Patient-Specific Actual-Size Three-Dimensional Printed Models for Patient Education in Glioma Treatment: First Experiences

Exploring methods of improving patient understanding and communication in a complex anal fistula clinic: results from a randomized controlled feasibility study

AIM

Patient understanding of disease can guide decision-making in the management of anal fistula. This prospective feasibility study aimed to assess the acceptability and methods of assessing the impact of viewing realistic models on patients with anal fistula.

METHODS

New referrals to a tertiary clinic participated in this single-centre, parallel-group randomized controlled study. Baseline characteristics, Decisional Conflict Scale and understanding of disease were assessed pre-consultation. Participants were randomized to a standard consultation, where disease and treatment options were explained using magnetic resonance images and drawn diagrams, or a similar consultation supplemented with an appropriate generic three-dimensional (3D) printed model. Understanding of disease and proposed surgery, Decisional Conflict Scale and ratings of visual aids were assessed post-consultation, along with 3D model feedback.

RESULTS

All 52 patients who were approached agreed to be randomized (25 standard, 27 3D consultation). Understanding of disease increased post-consultation in both groups. Post-consultation decisional conflict (0, no; 100, high decisional conflict) was low (median 27 post-standard vs. 24 post-3D consultation). Patients scored highly on measures assessing understanding of proposed surgery. 3D models were rated highly, with 96% of patients wanting to see them again in future consultations.

CONCLUSIONS

Three-dimensional printed fistula models are a welcome addition to outpatient consultations with results suggesting that understanding of surgery is improved. A future trial should be powered to detect whether 3D models result in a significant improvement in understanding beyond traditional methods of explanation and explore the conditions in which models have their maximal utility.

CLINICALTRIALS

GOV REGISTRATION ID

This study was registered on ClinicalTrials.gov (ID: NCT04069728). Registered on 23 August 2019.

Towards Precision Ophthalmology: The Role of 3D Printing and Bioprinting in Oculoplastic Surgery, Retinal, Corneal, and Glaucoma Treatment

In the forefront of ophthalmic innovation, biomimetic 3D printing and bioprinting technologies are redefining patient-specific therapeutic strategies. This critical review systematically evaluates their application spectrum, spanning oculoplastic reconstruction, retinal tissue engineering, corneal transplantation, and targeted glaucoma treatments. It highlights the intricacies of these technologies, including the fundamental principles, advanced materials, and bioinks that facilitate the replication of ocular tissue architecture. The synthesis of primary studies from 2014 to 2023 provides a rigorous analysis of their evolution and current clinical implications. This review is unique in its holistic approach, juxtaposing the scientific underpinnings with clinical realities, thereby delineating the advantages over conventional modalities, and identifying translational barriers. It elucidates persistent knowledge deficits and outlines future research directions. It ultimately accentuates the imperative for multidisciplinary collaboration to enhance the clinical integration of these biotechnologies, culminating in a paradigm shift towards individualized ophthalmic care.

First experiences of a hospital-based 3D printing facility - an analytical observational study

PURPOSE

To identify the clinical impact and potential benefits of in-house 3D-printed objects through a questionnaire, focusing on three principal areas: patient education; interdisciplinary cooperation; preoperative planning and perioperative execution.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Questionnaires were sent from January 2021 to August 2022. Participants were directed to rate on a scale from 1 to 10.

RESULTS

The response rate was 43%. The results of the rated questions are averages. 84% reported using 3D-printed objects in informing the patient about their condition/procedure. Clinician-reported improvement in patient understanding of their procedure/disease was 8.1. The importance of in-house placement was rated 9.2. 96% reported using the 3D model to confer with colleagues. Delay in treatment due to 3D printing lead-time was 1.8. The degree with which preoperative planning was altered was 6.9. The improvement in clinician perceived preoperative confidence was 8.3. The degree with which the scope of the procedure was affected, in regard to invasiveness, was 5.6, wherein a score of 5 is taken to mean unchanged. Reduction in surgical duration was rated 5.7.

CONCLUSION

Clinicians report the utilization of 3D printing in surgical specialties improves procedures pre- and intraoperatively, has a potential for increasing patient engagement and insight, and in-house location of a 3D printing center results in improved interdisciplinary cooperation and allows broader access with only minimal delay in treatment due to lead-time.

Advanced Strategies for the Fabrication of Multi-Material Anatomical Models of Complex Pediatric Oncologic Cases

The printing and manufacturing of anatomical 3D models has gained popularity in complex surgical cases for surgical planning, simulation and training, the evaluation of anatomical relations, medical device testing and patient-professional communication. 3D models provide the haptic feedback that Virtual or Augmented Reality (VR/AR) cannot provide. However, there are many technologies and strategies for the production of 3D models. Therefore, the aim of the present study is to show and compare eight different strategies for the manufacture of surgical planning and training prototypes. The eight strategies for creating complex abdominal oncological anatomical models, based on eight common pediatric oncological cases, were developed using four common technologies (stereolithography (SLA), selectie laser sinterning (SLS), fused filament fabrication (FFF) and material jetting (MJ)) along with indirect and hybrid 3D printing methods. Nine materials were selected for their properties, with the final models assessed for application suitability, production time, viscoelastic mechanical properties (shore hardness and elastic modulus) and cost. The manufacturing and post-processing of each strategy is assessed, with times ranging from 12 h (FFF) to 61 h (hybridization of FFF and SLS), as labor times differ significantly. Cost per model variation is also significant, ranging from EUR 80 (FFF) to EUR 600 (MJ). The main limitation is the mimicry of physiological properties. Viscoelastic properties and the combination of materials, colors and textures are also substantially different according to the strategy and the intended use. It was concluded that MJ is the best overall option, although its use in hospitals is limited due to its cost. Consequently, indirect 3D printing could be a solid and cheaper alternative.

Clinical situations for which 3D printing is considered an appropriate representation or extension of data contained in a medical imaging examination: neurosurgical and otolaryngologic conditions

BACKGROUND

Medical three dimensional (3D) printing is performed for neurosurgical and otolaryngologic conditions, but without evidence-based guidance on clinical appropriateness. A writing group composed of the Radiological Society of North America (RSNA) Special Interest Group on 3D Printing (SIG) provides appropriateness recommendations for neurologic 3D printing conditions.

METHODS

A structured literature search was conducted to identify all relevant articles using 3D printing technology associated with neurologic and otolaryngologic conditions. Each study was vetted by the authors and strength of evidence was assessed according to published guidelines.

