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Wang Q, Huang N, Wang W, Zhang Z, Qiu Y, Chen X, Xu A, Wu Y, Chen Z, Hu H. A novel route for urea abatement in UPW production: Pre-chlorination/VUV/UV under acidic circumstances and its enhancement mechanisms. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2024; 475:134836. [PMID: 38889471 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2024.134836] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2024] [Revised: 04/26/2024] [Accepted: 06/04/2024] [Indexed: 06/20/2024]
Abstract
Urea abatement has been a prominent challenge for UPW production. This research proposed a productive strategy combining pre-chlorination and VUV/UV processes under acidic conditions to settle this problem. This study first revealed the reaction kinetics between urea and free chlorine in a large pH range from 2.5 to 9.6, where the reaction constant rate varied from 0.06 to 0.46 M-1·s-1. Substitution reaction mediated by Cl2 was the dominant process at low pH (pH<3). The differences of dominant pathways resulted in the differences in reaction products: The detected concentration of dichloramine at pH 2.5 was twice that at pH 4.5 and 6.5. Further, this study found that pre-chlorination/VUV/UV process could achieve the thorough removal of 2-mg/L urea with chlorination of less than 5 min and VUV/UV irradiation of less than 200 mJ/cm2. Chloride ions, low pH, and higher chlorine dosage were found to be the positive factors to improve urea removal efficiency in pre-chlorination/VUV/UV process. The reaction rate constants between chlorourea with·OH and·Cl were calculated to be 3.62 × 107 and 2.26 × 109 L·mol-1·s-1, respectively.·Cl,·OH and photolysis contributed 60.5 %, 22.9 % and 16.6 % in chlorourea degradation, respectively. Pre-chlorination/VUV/UV achieved a DOC removal efficiency of 78.5 %. And nitrogen in urea was converted into inorganic nitrogenous compounds. Finally, compared with direct VUV/UV/chlorine and VUV/UV/persulfate processes, this process saved more than 70 % of energy in VUV/UV unit.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qi Wang
- Environmental Simulation and Pollution Control State Key Joint Laboratory, State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Microorganism Application and Risk Control (SMARC), School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Nan Huang
- National Engineering Laboratory for Advanced Municipal Wastewater Treatment and Reuse Technology, Beijing University of Technology, Beijing 100124, China.
| | - Wenlong Wang
- Key Laboratory of Microorganism Application and Risk Control of Shenzhen, Guangdong Provincial Engineering Research Center for Urban Water Recycling and Environmental Safety, Institute of Environment and Ecology, Tsinghua Shenzhen International Graduate School, Tsinghua University, Shenzhen 518055, China
| | - Zhuowei Zhang
- Environmental Simulation and Pollution Control State Key Joint Laboratory, State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Microorganism Application and Risk Control (SMARC), School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Yu Qiu
- Environmental Simulation and Pollution Control State Key Joint Laboratory, State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Microorganism Application and Risk Control (SMARC), School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Xiaowen Chen
- Environmental Simulation and Pollution Control State Key Joint Laboratory, State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Microorganism Application and Risk Control (SMARC), School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Ao Xu
- Research Institute for Environmental Innovation (Suzhou), Tsinghua University, Suzhou 215163, China
| | - Yinhu Wu
- Environmental Simulation and Pollution Control State Key Joint Laboratory, State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Microorganism Application and Risk Control (SMARC), School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China; Beijing Laboratory for Environmental Frontier Technologies, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Zhuo Chen
- Environmental Simulation and Pollution Control State Key Joint Laboratory, State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Microorganism Application and Risk Control (SMARC), School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China; Beijing Laboratory for Environmental Frontier Technologies, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Hongying Hu
- Environmental Simulation and Pollution Control State Key Joint Laboratory, State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Microorganism Application and Risk Control (SMARC), School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China; Beijing Laboratory for Environmental Frontier Technologies, Beijing 100084, China.
