Decompressive Craniectomy for Patients with Traumatic Brain Injury: A Pooled Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials

Machine learning prediction models for in-hospital postoperative functional outcome after moderate-to-severe traumatic brain injury

AIM

This study aims to utilize machine learning (ML) and logistic regression (LR) models to predict surgical outcomes among patients with traumatic brain injury (TBI) based on admission examination, assisting in making optimal surgical treatment decision for these patients.

METHOD

We conducted a retrospective review of patients hospitalized in our department for moderate-to-severe TBI. Patients admitted between October 2011 and October 2022 were assigned to the training set, while patients admitted between November 2022 and May 2023 were designated as the external validation set. Five ML algorithms and LR model were employed to predict the postoperative Glasgow Outcome Scale (GOS) status at discharge using clinical and routine blood data collected upon admission. The Shapley (SHAP) plot was utilized for interpreting the models.

RESULTS

A total of 416 patients were included in this study, and they were divided into the training set (n = 396) and the external validation set (n = 47). The ML models, using both clinical and routine blood data, were able to predict postoperative GOS outcomes with area under the curve (AUC) values ranging from 0.860 to 0.900 during the internal cross-validation and from 0.801 to 0.890 during the external validation. In contrast, the LR model had the lowest AUC values during the internal and external validation (0.844 and 0.567, respectively). When blood data was not available, the ML models achieved AUCs of 0.849 to 0.870 during the internal cross-validation and 0.714 to 0.861 during the external validation. Similarly, the LR model had the lowest AUC values (0.821 and 0.638, respectively). Through repeated cross-validation analysis, we found that routine blood data had a significant association with higher mean AUC values in all ML and LR models. The SHAP plot was used to visualize the contributions of all predictors and highlighted the significance of blood data in the lightGBM model.

CONCLUSION

The study concluded that ML models could provide rapid and accurate predictions for postoperative GOS outcomes at discharge following moderate-to-severe TBI. The study also highlighted the crucial role of routine blood tests in improving such predictions, and may contribute to the optimization of surgical treatment decision-making for patients with TBI.

Role of decompressive craniectomy in the management of acute ischemic stroke (Review)

The application of decompressive craniectomy (DC) is thoroughly documented in the management of brain edema, particularly following traumatic brain injury. However, an increasing amount of concern is developing among the universal medical community as regards the application of DC in the treatment of other causes of brain edema, such as subarachnoid hemorrhage, cerebral hemorrhage, sinus thrombosis and encephalitis. Managing stroke continues to remain challenging, and demands the aggressive and intensive consulting of a number of medical specialties. Middle cerebral artery (MCA) infarcts, which consist of 1-10% of all supratentorial infarcts, are often associated with mass effects, and high mortality and morbidity rates. Over the past three decades, a number of neurosurgical medical centers have reported their experience with the application of DC in the treatment of malignant MCA infarction with varying results. In addition, over the past decade, major efforts have been dedicated to multicenter randomized clinical trials. The present study reviews the pertinent literature to outline the use of DC in the management of malignant MCA infarction. The PubMed database was systematically searched for the following terms: 'Malignant cerebral infarction', 'surgery for stroke', 'DC for cerebral infarction', and all their combinations. Case reports were excluded from the review. The articles were categorized into a number of groups; the majority of these were human clinical studies, with a few animal experimental clinical studies. The surgical technique involved was DC, or hemicraniectomy. Other aspects that were included in the selection of articles were methodological characteristics and the number of patients. The multicenter randomized trials were promising. The mortality rate has unanimously decreased. As for the functional outcome, different scales were employed; the Glasgow Outcome Scale Extended was not sufficient; the Modified Rankin Scale and Bathel index, as well as other scales, were applied. Other aspects considered were demographics, statistics and the very interesting radiological ones. There is no doubt that DC decreases mortality rates, as shown in all clinical trials. Functional outcome appears to be the goal standard in modern-era neurosurgery, and quality of life should be further discussed among the medical community and with patient consent.

Effect of drug therapy on nerve repair of moderate-severe traumatic brain injury: A network meta-analysis

Objective: This network meta-analysis aimed to explore the effect of different drugs on mortality and neurological improvement in patients with traumatic brain injury (TBI), and to clarify which drug might be used as a more promising intervention for treating such patients by ranking.

Methods: We conducted a comprehensive search from PubMed, Medline, Embase, and Cochrane Library databases from the establishment of the database to 31 January 2022. Data were extracted from the included studies, and the quality was assessed using the Cochrane risk-of-bias tool. The primary outcome measure was mortality in patients with TBI. The secondary outcome measures were the proportion of favorable outcomes and the occurrence of drug treatment–related side effects in patients with TBI in each drug treatment group. Statistical analyses were performed using Stata v16.0 and RevMan v5.3.0.