RESULTS

Evidence-based recommendations for when 3D printing is appropriate are provided for diseases of the calvaria and skull base, brain tumors and cerebrovascular disease. Recommendations are provided in accordance with strength of evidence of publications corresponding to each neurologic condition combined with expert opinion from members of the 3D printing SIG.

CONCLUSIONS

This consensus guidance document, created by the members of the 3D printing SIG, provides a reference for clinical standards of 3D printing for neurologic conditions.

Rhabdomyosarcoma: Current Therapy, Challenges, and Future Approaches to Treatment Strategies

Rhabdomyosarcoma is a rare cancer arising in skeletal muscle that typically impacts children and young adults. It is a worldwide challenge in child health as treatment outcomes for metastatic and recurrent disease still pose a major concern for both basic and clinical scientists. The treatment strategies for rhabdomyosarcoma include multi-agent chemotherapies after surgical resection with or without ionization radiotherapy. In this comprehensive review, we first provide a detailed clinical understanding of rhabdomyosarcoma including its classification and subtypes, diagnosis, and treatment strategies. Later, we focus on chemotherapy strategies for this childhood sarcoma and discuss the impact of three mechanisms that are involved in the chemotherapy response including apoptosis, macro-autophagy, and the unfolded protein response. Finally, we discuss in vivo mouse and zebrafish models and in vitro three-dimensional bioengineering models of rhabdomyosarcoma to screen future therapeutic approaches and promote muscle regeneration.

Learning by drawing and modeling: Teaching modalities for spinal anatomy in medical students

Ongoing research has attempted to discern the optimal way to teach surgical anatomy. This study investigated the relative effectiveness of drawing and clay modeling on learning spinal anatomy among medical students. Participants were recruited from a first-year medical school class to participate in an optional educational session in their regular course schedule. Seventy-eight students participated, and 62 completed pre- and post-session tests. Participants were randomized to one of three groups, either learning spinal anatomy by (1) drawing, (2) clay modeling, or (3) reviewing a 3D anatomy application (control). All groups referenced the anatomy application; the control group had no additional learning modality. Students had 15 min to learn major anatomical structures in the lumbar spine according to their assigned modality. Learning was evaluated in terms of score differential on pre- and post-session anatomy tests, with questions focused on anatomy applied in different contexts such as pathophysiology and radiology. Improved pre- to posttest scores were expected for the drawing and modeling groups compared to control. On average, the drawing group's scores significantly improved by 11% from pre- to posttest. Scores in the clay and control groups did not significantly improve. Drawing is thus an effective strategy for learning basic and applied spinal anatomy, and drawing and clay modeling (with adequate time) may be useful for teaching medical students to apply surgical anatomical knowledge in various contexts. These modalities are generalizable to any surgical anatomical education, and should be further explored among surgical residents given their efficacy, feasibility, and minimal use of resources.

Augmented reality-The way forward in patient education for intracranial aneurysms? A qualitative exploration of views, expectations and preferences of patients suffering from an unruptured intracranial aneurysm regarding augmented reality in patient education

Objectives: The goal of this project is to explore the views, expectations and preferences of patients with an unruptured intracranial aneurysm regarding the use of AR in patient education. Methods: To gain an in-depth understanding of the patients' perspective, a face-to-face interview study was conducted using an interview protocol with a predefined topic list. All interviews were audio-recorded and transcribed verbatim afterwards. Transcripts were analyzed using thematic content analyses. Coding was performed using Atlas.ti software. Results: Seventeen interviews were conducted. The views, expectations and preferences of patients regarding patient education with AR could be subdivided into 15 categories, which could be grouped into 4 general themes: 1) experiences with current patient education, 2) expectations of AR in patient education, 3) opportunities and limitations of AR, and 4) out-of-hospital use of an AR application. Patients' expectations were predominantly positive regarding improving patients' understanding of their medical situation and doctor-patient communication. Discusssion: This study suggests that patients with unruptured intracranial aneurysms are open to receive patient education regarding their disease with AR. Patients expect that AR models can help patients with intra-cranial aneurysms better understand their disease, treatment options and risks. Additionally, patients expect AR could improve doctor-patient communication.

Views on Augmented Reality, Virtual Reality, and 3D Printing in Modern Medicine and Education: A Qualitative Exploration of Expert Opinion

Although an increased usage and development of 3D technologies is observed in healthcare over the last decades, full integration of these technologies remains challenging. The goal of this project is to qualitatively explore challenges, pearls, and pitfalls of AR/VR/3D printing applications usage in the medical field of a university medical center. Two rounds of face-to-face interviews were conducted using a semi-structured protocol. First an explorative round was held, interviewing medical specialists (8), PhD students (7), 3D technology specialists (5), and university teachers (3). In the second round, twenty employees in high executive functions of relevant departments were interviewed on seven statements that resulted from the first interviewing round. Data analysis was performed using direct content analyses. The first interviewing round resulted in challenges and opportunities in 3D technology usage that were grouped in 5 themes: aims of using AR/VR/3D printing (1), data acquisition (2), data management plans (3), software packages and segmentation tools (4), and output data and reaching end-user (5). The second interviewing round resulted in an overview of ideas and insights on centralization of knowledge, improving implementation of 3D technology in daily healthcare, reimbursement of 3D technologies, recommendations for further studies, and requirement of using certified software. An overview of challenges and opportunities of 3D technologies in healthcare was provided. Well-designed studies on clinical effectiveness, implementation and cost-effectiveness are warranted for further implementation into the clinical setting.

Personalized surgical informed consent with stereoscopic visualization in neurosurgery-real benefit for the patient or unnecessary gimmick?

BACKGROUND

Informed consent of the patient prior to surgical procedures is obligatory. A good and informative communication improves patients' understanding and confidence, thus may strengthen the patient-doctor relationship. The aim of our study was to investigate the usefulness of additional stereoscopic visualization of patient-specific imaging during informed consent conversation.

METHODS

Patients scheduled for a brain tumor surgery were screened for this study prospectively. The primary exclusion criteria were cognitive or visual impairments. The participants were randomized into two groups. The first group underwent a conventional surgical informed consent performed by a neurosurgeon including a demonstration of the individual MRI on a 2D computer screen. The second group received an additional stereoscopic visualization of the same imaging to explain the pathology more in-depth. The patients were then asked to fill in a questionnaire after each part. This questionnaire was designed to assess the potential information gained from the patients with details on the anatomical location of the tumor as well as the surgical procedure and possible complications. Patients' subjective impression about the informed consent was assessed using a 5-point Likert scale.

