater as source water for splash parks may pose a health risk, however, further detailed quantitative microbial analysis is required to confirm this finding. Furthermore we give insight into the effect of water quality standards, which may limit infection risks from exposure at splash parks.
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Affiliation(s)
- H de Man
- Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
| | - M Bouwknegt
- National Institute for Public Health and The Environment, Bilthoven, The Netherlands
| | - E van Heijnsbergen
- National Institute for Public Health and The Environment, Bilthoven, The Netherlands
| | | | - F van Knapen
- Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - A M de Roda Husman
- Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands; National Institute for Public Health and The Environment, Bilthoven, The Netherlands
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