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Traore M, Zhang M, Gong A, Wang Y, Liu Y, Qiu L, Zhang Y, You Y, Bai Y, Gao G, Zhao W, Traore M, Hassan MA. Assessment of rare earth elements variations in five water systems in Beijing: Distribution, geochemical features, and fractionation patterns. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2024; 252:118842. [PMID: 38583656 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2024.118842] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2023] [Revised: 03/26/2024] [Accepted: 03/29/2024] [Indexed: 04/09/2024]
Abstract
This study investigates the distribution of rare earth elements (REEs) within the Beijing water system, specifically examining the Yongding, Chaobai, Beiyun, Jiyun, and Daqing rivers. Results indicate that the Beiyun River exhibits the highest REE concentrations, ranging from 35.95 to 59.78 μg/mL, while the Daqing River shows the lowest concentrations, ranging from 15.79 to 17.48 μg/mL. LREEs (La to Nd) predominate with a total concentration of 23.501 μg/mL, leading to a notable LREE/HREE ratio of 7.901. Positive Ce anomalies (0.70-1.11) and strong positive Eu anomalies (1.38-2.49) were observed. The study suggests that the Beijing water system's REEs may originate from geological and anthropogenic sources, such as mining and industrial activities in neighboring regions, including Inner Mongolia. These findings underscore the importance of ongoing monitoring and effective water management strategies to address REE-related environmental concerns.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mory Traore
- School of Chemistry and Biological Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing 100083, China; Beijing Key Laboratory for Science and Application of Functional Molecular and Crystalline Materials, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Min Zhang
- Baotou Water Quality Detection Technology Co., Ltd, Baotou 014000, China
| | - Aijun Gong
- School of Chemistry and Biological Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing 100083, China; Beijing Key Laboratory for Science and Application of Functional Molecular and Crystalline Materials, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing 100083, China.
| | - Yiwen Wang
- School of Chemistry and Biological Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing 100083, China; Beijing Key Laboratory for Science and Application of Functional Molecular and Crystalline Materials, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Yang Liu
- School of Chemistry and Biological Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing 100083, China; Beijing Key Laboratory for Science and Application of Functional Molecular and Crystalline Materials, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Lina Qiu
- School of Chemistry and Biological Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing 100083, China; Beijing Key Laboratory for Science and Application of Functional Molecular and Crystalline Materials, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Yuli Zhang
- School of Economics and Management, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Yueyi You
- School of Economics and Management, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Yuzhen Bai
- School of Chemistry and Biological Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing 100083, China; Beijing Key Laboratory for Science and Application of Functional Molecular and Crystalline Materials, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Ge Gao
- School of Chemistry and Biological Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing 100083, China; Beijing Key Laboratory for Science and Application of Functional Molecular and Crystalline Materials, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Weiyu Zhao
- School of Chemistry and Biological Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing 100083, China; Beijing Key Laboratory for Science and Application of Functional Molecular and Crystalline Materials, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Mariame Traore
- Guinean Agency of Environmental Evaluation (AGEE), Ministry of Environment and Durable Development, Conakry 761, Guinea
| | - Mahamat Abderamane Hassan
- School of Chemistry and Biological Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing 100083, China
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Beckner-Stetson N, Funk K, Estabrooks M, Dunn A, Doulatyari B, Barrett K, Vriens B. Water quality dynamics and underlying controls in the Halton Region, Ontario. ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AND ASSESSMENT 2024; 196:677. [PMID: 38949676 DOI: 10.1007/s10661-024-12833-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2024] [Accepted: 06/15/2024] [Indexed: 07/02/2024]
Abstract