RESULTS

A total of 27 patients were included in this study. After additional stereoscopic visualization, no significant increase in patient understanding was found for either objective criteria or subjective assessment. Participants' anxiety was not increased by stereoscopic visualization. Overall, patients perceived stereoscopic imaging as helpful from a subjective perspective. Confidence in the department was high in both groups.

CONCLUSION

Stereoscopic visualization of MRI images within informed consent conversation did not improve the objective understanding of the patients in our series. Although no objective anatomical knowledge gain was noted in this series, patients felt that the addition of stereoscopic visualization improved their overall understanding. It therefore potentially increases patient confidence in treatment decisions.

Exploring the value of three-dimensional printing and virtualization in paediatric healthcare: A multi-case quality improvement study

Background

Three-dimensional printing is being utilized in clinical medicine to support activities including surgical planning, education, and medical device fabrication. To better understand the impacts of this technology, a survey was implemented with radiologists, specialist physicians, and surgeons at a tertiary care hospital in Canada, examining multidimensional value and considerations for uptake.

Objectives

To examine how three-dimensional printing can be integrated into the paediatric context and highlight areas of impact and value to the healthcare system using Kirkpatrick's Model. Secondarily, to explore the perspective of clinicians utilizing three-dimensional models and how they make decisions about whether or not to use the technology in patient care.

Methods

A post-case survey. Descriptive statistics are provided for Likert-style questions, and a thematic analysis was conducted to identify common patterns in open-ended responses.

Results

In total, 37 respondents were surveyed across 19 clinical cases, providing their perspectives on model reaction, learning, behaviour, and results. We found surgeons and specialists to consider the models more beneficial than radiologists. Results further showed that the models were more helpful when used to assess the likelihood of success or failure of clinical management strategies, and for intraoperative orientation. We demonstrate that three-dimensional printed models could improve perioperative metrics, including a reduction in operating room time, but with a reciprocal effect on pre-procedural planning time. Clinicians who shared the models with patients and families thought it increased understanding of the disease and surgical procedure, and had no effect on their consultation time.

Conclusions

Three-dimensional printing and virtualization were used in preoperative planning and for communication among the clinical care team, trainees, patients, and families. Three-dimensional models provide multidimensional value to clinical teams, patients, and the health system. Further investigation is warranted to assess value in other clinical areas, across disciplines, and from a health economics and outcomes perspective.

Brain Tumor at Diagnosis: From Cognition and Behavior to Quality of Life

BACKGROUND

The present narrative review aims to discuss cognitive-emotional-behavioral symptoms in adults with brain tumors at the time of diagnosis.

METHODS

The PubMed database was searched considering glioma, pituitary adenoma, and meningioma in adulthood as pathologies, together with cognitive, neuropsychological, or behavioral aspects.

RESULTS

Although a significant number of studies describe cognitive impairment after surgery or treatment in adults with brain tumors, only few focus on cognitive-emotional-behavioral symptoms at diagnosis. Furthermore, the importance of an effective communication and its impact on patients' quality of life and compliance with treatment are seldom discussed.

CONCLUSIONS

Adults with brain tumors have needs in terms of cognitive-emotional-behavioral features that are detectable at the time of diagnosis; more research is needed to identify effective communication protocols in order to allow a higher perceived quality of life in these patients.

New perspectives in patient education for cardiac surgery using 3D-printing and virtual reality

Background

Preoperative anxiety in cardiac surgery can lead to prolonged hospital stays and negative postoperative outcomes. An improved patient education using 3D models may reduce preoperative anxiety and risks associated with it.

Methods

Patient education was performed with standardized paper-based methods (n = 34), 3D-printed models (n = 34) or virtual reality models (n = 31). Anxiety and procedural understanding were evaluated using questionnaires prior to and after the patient education. Additionally, time spent for the education and overall quality were evaluated among further basic characteristics (age, gender, medical expertise, previous non-cardiac surgery and previously informed patients). Included surgeries were coronary artery bypass graft, surgical aortic valve replacement and thoracic aortic aneurysm surgery.

Results

A significant reduction in anxiety measured by Visual Analog Scale was achieved after patient education with virtual reality models (5.00 to 4.32, Δ-0.68, p < 0.001). Procedural knowledge significantly increased for every group after the patient education while the visualization and satisfaction were best rated for patient education with virtual reality. Patients rated the quality of the patient education using both visualization methods individually [3D and virtual reality (VR) models] higher compared to the control group of conventional paper-sheets (control paper-sheets: 86.32 ± 11.89%, 3D: 94.12 ± 9.25%, p < 0.0095, VR: 92.90 ± 11.01%, p < 0.0412).

Conclusion

Routine patient education with additional 3D models can significantly improve the patients' satisfaction and reduce subjective preoperative anxiety effectively.

The Role of Three-dimensional Printed Models in Women's Health

Three-dimensional printing is an innovative technology that has gained prominence in recent years due to its attractive features such as affordability, efficiency, and quick production. The technology is used to produce a three-dimensional model by depositing materials in layers using specific printers. In the medical field, it has been increasingly used in various specialties, including neurosurgery, cardiology, and orthopedics, most commonly for the pre-planning of complex surgeries. In addition, it has been applied in therapeutic treatments, patient education, and training wof medical professionals. In the field of obstetrics and gynecology, there is a limited number of studies in which three-dimensional printed models were applied. In this review, we aim to provide an overview of three-dimensional printing applications in the medical field, highlighting the few reported applications in obstetrics and gynecology. We also review all relevant studies and discuss the current challenges and limitations of adopting the technology in routine clinical practice. The technology has the potential to expand for wider applications related to women's health, including patient counseling, surgical training, and medical education.

Utility of 3-dimensionally printed models for parent education in pediatric plagiocephaly

Objectives

Demonstrate the benefits of using 3D printed skull models when counseling families regarding disorders of the cranial vault (namely plagiocephaly and craniosynostosis), as traditional imaging review and discussion is often insufficient.

Methods

3D printed skull models of a patient with plagiocephaly were used during clinic appointments to aid in the counseling of parents. Surveys were distributed following the appointment to evaluate the utility of these models during the discussion.

Results

Fifty surveys were distributed (with a 98% response rate). 3D models were both empirically and anecdotally helpful for parents in understanding their child's diagnosis.

Conclusion

Advances in 3D printing technology and software have made producing models more accessible. Incorporating physical, disorder-specific models into our discussions has led to improvements in our ability to communicate with our patients and their families.