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Zhang M, Wu J, Tang W, Mei J, Zhang Q, Wu J, Xu D, Liu Z, Hao F, Sheng L, Xu H. Inverted loading strategy regulates the Mn-O V-Ce sites for efficient fenton-like catalysis. J Colloid Interface Sci 2024; 668:303-318. [PMID: 38678886 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcis.2024.04.164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2024] [Revised: 04/22/2024] [Accepted: 04/23/2024] [Indexed: 05/01/2024]
Abstract
Regulating interfacial active sites to improve peroxymonosulfate (PMS) activation efficiency is a hot topic in the heterogeneous catalysis field. In this study, we develop an inverted loading strategy to engineer asymmetric Mn-OV-Ce sites for PMS activation. Mn3O4@CeO2 prepared by loading CeO2 nanoparticles onto Mn3O4 nanorods exhibits the highest catalytic activity and stability, which is due to the formation of more oxygen vacancies (OV) at the Mn-OV-Ce sites, and the surface CeO2 layer effectively inhibits corrosion by preventing the loss of manganese ion active species into the solution. In situ characterizations and density functional theory (DFT) studies have revealed effective bimetallic redox cycles at asymmetric Mn-OV-Ce active sites, which promote surface charge transfer, enhance the adsorption reaction activity of active species toward pollutants, and favor PMS activation to generate (•OH, SO4•-, O2•- and 1O2) active species. This study provides a brand-new perspective for engineering the interfacial behavior of PMS activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mengyu Zhang
- School of Chemistry and Materials Engineering, Fuyang Normal University, Fuyang, Anhui 236037, PR China
| | - Jing Wu
- School of Chemistry and Materials Engineering, Fuyang Normal University, Fuyang, Anhui 236037, PR China
| | - Wen Tang
- School of Chemistry and Materials Engineering, Fuyang Normal University, Fuyang, Anhui 236037, PR China
| | - Jinfei Mei
- School of Chemistry and Materials Engineering, Fuyang Normal University, Fuyang, Anhui 236037, PR China
| | - Qian Zhang
- School of Chemistry and Materials Engineering, Fuyang Normal University, Fuyang, Anhui 236037, PR China
| | - Junrong Wu
- School of Chemistry and Materials Engineering, Fuyang Normal University, Fuyang, Anhui 236037, PR China
| | - Deyun Xu
- School of Chemistry and Materials Engineering, Fuyang Normal University, Fuyang, Anhui 236037, PR China
| | - Zhaodi Liu
- School of Chemistry and Materials Engineering, Fuyang Normal University, Fuyang, Anhui 236037, PR China.
| | - Fuying Hao
- School of Chemistry and Materials Engineering, Fuyang Normal University, Fuyang, Anhui 236037, PR China
| | - Liangquan Sheng
- School of Chemistry and Materials Engineering, Fuyang Normal University, Fuyang, Anhui 236037, PR China
| | - Huajie Xu
- School of Chemistry and Materials Engineering, Fuyang Normal University, Fuyang, Anhui 236037, PR China.
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Guo K, Liu Y, Peng J, Qi W, Liu H. Chlorination of antiviral drug ribavirin: Kinetics, nontargeted identification, and concomitant toxicity evolution. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2024; 467:133478. [PMID: 38359766 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2024.133478] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2023] [Revised: 12/15/2023] [Accepted: 01/07/2024] [Indexed: 02/17/2024]
Abstract
Residual antiviral drugs in wastewater may increase the risk of generating transformation products (TPs) during wastewater treatment. Therefore, chlorination behavior and toxicity evolution are essential to understand the secondary ecological risk associated with their TPs. Herein, chlorination kinetics, transformation pathways, and secondary risks of ribavirin (RBV), one of the most commonly used broad-spectrum antivirals, were investigated. The pH-dependent second-order rate constants k increased from 0.18 M-1·s-1 (pH 5.8) to 1.53 M-1·s-1 (pH 8.0) due to neutral RBV and ClO- as dominant species. 12 TPs were identified using high-resolution mass spectrometry in a nontargeted approach, of which 6 TPs were reported for the first time, and their chlorination pathways were elucidated. The luminescence inhibition rate of Vibrio fischeri exposed to chlorinated RBV solution was positively correlated with initial free active chlorine, probably due to the accumulation of toxic TPs. Quantitative structure-activity relationship prediction identified 7 TPs with elevated toxicity, concentrating on developmental toxicity and bioconcentration factors, which explained the increased toxicity of chlorinated RBV. Overall, this study highlights the urgent need to minimize the discharge of toxic chlorinated TPs into aquatic environments and contributes to environmental risk control in future pandemics and regions with high consumption of antivirals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kehui Guo
- Center for Water and Ecology, State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control, School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Yang Liu
- Center for Water and Ecology, State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control, School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Jianfeng Peng
- Center for Water and Ecology, State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control, School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Weixiao Qi
- Center for Water and Ecology, State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control, School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Huijuan Liu
- Center for Water and Ecology, State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control, School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China.