We assessed the hydrochemistry of 15 watersheds in the Halton Region, southern Ontario, in high resolution (n > 500 samples across n > 40 streams) to characterize water quality dynamics and governing controls on major and trace element concentrations in this rapidly urbanizing region. In 2022, major water quality parameters were generally in line with historic monitoring data yet significantly different across catchments, e.g., in specific conductance, turbidity, phosphate and chloride, and trace element concentrations. Distinct hydrochemical signatures were observed between urban and rural creeks, with urban stream sections and sites near the river mouths close to Lake Ontario having consistently higher chloride (up to 700 mg/L) and occasional enrichment in nutrients levels (up to 8 and 20 mg/L phosphate and nitrate, respectively). Particularly upper reaches exhibited hydrochemical signatures that were reflective of the catchment surface lithologies, for instance through higher dissolved Ca to Mg ratios. Unlike for chloride and phosphate, provincial water quality guidelines for trace elements and heavy metals were seldom surpassed (on < 10 occasions for copper, zinc, cadmium, and uranium). Concentrations of other trace elements (e.g., platinum group elements or rare earth elements) were expectedly low (< 0.3 µg/L) but showed spatiotemporal concentration patterns and concentration-discharge dynamics different from those of the major water quality parameters. Our results help improve the understanding of surface water conditions within Halton's regional Natural Heritage Systems and demonstrate how enhanced environmental monitoring can deliver actionable information for watershed decision-making.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Kim Funk
- Halton Region Conservation Authority (Conservation Halton), Burlington, Canada
| | - Madeleine Estabrooks
- Department of Geological Sciences and Engineering, Queen's University, Kingston, Canada
| | - Andrea Dunn
- Halton Region Conservation Authority (Conservation Halton), Burlington, Canada
| | | | - Kim Barrett
- Halton Region Conservation Authority (Conservation Halton), Burlington, Canada
| | - Bas Vriens
- Department of Geological Sciences and Engineering, Queen's University, Kingston, Canada.
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3
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Price M, Tscharke B, Chappell A, Kah M, Sila-Nowicka K, Morris H, Ward D, Trowsdale S. Testing methods to estimate population size for wastewater treatment plants using census data: Implications for wastewater-based epidemiology. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 922:170974. [PMID: 38360313 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.170974] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2023] [Revised: 01/31/2024] [Accepted: 02/12/2024] [Indexed: 02/17/2024]
Abstract
In wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE), wastewater loads are commonly reported as a per capita value. Census population counts are often used to obtain a population size to normalise wastewater loads. However, the methods used to calculate the population size of wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) from census data are rarely reported in the WBE literature. This is problematic because the geographical extents of wastewater catchments and census area units rarely align perfectly with each other and exist at different spatial scales. This complicates efforts to estimate the number of people serviced by WWTPs in these census area units. This study compared four geospatial methods to combine wastewater catchment areas and census area units to calculate the census population size of wastewater treatment plants. These methods were applied nationally to WWTPs across New Zealand. Population estimates varied by up to 73 % between the methods, which could skew comparisons of per capita wastewater loads between sites. Variability in population estimates (relative standard deviation, RSD) was significantly higher in smaller catchments (rs = -0.727, P < .001), highlighting the importance of method selection in smaller sites. Census population estimates were broadly similar to those provided by wastewater operators, but significant variation was observed for some sites (ranging from 42 % lower to 78 % higher, RSD = 262 %). We present a widely applicable method to calculate population size from census, which involves disaggregating census area units by individual properties. The results reinforce the need for transparent reporting to maintain confidence in the comparison of WBE across sites and studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mackay Price
- School of Environment, University of Auckland, 23 Symonds Street, Auckland 1010, New Zealand.