Innovation

Disorders of the cranial can be challenging to describe to the parents and guardians of affected children; using 3D printed models is a useful adjunct in patient-centered discussions. The subject response to the use of these emerging technologies in this setting suggests a major role for 3D models in patient education and counseling for cranial vault disorders.

The role and effectiveness of augmented reality in patient education: A systematic review of the literature

OBJECTIVES

To provide an overview of the existing research concerning the use and effects of AR in patient education.

METHODS

Following PRISMA guidelines four electronic databases were systematically searched.

INCLUSION CRITERIA

empirical studies using any type of AR intervention in patient education across all medical specialties. Quality assessment of the retrieved literature was carried out.

RESULTS

Ten papers, comprising 788 patients, were identified and included (Randomized controlled trial (RCT)(n = 3), non-randomized controlled trial (n = 3), before-and-after study (n = 3), and qualitative survey (n = 1)). Retrieved literature showed itself to be highly heterogeneous. The studied population included patients suffering from a diverse spectrum of chronic diseases (e.g., prostate cancer, diabetes mellitus, multiple sclerosis, epilepsy). Quantitative results indicated that the use of AR had a positive effect on knowledge retention and patient satisfaction. Qualitative findings suggested that patients liked the technology and felt comfortable with its use for educational purposes. The quality of the retrieved results was shown to be moderate to low.

CONCLUSION

The limited evidence of this topic suggests the possible potential of AR in patient education.

PRACTICE IMPLICATION

More research, using high-quality study designs and more evidence-based interventions, is needed to fully appreciate the value of AR on patient education.

Development of a Patient Decision Aid to Support Shared Decision Making for Patients with Recurrent High-Grade Glioma

When high-grade gliomas recur, patients, their families, and clinicians face difficult medical decisions. There is no curable treatment, and the treatment options all come with a risk of complications and adverse effects. The patients are often cognitively affected, and they need tailored decision support. The objective of this study was to develop a patient decision aid (PtDA) targeted at patients with recurrent high-grade gliomas. Based on existing knowledge and the International Patient Decision Aids Standards, the PtDA was developed through an iterative process. The PtDA was alpha-tested by potential users to assess its acceptability and usability. The development team comprised three clinicians, two patients, two family members, and a researcher. The fifth version of the PtDA was submitted to the alpha test. Eleven patients, nine family members, and eleven clinicians assessed the PtDA and found it acceptable. Three changes were made during the alpha test. Most participants perceived the PtDA to prepare patients for decision making and improve consultations. The involvement of potential users was emphasized during the development and alpha test process. The PtDA was assessed as useful and acceptable by patients, family members, and clinicians in the decision-making situation of recurrent high-grade glioma.

A Minireview on Brain Models Simulating Geometrical, Physical, and Biochemical Properties of the Human Brain

There is a growing body of evidences that brain surrogates will be of great interest for researchers and physicians in the medical field. They are currently mainly used for education and training purposes or to verify the appropriate functionality of medical devices. Depending on the purpose, a variety of materials have been used with specific and accurate mechanical and biophysical properties, More recently they have been used to assess the biocompatibility of implantable devices, but they are still not validated to study the migration of leaching components from devices. This minireview shows the large diversity of approaches and uses of brain phantoms, which converge punctually. All these phantoms are complementary to numeric models, which benefit, reciprocally, of their respective advances. It also suggests avenues of research for the analysis of leaching components from implantable devices.

The current and possible future role of 3D modelling within oesophagogastric surgery: a scoping review

BACKGROUND

3D reconstruction technology could revolutionise medicine. Within surgery, 3D reconstruction has a growing role in operative planning and procedures, surgical education and training as well as patient engagement. Whilst virtual and 3D printed models are already used in many surgical specialities, oesophagogastric surgery has been slow in their adoption. Therefore, the authors undertook a scoping review to clarify the current and future roles of 3D modelling in oesophagogastric surgery, highlighting gaps in the literature and implications for future research.

METHODS

A scoping review protocol was developed using a comprehensive search strategy based on internationally accepted guidelines and tailored for key databases (MEDLINE, Embase, Elsevier Scopus and ISI Web of Science). This is available through the Open Science Framework (osf.io/ta789) and was published in a peer-reviewed journal. Included studies underwent screening and full text review before inclusion. A thematic analysis was performed using pre-determined overarching themes: (i) surgical training and education, (ii) patient education and engagement, and (iii) operative planning and surgical practice. Where applicable, subthemes were generated.

RESULTS

A total of 56 papers were included. Most research was low-grade with 88% (n = 49) of publications at or below level III evidence. No randomised control trials or systematic reviews were found. Most literature (86%, n = 48) explored 3D reconstruction within operative planning. These were divided into subthemes of pre-operative (77%, n = 43) and intra-operative guidance (9%, n = 5). Few papers reported on surgical training and education (14%, n = 8), and were evenly subcategorised into virtual reality simulation (7%, n = 4) and anatomical teaching (7%, n = 4). No studies utilising 3D modelling for patient engagement and education were found.

CONCLUSION

The use of 3D reconstruction is in its infancy in oesophagogastric surgery. The quality of evidence is low and key themes, such as patient engagement and education, remain unexplored. Without high quality research evaluating the application and benefits of 3D modelling, oesophagogastric surgery may be left behind.

The use of 3D-printed models in patient communication: a scoping review

3D models have been used as an asset in many clinical applications and a variety of disciplines, and yet the available literature studying the use of 3D models in communication is limited. This scoping review has been conducted to draw conclusions on the current evidence and learn from previous studies, using this knowledge to inform future work. Our search strategy revealed 269 papers, 19 of which were selected for final inclusion and analysis. When assessing the use of 3D models in doctor-patient communication, there is a need for larger studies and studies including a long-term follow up. Furthermore, there are forms of communication that are yet to be researched and provide a niche that may be beneficial to explore.

Reforming support systems of newly diagnosed brain cancer patients: a systematic review

PURPOSE

Despite the increasing incidence of currently incurable brain cancer, limited resources are placed in patients' support systems, with reactive utilisation late in the disease course, when physical and psychological symptoms have peaked. Based on patient-derived data and emphasis on service improvement, this review investigated the structure and efficacy of the support methods of newly diagnosed brain cancer patients in healthcare systems.

METHODS

This systematic review was performed following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis Protocols. Articles from PubMed, Embase, and CENTRAL databases were screened with six pre-established eligibility criteria, including assessment within 6 months from diagnosis of a primary malignant brain tumour. Risk of bias was evaluated using the Newcastle-Ottawa Scale and Critical Appraisal Skills Program (CASP) Qualitative Studies Checklist.