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Liu T, Xiao S, Li N, Chen J, Xu Y, Yin W, Zhou X, Huang CH, Zhang Y. Selective Transformation of Micropollutants in Saline Wastewater by Peracetic Acid: The Overlooked Brominating Agents. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2023; 57:18940-18949. [PMID: 37207368 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.3c00835] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Peracetic acid (PAA) is an emerging alternative disinfectant for saline waters; HOBr or HOCl is known as the sole species contributing to halogenation reactions during PAA oxidation and disinfection. However, new results herein strongly indicated that the brominating agents (e.g., BrCl, Br2, BrOCl, and Br2O) are generated at concentrations typically lower than HOCl and HOBr but played significant roles in micropollutants transformation. The presence of Cl- and Br- at environmentally relevant levels could greatly accelerate the micropollutants (e.g., 17α-ethinylestraiol (EE2)) transformation by PAA. The kinetic model and quantum chemical calculations collectively indicated that the reactivities of bromine species toward EE2 follow the order of BrCl > Br2 > BrOCl > Br2O > HOBr. In saline waters with elevated Cl- and Br- levels, these overlooked brominating agents influence bromination rates of more nucleophilic constituents of natural organic matter and increase the total organic bromine. Overall, this work refines our knowledge regarding the species-specific reactivity of brominating agents and highlights the critical roles of these agents in micropollutant abatement and disinfection byproduct formation during PAA oxidation and disinfection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tongcai Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, P. R. China
| | - Shaoze Xiao
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, P. R. China
| | - Nan Li
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, P. R. China
| | - Jiabin Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, P. R. China
| | - Yao Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, P. R. China
| | - Wenjun Yin
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, P. R. China
| | - Xuefei Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, P. R. China
| | - Ching-Hua Huang
- School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332, United States
| | - Yalei Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, P. R. China
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Chen S, Zhao Z, Cui F, Liu B. Comparative study of UV/chlorine and VUV/chlorine as ultrafiltration membrane pretreatment techniques: Performance, mechanisms and DBPs formation. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2023; 459:132249. [PMID: 37567139 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2023.132249] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2023] [Revised: 07/27/2023] [Accepted: 08/06/2023] [Indexed: 08/13/2023]
Abstract
Membrane fouling, primarily resulting from natural organic matter (NOM) widely existing in water sources, has always been a chief hindrance for the prevalent application of ultrafiltration (UF). Thus, vacuum ultraviolet (VUV)/chlorine process was proposed as a strategy for UF membrane fouling control and ultraviolet (UV)/chlorine process was used for comparison. VUV/chlorine process exhibited more excellent performance on NOM removal than UV/chlorine process. [HO•]ss and [Cl•]ss were calculated as 1.26 × 10-13 and 3.06 × 10-14 M, respectively, and ClO• might not exist under the conditions of 0.08 mM chlorine and 30 min VUV irradiation. [HO•]ss, [Cl•]ss and [ClO•]ss were not available and the formation of reactive radicals was unsustainable in UV/chlorine system. Moreover, VUV/chlorine pretreatment also showed better performance on the reversible and irreversible membrane fouling control than UV/chlorine pretreatment. The dominated fouling mechanism in the final stage of filtration was cake filtration. Additionally, the amount of detected disinfection by-products (DBPs) in VUV/chlorine system was significantly lower than that in UV/chlorine system. During subsequent chlorination disinfection, the yield of DBPs with VUV/chorine pretreatment was higher than that with UV/chlorine pretreatment. VUV/chlorine pretreatment could effectively control DBPs formation when the pretreatment time was extended to 120 min. In summary, VUV/chlorine system presented a most excellent performance on membrane fouling control, NOM degradation and DBPs control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shengnan Chen
- College of Environment and Ecology, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400045, PR China; Key Laboratory of the Three Gorges Reservoir Region's Eco-environment, Ministry of Education, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400045, PR China
| | - Zhiwei Zhao
- College of Environment and Ecology, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400045, PR China; Key Laboratory of the Three Gorges Reservoir Region's Eco-environment, Ministry of Education, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400045, PR China.