| | - Ben Tscharke
- Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Sciences, University of Queensland, 20 Cornwall Street, Queensland 4102, Australia
| | - Andrew Chappell
- Institute of Environmental Science and Research Ltd., 27 Creyke Road, Christchurch 8041, New Zealand
| | - Melanie Kah
- School of Environment, University of Auckland, 23 Symonds Street, Auckland 1010, New Zealand
| | - Katarzyna Sila-Nowicka
- School of Environment, University of Auckland, 23 Symonds Street, Auckland 1010, New Zealand
| | - Helen Morris
- Institute of Environmental Science and Research Ltd., 27 Creyke Road, Christchurch 8041, New Zealand
| | - Daniel Ward
- Environment Canterbury, 200 Tuam Street, Christchurch 8011, New Zealand
| | - Sam Trowsdale
- School of Environment, University of Auckland, 23 Symonds Street, Auckland 1010, New Zealand
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4
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M A E, K K, N F, E D, M R, A F, S R, A L, K, H B, A J, E J. An assessment and characterization of pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) within the Great Lakes Basin: Mussel Watch Program (2013-2018). ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AND ASSESSMENT 2024; 196:345. [PMID: 38438687 PMCID: PMC10912168 DOI: 10.1007/s10661-023-12119-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2023] [Accepted: 11/08/2023] [Indexed: 03/06/2024]
Abstract
Defining the environmental occurrence and distribution of chemicals of emerging concern (CECs), including pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) in coastal aquatic systems, is often difficult and complex. In this study, 70 compounds representing several classes of pharmaceuticals, including antibiotics, anti-inflammatories, insect repellant, antibacterial, antidepressants, chemotherapy drugs, and X-ray contrast media compounds, were found in dreissenid mussel (zebra/quagga; Dreissena spp.) tissue samples. Overall concentration and detection frequencies varied significantly among sampling locations, site land-use categories, and sites sampled proximate and downstream of point source discharge. Verapamil, triclocarban, etoposide, citalopram, diphenhydramine, sertraline, amitriptyline, and DEET (N,N-diethyl-meta-toluamide) comprised the most ubiquitous PPCPs (> 50%) detected in dreissenid mussels. Among those compounds quantified in mussel tissue, sertraline, metformin, methylprednisolone, hydrocortisone, 1,7-dimethylxanthine, theophylline, zidovudine, prednisone, clonidine, 2-hydroxy-ibuprofen, iopamidol, and melphalan were detected at concentrations up to 475 ng/g (wet weight). Antihypertensives, antibiotics, and antidepressants accounted for the majority of the compounds quantified in mussel tissue. The results showed that PPCPs quantified in dreissenid mussels are occurring as complex mixtures, with 4 to 28 compounds detected at one or more sampling locations. The magnitude and composition of PPCPs detected were highest for sites not influenced by either WWTP or CSO discharge (i.e., non-WWTPs), strongly supporting non-point sources as important drivers and pathways for PPCPs detected in this study. As these compounds are detected at inshore and offshore locations, the findings of this study indicate that their persistence and potential risks are largely unknown, thus warranting further assessment and prioritization of these emerging contaminants in the Great Lakes Basin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edwards M A
- Monitoring and Assessment Branch, NOAA/NOS/NCCOS, 1305 East/West Highway, Silver Spring, MD, 20910, USA.
| | - Kimbrough K
- Monitoring and Assessment Branch, NOAA/NOS/NCCOS, 1305 East/West Highway, Silver Spring, MD, 20910, USA
| | - Fuller N
- CSS-Inc., Under NOAA National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science Contract No, EA133C17BA0062 & EA133C17BA0049, Fairfax, VA, USA
| | - Davenport E
- Monitoring and Assessment Branch, NOAA/NOS/NCCOS, 1305 East/West Highway, Silver Spring, MD, 20910, USA
| | - Rider M
- CSS-Inc., Under NOAA National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science Contract No, EA133C17BA0062 & EA133C17BA0049, Fairfax, VA, USA
| | - Freitag A
- Monitoring and Assessment Branch, NOAA/NOS/NCCOS, 1305 East/West Highway, Silver Spring, MD, 20910, USA
| | - Regan S
- CSS-Inc., Under NOAA National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science Contract No, EA133C17BA0062 & EA133C17BA0049, Fairfax, VA, USA
| | | | - K
- Monitoring and Assessment Branch, NOAA/NOS/NCCOS, 1305 East/West Highway, Silver Spring, MD, 20910, USA
| | - Burkart H
- CSS-Inc., Under NOAA National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science Contract No, EA133C17BA0062 & EA133C17BA0049, Fairfax, VA, USA
| | - Jacob A
- CSS-Inc., Under NOAA National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science Contract No, EA133C17BA0062 & EA133C17BA0049, Fairfax, VA, USA
| | - Johnson E
- Monitoring and Assessment Branch, NOAA/NOS/NCCOS, 1305 East/West Highway, Silver Spring, MD, 20910, USA
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5
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Junqueira TP, Araújo DF, Harrison AL, Sullivan K, Leybourne MI, Vriens B. Contrasting copper concentrations and isotopic compositions in two Great Lakes watersheds. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 904:166360. [PMID: 37595926 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.166360] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2023] [Revised: 07/18/2023] [Accepted: 08/15/2023] [Indexed: 08/20/2023]
Abstract