RESULTS

Of 5057 original articles, 14 were eligible for qualitative synthesis. Four studies were cross-sectional and ten were descriptive. Information given to patients was evaluated in seven studies, communication with patients in nine, and patient participation in treatment decisions in eight. Risk of bias was low in ten studies, moderate in two, and high in two.

CONCLUSIONS

Techniques promoting individualised care increased perceived support, despite poor patient-physician communication and complexity of the healthcare system. Extracted data across 14 included studies informed a set of guidelines and a four-step framework. These can help evaluate and reform healthcare services to better accommodate the supportive needs of this patient group.

Current and possible future role of 3D modelling within oesophagogastric surgery: a scoping review protocol

INTRODUCTION

Three-dimensional (3D) reconstruction describes the generation of either virtual or physically printed anatomically accurate 3D models from two-dimensional medical images. Their implementation has revolutionised medical practice. Within surgery, key applications include growing roles in operative planning and procedures, surgical education and training, as well as patient engagement and education. In comparison to other surgical specialties, oesophagogastric surgery has been slow in their adoption of this technology. Herein the authors outline a scoping review protocol that aims to analyse the current role of 3D modelling in oesophagogastric surgery and highlight any unexplored avenues for future research.

METHODS AND ANALYSIS

The protocol was generated using internationally accepted methodological frameworks. A succinct primary question was devised, and a comprehensive search strategy was developed for key databases (MEDLINE, Embase, Elsevier Scopus and ISI Web of Science). These were searched from their inception to 1 June 2020. Reference lists will be reviewed by hand and grey literature identified using OpenGrey and Grey Literature Report. The protocol was registered to the Open Science Framework (osf.io/ta789).Two independent reviewers will screen titles, abstracts and perform full-text reviews for study selection. There will be no methodological quality assessment to ensure a full thematic analysis is possible. A data charting tool will be created by the investigatory team. Results will be analysed to generate descriptive numerical tabular results and a thematic analysis will be performed.

ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION

Ethical approval was not required for the collection and analysis of the published data. The scoping review report will be disseminated through a peer-reviewed publication and international conferences.

REGISTRATION DETAILS

The scoping review protocol has been registered on the Open Science Framework (https://osf.io/ta789).

Methods of 3D printing models of pituitary tumors

Background

Pituitary adenomas can give rise to a variety of clinical disorders and surgery is often the primary treatment option. However, preoperative magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) does not always reliably identify the site of an adenoma. In this setting molecular (functional) imaging (e.g. ¹¹C-methionine PET/CT) may help with tumor localisation, although interpretation of these 2D images can be challenging. 3D printing of anatomicalal models for other indications has been shown to aid surgical planning and improve patient understanding of the planned procedure. Here, we explore the potential utility of four types of 3D printing using PET/CT and co-registered MRI for visualising pituitary adenomas.

Methods

A 3D patient-specific model based on a challenging clinical case was created by segmenting the pituitary gland, pituitary adenoma, carotid arteries and bone using contemporary PET/CT and MR images. The 3D anatomical models were printed using VP, MEX, MJ and PBF 3D printing methods. Different anatomicalal structures were printed in color with the exception of the PBF anatomical model where a single color was used. The anatomical models were compared against the computer model to assess printing accuracy. Three groups of clinicians (endocrinologists, neurosurgeons and ENT surgeons) assessed the anatomical models for their potential clinical utility.

Results

All of the printing techniques produced anatomical models which were spatially accurate, with the commercial printing techniques (MJ and PBF) and the consumer printing techniques (VP and MEX) demonstrating comparable findings (all techniques had mean spatial differences from the computer model of < 0.6 mm). The MJ, VP and MEX printing techniques yielded multicolored anatomical models, which the clinicians unanimously agreed would be preferable to use when talking to a patient; in contrast, 50%, 40% and 0% of endocrinologists, neurosurgeons and ENT surgeons respectively would consider using the PBF model.

Conclusion

3D anatomical models of pituitary tumors were successfully created from PET/CT and MRI using four different 3D printing techniques. However, the expert reviewers unanimously preferred the multicolor prints. Importantly, the consumer printers performed comparably to the commercial MJ printing technique, opening the possibility that these methods can be adopted into routine clinical practice with only a modest investment.

Fully automatic brain tumor segmentation for 3D evaluation in augmented reality

OBJECTIVE

For currently available augmented reality workflows, 3D models need to be created with manual or semiautomatic segmentation, which is a time-consuming process. The authors created an automatic segmentation algorithm that generates 3D models of skin, brain, ventricles, and contrast-enhancing tumor from a single T1-weighted MR sequence and embedded this model into an automatic workflow for 3D evaluation of anatomical structures with augmented reality in a cloud environment. In this study, the authors validate the accuracy and efficiency of this automatic segmentation algorithm for brain tumors and compared it with a manually segmented ground truth set.

METHODS

Fifty contrast-enhanced T1-weighted sequences of patients with contrast-enhancing lesions measuring at least 5 cm3 were included. All slices of the ground truth set were manually segmented. The same scans were subsequently run in the cloud environment for automatic segmentation. Segmentation times were recorded. The accuracy of the algorithm was compared with that of manual segmentation and evaluated in terms of Sørensen-Dice similarity coefficient (DSC), average symmetric surface distance (ASSD), and 95th percentile of Hausdorff distance (HD95).

RESULTS

The mean ± SD computation time of the automatic segmentation algorithm was 753 ± 128 seconds. The mean ± SD DSC was 0.868 ± 0.07, ASSD was 1.31 ± 0.63 mm, and HD95 was 4.80 ± 3.18 mm. Meningioma (mean 0.89 and median 0.92) showed greater DSC than metastasis (mean 0.84 and median 0.85). Automatic segmentation had greater accuracy for measuring DSC (mean 0.86 and median 0.87) and HD95 (mean 3.62 mm and median 3.11 mm) of supratentorial metastasis than those of infratentorial metastasis (mean 0.82 and median 0.81 for DSC; mean 5.26 mm and median 4.72 mm for HD95).

CONCLUSIONS

The automatic cloud-based segmentation algorithm is reliable, accurate, and fast enough to aid neurosurgeons in everyday clinical practice by providing 3D augmented reality visualization of contrast-enhancing intracranial lesions measuring at least 5 cm3. The next steps involve incorporation of other sequences and improving accuracy with 3D fine-tuning in order to expand the scope of augmented reality workflow.