| | - Fuyi Cui
- College of Environment and Ecology, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400045, PR China; Key Laboratory of the Three Gorges Reservoir Region's Eco-environment, Ministry of Education, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400045, PR China
| | - Bingyan Liu
- College of Environment and Ecology, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400045, PR China; Key Laboratory of the Three Gorges Reservoir Region's Eco-environment, Ministry of Education, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400045, PR China
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Chen X, Huang S, Chen X, Du L, Wang Z, Liang Y, Zhang W, Feng J. Novel insights into impacts of the "7.20" extreme rainstorm event on water supply security of Henan Province, China: Levels and health risks of tap water disinfection by-products. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2023; 452:131323. [PMID: 37004439 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2023.131323] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2022] [Revised: 03/12/2023] [Accepted: 03/29/2023] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Spatial distributions, levels, and comprehensive assessments of post-flood tap water disinfection by-products (DBPs) were first studied in Henan Province after the "7.20" Extreme Rainstorm Event in 2021. DBPs levels and health risks in tap water were higher in areas flooded (waterlogged) by storm or upstream flood discharge (WA) and rainstorm-affected areas (RA) compared with other areas (OA), suggesting that extreme rainstorm and flooding events may somehow exacerbate DBPs contamination of tap water through disinfection. WA sites were characterized as contamination hotspots. The results revealed high haloacetic acids (HAAs) levels in WA (Avg: 57.79 μg·L-1) and RA (Avg: 32.63 μg·L-1) sites. Compared with normal period, DBPs-caused cancer risk increased by 3 times, exceeding the negligible risk level. Cancer risk came primarily from the ingestion of trihalomethanes (THMs) (>80%), children were the sensitive group. Those between 30 and 69 showed approximately 1.7 times higher disability-adjusted life yearsper person-yearthan other age groups. Apart from regulated DBPs, bromochloracetic acid (BCAA) and dibromoacetonitrile (DBAN) appear to be the main toxicity contributors in these samples. Our results provide a scientific basis for preventing and controlling health risks from tap water DBPs and for assessing the social benefits and burdens of emergency disinfection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xing Chen
- School of Environmental Engineering, Yellow River Conservancy Technical Institute, Henan Engineering Technology Research Center of Green Coating Materials, Kaifeng Key Laboratory of Food Compositionand Quality Assessment, Kaifeng, Henan 475000, PR China
| | - Shuai Huang
- School of Environmental Engineering, Yellow River Conservancy Technical Institute, Henan Engineering Technology Research Center of Green Coating Materials, Kaifeng Key Laboratory of Food Compositionand Quality Assessment, Kaifeng, Henan 475000, PR China
| | - Xing Chen
- School of Energy and Environmental Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing 100083, PR China
| | - Lingnan Du
- School of Environmental Engineering, Yellow River Conservancy Technical Institute, Henan Engineering Technology Research Center of Green Coating Materials, Kaifeng Key Laboratory of Food Compositionand Quality Assessment, Kaifeng, Henan 475000, PR China
| | - Zongwu Wang
- School of Environmental Engineering, Yellow River Conservancy Technical Institute, Henan Engineering Technology Research Center of Green Coating Materials, Kaifeng Key Laboratory of Food Compositionand Quality Assessment, Kaifeng, Henan 475000, PR China
| | - Yingying Liang
- School of Environmental Engineering, Yellow River Conservancy Technical Institute, Henan Engineering Technology Research Center of Green Coating Materials, Kaifeng Key Laboratory of Food Compositionand Quality Assessment, Kaifeng, Henan 475000, PR China
| | - Wan Zhang
- School of Environmental Engineering, Yellow River Conservancy Technical Institute, Henan Engineering Technology Research Center of Green Coating Materials, Kaifeng Key Laboratory of Food Compositionand Quality Assessment, Kaifeng, Henan 475000, PR China
| | - Jinglan Feng
- School of Environment, Henan Normal University, Key Laboratory for Yellow River and Huai River Water Environment and Pollution Control, Ministry of Education, Henan Key Laboratory for Environmental Pollution Control, Xinxiang, Henan 453007, PR China.