Copper (Cu) stable isotopes can elucidate the biogeochemical controls and sources governing Cu dynamics in aquatic environments, but their application in larger rivers and catchments remains comparatively scarce. Here, we use major and trace element hydrogeochemical data, Cu isotope analyses, and mixing modeling, to assess Cu loads and sources in two major river systems in Ontario, Canada. In both the Spanish River and Trent River catchments, aqueous hydrochemical compositions appeared reasonably consistent, but Cu concentrations were more variable spatially. In the Spanish River, waters near (historic) industrial mining activities displayed positive Cu isotope compositions (δ65CuSRM-976 between +0.75 ‰ and +1.01 ‰), but these signatures were gradually attenuated downstream by mixing with natural background waters (δ65Cu -0.65 ‰ to -0.16 ‰). In contrast, Trent River waters exhibited more irregular in-stream Cu isotope patterns (δ65Cu from -0.75 ‰ to +0.21 ‰), beyond the variability in Cu isotope signatures observed for adjacent agricultural soils (δ65Cu between -0.26 ‰ and +0.30 ‰) and lacking spatial correlation, reflective of the more diffuse sourcing and entwined endmember contributions to Cu loads in this catchment. This work shows that metal stable isotopes may improve our understanding of the sources and baseline dynamics of metals, even in large river systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tassiane P Junqueira
- Department of Geological Sciences and Geological Engineering, Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada
| | - Daniel F Araújo
- Institut Français de Recherche pour l'Exploitation de la Mer (IFREMER), Brest, France
| | - Anna L Harrison
- Geoscience Environment Toulouse, National Scientific Research Centre (CNRS), Toulouse, France
| | - Kaj Sullivan
- Department of Geological Sciences and Geological Engineering, Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada; Department of Chemistry, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Matthew I Leybourne
- Department of Geological Sciences and Geological Engineering, Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada; Arthur B. McDonald Canadian Astroparticle Physics Research Institute, Department of Physics, Engineering Physics and Astronomy, Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada
| | - Bas Vriens
- Department of Geological Sciences and Geological Engineering, Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada.
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6
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Saba B, Bharathidasan AK, Ezeji TC, Cornish K. Characterization and potential valorization of industrial food processing wastes. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 868:161550. [PMID: 36652966 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.161550] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2022] [Revised: 01/04/2023] [Accepted: 01/07/2023] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Valorization and utilization of industrial food processing waste as value added products, platform chemicals and biofuels, are needed to improve sustainability and reduce waste management costs. Various industrial food waste stream samples were characterized with respect to their physico-chemical characteristics and elemental composition. A subset of starchy food wastes and milk dust powder were evaluated in batch fermentation to acetone, a useful platform chemical. Production levels were similar to acetone produced from glucose but were achieved more quickly. Lactose concentration negatively affected fermentation and led to 50 % lower acetone concentration from milk dust powder than from starchy wastes. Uncooked starch waste can produce 20 % more acetone than cooked and modified starch waste. Fatty waste and mineral waste can be digested anaerobically generating biogas. Calorific value of soybean waste was 40 MJ/kg sufficiently high for biodiesel production. Low C/N ratios of wastewater and solids from food processing waste makes them unsuitable for anaerobic digestion but these waste types can be converted thermochemically to hydrochar and used as soil amendments. Low calorific content (10-15 MJ/kg) vegetable wastes also are not ideal for energy production, but are rich in flavonoids, antioxidants and pigments which can be extracted as valuable products. A model mapping food waste characteristics to best valorization pathway was developed to guide waste management and future cost and environmental impact analyses. These findings will help advance food industry knowledge and improve sustainable food production through valorized processing waste management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beenish Saba
- Department of Food, Agricultural and Biological Engineering, The Ohio State University, 590 Woody Hayes Drive, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
| | - Ashok K Bharathidasan
- Department of Food, Agricultural and Biological Engineering, The Ohio State University, 590 Woody Hayes Drive, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
| | - Thaddeus C Ezeji
- Department of Animal Science, Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center, CFAES Wooster Campus, The Ohio State University, 1680 Madison Avenue, Wooster, OH 44691, USA
| | - Katrina Cornish
- Department of Food, Agricultural and Biological Engineering, The Ohio State University, 590 Woody Hayes Drive, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; Department of Horticulture and Crop Science, The Ohio State University, 1680 Madison Avenue, Wooster, OH 44691, USA; Department of Food, Agricultural and Biological Engineering, The Ohio State University, 1680 Madison Avenue, Wooster, OH 44691, USA.