Development of an inside-out augmented reality technique for neurosurgical navigation

OBJECTIVE

With the advancement of 3D modeling techniques and visualization devices, augmented reality (AR)-based navigation (AR navigation) is being developed actively. The authors developed a pilot model of their newly developed inside-out tracking AR navigation system.

METHODS

The inside-out AR navigation technique was developed based on the visual inertial odometry (VIO) algorithm. The Quick Response (QR) marker was created and used for the image feature-detection algorithm. Inside-out AR navigation works through the steps of visualization device recognition, marker recognition, AR implementation, and registration within the running environment. A virtual 3D patient model for AR rendering and a 3D-printed patient model for validating registration accuracy were created. Inside-out tracking was used for the registration. The registration accuracy was validated by using intuitive, visualization, and quantitative methods for identifying coordinates by matching errors. Fine-tuning and opacity-adjustment functions were developed.

RESULTS

ARKit-based inside-out AR navigation was developed. The fiducial marker of the AR model and those of the 3D-printed patient model were correctly overlapped at all locations without errors. The tumor and anatomical structures of AR navigation and the tumors and structures placed in the intracranial space of the 3D-printed patient model precisely overlapped. The registration accuracy was quantified using coordinates, and the average moving errors of the x-axis and y-axis were 0.52 ± 0.35 and 0.05 ± 0.16 mm, respectively. The gradients from the x-axis and y-axis were 0.35° and 1.02°, respectively. Application of the fine-tuning and opacity-adjustment functions was proven by the videos.

CONCLUSIONS

The authors developed a novel inside-out tracking-based AR navigation system and validated its registration accuracy. This technical system could be applied in the novel navigation system for patient-specific neurosurgery.

Shared decision-making in neurosurgery: a scoping review

BACKGROUND

In modern neurosurgery, there are often several treatment alternatives, with different risks and benefits. Shared decision-making (SDM) has gained interest during the last decade, although SDM in the neurosurgical field is not widely studied. Therefore, the aim of this scoping review was to present the current landscape of SDM in neurosurgery.

METHODS

A literature review was carried out in PubMed and Scopus. We used a search strategy based on keywords used in existing literature on SDM in neurosurgery. Full-text, peer-reviewed articles published from 2000 up to the search date February 16, 2021, with patients 18 years and older were included if articles evaluated SDM in neurosurgery from the patient's perspective.

RESULTS

We identified 22 articles whereof 7 covered vestibular schwannomas, 7 covered spinal surgery, and 4 covered gliomas. The other topics were brain metastases, benign brain lesions, Parkinson's disease and evaluation of neurosurgical care. Different methods were used, with majority using forms, questionnaires, or interviews. Effects of SDM interventions were studied in 6 articles; the remaining articles explored factors influencing patients' decisions or discussed SDM aids.

CONCLUSION

SDM is a tool to involve patients in the decision-making process and considers patients' preferences and what the patients find important. This scoping review illustrates the relative lack of SDM in the neurosurgical literature. Even though results indicate potential benefit of SDM, the extent of influence on treatment, outcome, and patient's satisfaction is still unknown. Finally, the use of decision aids may be a meaningful contribution to the SDM process.

Patient Education in Neurosurgery: Part 2 of a Systematic Review

BACKGROUND

Increasing focus has been placed on patient education to optimize care. In the second part of a 2-part systematic review, we characterize the scope of interventions specifically created to improve neurosurgery patient education, assess the effectiveness of these interventions, and extract features of existing interventions that may be incorporated into future patient education interventions. Our findings may help promote the creation of effective, patient-centered educational interventions.

METHODS

A 2-part systematic review was conducted using the PubMed, Embase, and Scopus databases. Titles and abstracts were read and selected for full text review. Studies meeting prespecified inclusion criteria were reviewed in full and analyzed for study design, aim, population, interventions, and outcomes.

RESULTS

Of 1617 resultant articles, 33 were included. Print materials, electronic materials, models, and interventions using multiple modalities improved patient knowledge, decreased anxiety, and increased satisfaction. Electronic materials were preferred. Interventions using multiple modalities engaging multiple sensory systems were reported most beneficial. Video was rated the most effective medium for reinforcing spoken conversation between neurosurgeons and patients. Three-dimensional models decreased the time required for preoperative patient conversation but could be perceived as emotionally confronting. Virtual reality was preferred to patient models.

CONCLUSIONS

Electronic interventions using multiple modalities in concert with each other may be most effective. Interventions should incorporate baseline knowledge and health literacy and address patient concerns and needs in a manner that is valid cross-contextually, uses clear communication, and is continuous. These interventions will improve the patient-friendliness of discussions with patients.

Information Recall in Pre-Operative Consultation for Glioma Surgery Using Actual Size Three-Dimensional Models

Three-dimensional (3D) technologies are being used for patient education. For glioma, a personalized 3D model can show the patient specific tumor and eloquent areas. We aim to compare the amount of information that is understood and can be recalled after a pre-operative consult using a 3D model (physically printed or in Augmented Reality (AR)) versus two-dimensional (2D) MR images. In this explorative study, healthy individuals were eligible to participate. Sixty-one participants were enrolled and assigned to either the 2D (MRI/fMRI), 3D (physical 3D model) or AR groups. After undergoing a mock pre-operative consultation for low-grade glioma surgery, participants completed two assessments (one week apart) testing information recall using a standardized questionnaire. The 3D group obtained the highest recall scores on both assessments (Cohen’s d = 1.76 and Cohen’s d = 0.94, respectively, compared to 2D), followed by AR and 2D, respectively. Thus, real-size 3D models appear to improve information recall as compared to MR images in a pre-operative consultation for glioma cases. Future clinical studies should measure the efficacy of using real-size 3D models in actual neurosurgery patients.

Development of a 3D-printed testicular cancer model for testicular examination education

INTRODUCTION

Testicular cancer is the most commonly diagnosed malignancy in young males. Testicular examination is a non-invasive and inexpensive means of detecting testicular cancer at an early stage. In this project, a set of 3D-printed models was developed to facilitate teaching testicular examination and improving understanding of testicular malignancies among patients and medical learners.

METHODS

Five scrotum models were designed: a control model with healthy testes, and four models containing a healthy testicle and a testicle with an endophytic mass of varying size. The anatomy, texture, and composition of the 3D-printed models were refined using an iterative process between the design team and urologists. The completed models were assessed by six urologists, two urology nurse practitioners, and 32 medical learners. Participants were asked to inspect and palpate each model, and to provide feedback using a five-point Likert scale.