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Wang A, Zhu BZ, Huang CH, Zhang WX, Wang M, Li X, Ling L, Ma J, Fang J. Generation mechanism of singlet oxygen from the interaction of peroxymonosulfate and chloride in aqueous systems. WATER RESEARCH 2023; 235:119904. [PMID: 36989807 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2023.119904] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2022] [Revised: 02/27/2023] [Accepted: 03/20/2023] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
Peroxymonosulfate (PMS, HSO5-) is a widely-used disinfectant and oxidant in environmental remediation. It was deemed that PMS reacted with chloride (Cl-) to form free chlorine during water purification. Here, we demonstrated that singlet oxygen (1O2) was efficiently generated from PMS and Cl- interaction. Mechanism of 1O2 formation was uniquely verified by the reaction of HSO5- and chlorine molecule (Cl2) and the oxygen atoms in 1O2 deriving from the peroxide group of HSO5- were revealed. Density functional theory calculations determined that the reaction of HSO5- and Cl2 was thermodynamically favorable and exergonic at 37.8 kcal/mol. Quite intriguingly, 1O2 was generated at a higher yield (1.5 × 105 M - 1 s - 1) than in the well-known reaction of H2O2 with Cl2 (35 M - 1 s - 1). Besides chlorine, 1O2 formed in PMS-Cl- interaction dominated the degradation of micropollutants, also it substantially enhanced the damage of deoxynucleoside in DNA, which were beneficial to micropollutant oxidation and pathogen disinfection. The contribution of 1O2 for carbamazepine degradation was enhanced at higher Cl- level and lower pH, and reached 96.3% at pH 4.1 and 5 min. Natural organic matter (NOM) was a sink for chlorine, thereby impeding 1O2 formation to retard carbamazepine degradation. 1O2 also played important roles (48.3 - 63.5%) on the abatement of deoxyguanosine and deoxythymidine at pH 4.1 and 10 min in PMS/Cl-. On the other hand, this discovery also alerted the harm of 1O2 for human health as it can be formed during the interaction of residual PMS in drinking water/swimming pools and the high-level Cl- in human bodies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Wang
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution Control and Remediation Technology, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Sun Yat-Sen University, 510275 Guangzhou, China; Guangdong Environmental Protection Research Institute Co., Ltd., 510080 Guangzhou, China
| | - Ben-Zhan Zhu
- Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences and University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100085 Beijing, China
| | - Chun-Hua Huang
- Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences and University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100085 Beijing, China
| | - Wei-Xian Zhang
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, 200092 Shanghai, China
| | - Mengye Wang
- School of Materials, Sun Yat-Sen University, 518107 Shenzhen, China
| | - Xuchun Li
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Zhejiang Gongshang University, 310018 Hangzhou, China
| | - Li Ling
- Advanced Interdisciplinary Institute of Environment and Ecology, Beijing Normal University, 519087 Zhuhai, China
| | - Jun Ma
- School of Municipal and Environmental Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, 150090 Harbin, China
| | - Jingyun Fang
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution Control and Remediation Technology, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Sun Yat-Sen University, 510275 Guangzhou, China.
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