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Sekoai PT, Chunilall V, Sithole B, Habimana O, Ndlovu S, Ezeokoli OT, Sharma P, Yoro KO. Elucidating the Role of Biofilm-Forming Microbial Communities in Fermentative Biohydrogen Process: An Overview. Microorganisms 2022; 10:1924. [PMID: 36296200 PMCID: PMC9611361 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms10101924] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2022] [Revised: 09/20/2022] [Accepted: 09/23/2022] [Indexed: 04/13/2024] Open
Abstract
Amongst the biofuels described in the literature, biohydrogen has gained heightened attention over the past decade due to its remarkable properties. Biohydrogen is a renewable form of H2 that can be produced under ambient conditions and at a low cost from biomass residues. Innovative approaches are continuously being applied to overcome the low process yields and pave the way for its scalability. Since the process primarily depends on the biohydrogen-producing bacteria, there is a need to acquire in-depth knowledge about the ecology of the various assemblages participating in the process, establishing effective bioaugmentation methods. This work provides an overview of the biofilm-forming communities during H2 production by mixed cultures and the synergistic associations established by certain species during H2 production. The strategies that enhance the growth of biofilms within the H2 reactors are also discussed. A short section is also included, explaining techniques used for examining and studying these biofilm structures. The work concludes with some suggestions that could lead to breakthroughs in this area of research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick T. Sekoai
- Biorefinery Industry Development Facility, Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, Durban 4041, South Africa
| | - Viren Chunilall
- Biorefinery Industry Development Facility, Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, Durban 4041, South Africa
- School of Chemical Engineering, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban 4041, South Africa
| | - Bruce Sithole
- Biorefinery Industry Development Facility, Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, Durban 4041, South Africa
- School of Chemical Engineering, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban 4041, South Africa
| | - Olivier Habimana
- Department of Biotechnology and Food Engineering, Guangdong Technion-Israel Institute of Technology (GTIIT), Shantou 515063, China
| | - Sizwe Ndlovu
- Department of Biotechnology and Food Technology, Faculty of Science, University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg 2092, South Africa
| | - Obinna T. Ezeokoli
- Unit for Environmental Sciences and Management, North-West University, Potchefstroom 2520, South Africa
| | - Pooja Sharma
- Environmental Research Institute, National University of Singapore, 1 Create Way, Singapore 138602, Singapore
| | - Kelvin O. Yoro
- Energy Technologies, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
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Lanthanides Release and Partitioning in Municipal Wastewater Effluents. TOXICS 2022; 10:toxics10050254. [PMID: 35622667 PMCID: PMC9144785 DOI: 10.3390/toxics10050254] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2022] [Revised: 05/10/2022] [Accepted: 05/15/2022] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
The use of lanthanides is increasing in our society, whether in communication technologies, transportation, electronics or medical imaging. Some lanthanides enter urban wastewater and flow through municipal wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). However, little is known about the effectiveness of treatment processes to remove these elements and the concentrations released in effluents to receiving waters. The main objective of this study was to investigate the fate of lanthanides in various wastewater treatment processes. A secondary objective was to better understand the fate of medical gadolinium (Gd) complexes; anthropogenic inputs were differentiated from geological sources using an approach based on concentration normalization with respect to chondrite Post-Archean Australian Shale (PAAS). The hypothesis was that most lanthanides, especially of geological origin, are associated with the particulate phase and could be efficiently removed by WWTPs. To monitor these elements in different WWTPs, various urban influents and effluents from simple aerated lagoons to advanced treatments were sampled in Canada. The results showed that the rates of lanthanide removal by treatment processes decrease with their atomic number; from 95% for cerium (Ce) to 70% for lutetium (Lu), except for Gd, which was minimally removed. The normalization approach permitted the determination of the origin of Gd in these wastewaters, i.e., medical application versus the geological background. By distinguishing the geogenic Gd fraction from the anthropogenic one, the removal efficiency was evaluated according to the origin of the Gd; nearly 90% for geogenic Gd and a rate varying from 15% to 50% in the case of anthropogenic Gd. The processes using alum as the flocculating agent had the highest removal efficiency from wastewater.
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