RESULTS

Clinicians reported that the models enabled accurate simulation of a testicular examination involving both healthy and pathologic testes (χ̄=4.3±1.0). They agreed that the models would be useful teaching tools for both medical learners (χ̄=4.8±0.5) and patients (χ̄=4.8±0.7). Following an educational session with the models, medical learners reported improvements in confidence and skill in performing a testicular examination.

CONCLUSIONS

3D-printed models can effectively simulate palpation of both healthy and pathologic testes. The developed models have the potential to be a useful adjunct in teaching testicular examination and in demonstrating abnormal findings that require further investigation.

Three-Dimensional Printed Anatomic Modeling for Surgical Planning and Real-Time Operative Guidance in Complex Primary Spinal Column Tumors: Single-Center Experience and Case Series

OBJECTIVE

Three-dimensional (3D) printing has emerged as a visualization tool for clinicians and patients. We sought to use patient-specific 3D-printed anatomic modeling for preoperative planning and live intraoperative guidance in a series of complex primary spine tumors.

METHODS

Over 9 months, patients referred to a single neurosurgical provider for complex primary spinal column tumors were included. Most recent spinal magnetic resonance and computed tomography (CT) imaging were semiautomatically segmented for relevant anatomy and models were printed using polyjet multicolor printing technology. Models were available to surgical teams before and during the operative procedure. Patients also viewed the models preoperatively during surgeon explanation of disease and surgical plan to aid in their understanding.

RESULTS

Tumor models were prepared for 9 patients, including 4 with chordomas, 2 with schwannomas, 1 with osteosarcoma, 1 with chondrosarcoma, and 1 with Ewing-like sarcoma. Mean age was 50.7 years (range, 15-82 years), including 6 males and 3 females. Mean tumor volume was 129.6 cm³ (range, 3.3-250.0 cm³). Lesions were located at cervical, thoracic, and sacral levels and were treated by various surgical approaches. Models were intraoperatively used as patient-specific anatomic references throughout 7 cases and were found to be technically useful by the surgical teams.

CONCLUSIONS

We present the largest case series of 3D-printed spine tumor models reported to date. 3D-printed models are broadly useful for operative planning and intraoperative guidance in spinal oncology surgery.

Patient education in Mohs surgery: a review and critical evaluation of techniques

BACKGROUND

Traditional in-person discussion alone is often used for preoperative education in Mohs micrographic surgery (MMS). The appropriate use of more modern education techniques is not well defined in the MMS literature.

OBJECTIVE

The authors aim to evaluate patient education techniques for MMS, address education in special populations, and highlight opportunities for improvement.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

We performed a PubMed literature search with keywords "Mohs" and "education", "teaching", "understanding", "explanation", "preoperative", or "consent" with no restriction on publication time frame due to literature scarcity.

RESULTS

Teledermatology consultation, MMS videos, 3D models, pamphlets/online materials, and shared medical appointments appear to be effective techniques (GRADE B). Analogies are also anecdotally helpful when integrated into traditional verbal education (GRADE C). The role of preoperative educational phone calls is more controversial (GRADE C).

CONCLUSION

Regardless of the education technique utilized, no singular technique entirely replaces the traditional in-person discussion. Having access to multiple modalities can be beneficial for patients, allowing them options to choose their preferred method(s) of education. MMS is a difficult topic to conceptualize, and further research into educational techniques is needed to provide clear guidelines for Mohs surgeons.

Evaluating the Use of a Generic Three-Dimensionally (3D) Printed Abdominal Aortic Aneurysm Model as an Adjunct Patient Education Tool

An abdominal aortic aneurysm (AAA) is a serious medical condition that requires invasive surgery or endovascular treatment with stent grafts. This procedure is primarily carried out by vascular surgeons and interventional radiologists. Current methods of educating patients about their procedure have been inadequate, causing unnecessary stress in patients who have this condition and seek treatment.

In this study, we evaluate a three-dimensionally (3D) printed AAA model to use as an adjunct patient education tool, thus allowing patients to make a more knowledgeable decision when providing informed consent. The physical attributes and realism of the model are evaluated through the use of a quantitative and qualitative survey completed by physicians at St. Clare’s Mercy Hospital in St. John’s, Newfoundland. These physicians are referred to as “Experts” in our study and also rate and comment on the necessity of having patient-specific versus generic 3D AAA models for patient education purposes.

The aim of this study is to determine whether our 3D printed AAA model is ready to be used as an adjunct patient education tool and to seek suggestions for improvements that can be made in the model. Furthermore, having generic 3D AAA models would significantly decrease healthcare costs as compared to patient-specific models. Thus, we also investigate if generic models would suffice from the perspective of the physicians.

Three-dimensional printing in radiation oncology: A systematic review of the literature

Purpose/objectives

Three‐dimensional (3D) printing is recognized as an effective clinical and educational tool in procedurally intensive specialties. However, it has a nascent role in radiation oncology. The goal of this investigation is to clarify the extent to which 3D printing applications are currently being used in radiation oncology through a systematic review of the literature.

Materials/methods

A search protocol was defined according to preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta‐analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. Included articles were evaluated using parameters of interest including: year and country of publication, experimental design, sample size for clinical studies, radiation oncology topic, reported outcomes, and implementation barriers or safety concerns.

Results

One hundred and three publications from 2012 to 2019 met inclusion criteria. The most commonly described 3D printing applications included quality assurance phantoms (26%), brachytherapy applicators (20%), bolus (17%), preclinical animal irradiation (10%), compensators (7%), and immobilization devices (5%). Most studies were preclinical feasibility studies (63%), with few clinical investigations such as case reports or series (13%) or cohort studies (11%). The most common applications evaluated within clinical settings included brachytherapy applicators (44%) and bolus (28%). Sample sizes for clinical investigations were small (median 10, range 1–42). A minority of articles described basic or translational research (11%) and workflow or cost evaluation studies (3%). The number of articles increased over time (P < 0.0001). While outcomes were heterogeneous, most studies reported successful implementation of accurate and cost‐effective 3D printing methods.

Conclusions

Three‐dimensional printing is rapidly growing in radiation oncology and has been implemented effectively in a diverse array of applications. Although the number of 3D printing publications has steadily risen, the majority of current reports are preclinical in nature and the few clinical studies that do exist report on small sample sizes. Further dissemination of ongoing investigations describing the clinical application of developed 3D printing technologies in larger cohorts is warranted.

The utility of 3-dimensional-printed models for skull base meningioma surgery

Background

Skull base meningioma surgery is often difficult and complicated to perform. Therefore, this study aims to investigate the effectiveness of 3-dimensional (3D)-printed models of skull base meningioma in the representation of anatomical structures, the simulation of surgical plans, and patient education on surgical outcomes.

Methods

A retrospective study of 35 patients (3D group: 19 patients and non-3D group: 16 patients) with skull base meningioma was conducted. Mimics software was used to create 3D reconstructions (with the skull, blood vessels, nerves, and tumors set to different colors), and 3D solid models were printed to determine the surgical protocols and communication pathways with the patient.

Results

The 3D-printed model can visually display the relationship of different structures, including the skull, blood vessels, cranial nerves, and tumors. The surgeon should select the proper surgical approaches before surgery through the model and pay attention to protecting the important structures during the operation. According to the models, the surgeon should cut off the blood supply to the tumor to reduce intraoperative bleeding. For patients with skull base bone destruction, the skull base repair should be prepared in advance. Patients and their families should have a thorough understanding of the disease through the model, and there should be effective communication between doctors and patients.

Conclusions

The 3D-printed model of a skull base meningioma can present the structures in a detailed manner and facilitate in helping the surgeon to develop a surgical plan. At the same time, it helps patients and their families to understand the condition and the surgical plan, which is conducive to better patient education.

The use of 3D printing in shared decision making for a juvenile aggressive ossifying fibroma in a pediatric patient

Juvenile aggressive ossifying fibromas (JAOF) are rare, typically benign pediatric tumors that are locally aggressive and have high recurrence rates. A 7-year old male presented with a palatal mass and a 3D printed model was created and used as a visual aide to highlight the importance of management in terms of functional, cosmetic, and disease-free outcomes with the family. The patient ultimately underwent successful enucleation with final pathology consistent with JAOF. To our knowledge, this is the first description of the use of 3D printing to help in the shared decision-making process for the treatment of this aggressive tumor.

3D printing with MRI in pediatric applications

3D printing (3DP) applications for clinical evaluation, preoperative planning, patient and trainee education, and simulation has increased in the past decade. Most of the applications are found in cardiovascular, head and neck, orthopedic, neurological, urological, and oncological surgical cases. This review has three parts. The first part discusses the technical pathway to realizing a physical model, 3DP considerations in pediatric MRI image acquisition, data and resolution requirements, and related structural segmentation and postprocessing steps needed to generalize both virtual and physical models. Standard practices and processing software used in these processes will be assessed. The second part discusses complementary examples in pediatric applications, including cases from cardiology, neuroradiology, neurology, and neurosurgery, head and neck, orthopedics, pelvic and urological applications, oncological applications, and fetal imaging. The third part explores other 3D printing applications and considerations such as using 3DP to develop tissue-specific phantoms and devices for testing in the MR environment, to educate patients and their families, to train clinicians and students, and facility requirements for building a 3DP program. Level of Evidence: 5 Technical Efficacy: Stage 5 J. Magn. Reson. Imaging 2020;51:1641-1658.

Application of three-dimensional reconstruction and printing as an elective course for undergraduate medical students: an exploratory trial

BACKGROUND

Medical three-dimensional (3D) digital reconstruction and printing have become common tools in medicine, but few undergraduate medical students understand its whole process and teaching and clinical application. Therefore, we designed an elective course of 3D reconstruction and printing for students and studied its significance and practicability.

METHODS

Thirty undergraduate medical students in their second-year of study volunteered to participate in the course. The course started with three lessons on the theory of 3D digital reconstruction and printing in medicine. The students were then randomly divided into ten groups. Each group randomly selected its own original data set, which could contain a series of 2D images including sectional anatomical images, histological images, CT and MRI. Amira software was used to segment the structures of interest, to 3D reconstruct them and to smooth and simplify the models. These models were 3D printed and post-processed. Finally, the 3D digital and printed models were scored, and the students produced brief reports of their work and knowledge acquisition and filled out an anonymous questionnaire about their study perceptions.

RESULTS

All the students finished this course. The average score of the 30 students was 83.1 ± 2.7. This course stimulated the students' learning interest and satisfied them. It was helpful for undergraduate students to understand anatomical structures and their spatial relationship more deeply. Students understood the whole process of 3D reconstruction and printing and its teaching and clinical applications through this course.

CONCLUSION

It is significant and necessary to develop this course for undergraduate medical students.

Patient-specific 3D printed and augmented reality kidney and prostate cancer models: impact on patient education

Background

Patient-specific 3D models are being used increasingly in medicine for many applications including surgical planning, procedure rehearsal, trainee education, and patient education. To date, experiences on the use of 3D models to facilitate patient understanding of their disease and surgical plan are limited. The purpose of this study was to investigate in the context of renal and prostate cancer the impact of using 3D printed and augmented reality models for patient education.

Methods

Patients with MRI-visible prostate cancer undergoing either robotic assisted radical prostatectomy or focal ablative therapy or patients with renal masses undergoing partial nephrectomy were prospectively enrolled in this IRB approved study (n = 200). Patients underwent routine clinical imaging protocols and were randomized to receive pre-operative planning with imaging alone or imaging plus a patient-specific 3D model which was either 3D printed, visualized in AR, or viewed in 3D on a 2D computer monitor. 3D uro-oncologic models were created from the medical imaging data. A 5-point Likert scale survey was administered to patients prior to the surgical procedure to determine understanding of the cancer and treatment plan. If randomized to receive a pre-operative 3D model, the survey was completed twice, before and after viewing the 3D model. In addition, the cohort that received 3D models completed additional questions to compare usefulness of the different forms of visualization of the 3D models. Survey responses for each of the 3D model groups were compared using the Mann-Whitney and Wilcoxan rank-sum tests.

Results

All 200 patients completed the survey after reviewing their cases with their surgeons using imaging only. 127 patients completed the 5-point Likert scale survey regarding understanding of disease and surgical procedure twice, once with imaging and again after reviewing imaging plus a 3D model. Patients had a greater understanding using 3D printed models versus imaging for all measures including comprehension of disease, cancer size, cancer location, treatment plan, and the comfort level regarding the treatment plan (range 4.60–4.78/5 vs. 4.06–4.49/5, p < 0.05).

Conclusions

All types of patient-specific 3D models were reported to be valuable for patient education. Out of the three advanced imaging methods, the 3D printed models helped patients to have the greatest understanding of their anatomy, disease, tumor characteristics, and surgical procedure.