Results: We included 30 randomized controlled trials that included 13 interventions (TXA, EPO, progesterone, progesterone + vitamin D, atorvastatin, beta-blocker therapy, Bradycor, Enoxaparin, Tracoprodi, dexanabinol, selenium, simvastatin, and placebo). The analysis revealed that these drugs significantly reduced mortality in patients with TBI and increased the proportion of patients with favorable outcomes after TBI compared with placebo. In terms of mortality after drug treatment, the order from the lowest to the highest was progesterone + vitamin D, beta-blocker therapy, EPO, simvastatin, Enoxaparin, Bradycor, Tracoprodi, selenium, atorvastatin, TXA, progesterone, dexanabinol, and placebo. In terms of the proportion of patients with favorable outcomes after drug treatment, the order from the highest to the lowest was as follows: Enoxaparin, progesterone + vitamin D, atorvastatin, simvastatin, Bradycor, EPO, beta-blocker therapy, progesterone, Tracoprodi, TXA, selenium, dexanabinol, and placebo. In addition, based on the classification of Glasgow Outcome Scale (GOS) scores after each drug treatment, this study also analyzed the three aspects of good recovery, moderate disability, and severe disability. It involved 10 interventions and revealed that compared with placebo treatment, a higher proportion of patients had a good recovery and moderate disability after treatment with progesterone + vitamin D, Bradycor, EPO, and progesterone. Meanwhile, the proportion of patients with a severe disability after treatment with progesterone + vitamin D and Bradycor was also low.

Conclusion: The analysis of this study revealed that in patients with TBI, TXA, EPO, progesterone, progesterone + vitamin D, atorvastatin, beta-blocker therapy, Bradycor, Enoxaparin, Tracoprodi, dexanabinol, selenium, and simvastatin all reduced mortality and increased the proportion of patients with favorable outcomes in such patients compared with placebo. Among these, the progesterone + vitamin D had not only a higher proportion of patients with good recovery and moderate disability but also a lower proportion of patients with severe disability and mortality. However, whether this intervention can be used for clinical promotion still needs further exploration.

Proper Partial Pressure of Arterial Oxygen for Patients with Traumatic Brain Injury

Background

The partial pressure of arterial oxygen (PaO₂) is critical to the outcome of patients with traumatic brain injury (TBI). However, it is not clear what range of PaO₂ should be maintained to improve patient outcome. The aim of this study was to explore the PaO₂ value needed in the acute phase of TBI and provide new evidence for clinical practice.

Material/Methods

A total of 153 patients with TBI were enrolled retrospectively. Univariate and multivariate logistic regression analyses were conducted on sex, Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) score on admission, PaO₂ within 6 h of admission, oxygenation index, and other factors. The Glasgow Outcome Score (GOS) of the patient at discharge was used as an indicator of outcome. The good outcome group had GOS ≥4, and the poor outcome group had GOS <4.

Results

The 153 patients were divided into a good outcome group (n=62) and poor outcome group (n=91). There was a significant difference in sex, admission GCS, surgery, airway status, PaO₂, and oxygen index within 6 h of admission between the 2 groups. Logistic regression analysis showed that PaO₂ <60 mmHg, male sex, and admission GCS score of 3 to 12 were independent risk factors for a poor outcome.

Conclusions

Patients with TBI having PaO₂ <60 mmHg within 6 h after admission were more likely to have poor outcomes. The upper limit value of PaO₂ that affects the outcome of TBI in patients has not been found.

Effects of Yunanan Baiyao adjunct therapy on postoperative recovery and clinical prognosis of patients with traumatic brain injury: A randomized controlled trial

BACKGROUND

Effective therapies are needed to prevent the secondary injury and poor prognosis associated with emergency craniotomy of traumatic brain injury (TBI).

HYPOTHESIS/PURPOSE

The wound-healing medicine Yunnan Baiyao (YB) and Xingnaojing (XNJ) adjunct-therapy may improve the outcome of orthodox mono-therapy (OT).

STUDY DESIGN

Randomized controlled trial.

METHODS

Eighty patients with moderate-to-severe TBI received emergency craniotomy (within 12 h after TBI) at the Chinese PLA General Hospital before being randomly assigned to 4 different treatments (n = 20) for 7 days: 1) OT; 2) OT+XNJ (i.v. 20 ml/daily); 3) OT+low dose-YB (oral, 1,000 mg/day); 4) OT+high dose-YB, 2,000 mg/day).

RESULTS

GCS score was improved more quickly and became significantly higher in XNJ, l-YB, h-YB groups than in OT group (p<0.01). Serum S100B peaked higher but declined more slowly in OT group than in other groups (p<0.01). On postoperative Day 7, S100B was 20% below baseline in YB and XNJ groups but remained 19% above baseline in OT group which also lost 38% of superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity on Day 3 and recovered 69% of SOD on Day 7 whereas the YB and XNJ groups lost 16%∼23% of SOD activity on Day 3 and recovered 92%∼99% of SOD on Day 7 (p<0.01). Clinical prognosis (Glasgow Outcome Scale and Karnofsky Performance Scale) were significantly better (25%∼30%) in the XNJ, l-YB and h-YB groups than in OT group 3 months post-surgery and were correlated with serum S100B and SOD.

CONCLUSIONS

YB and XNJ adjunct therapies improved postoperative recovery and clinical prognosis in patients with moderate-to-severe TBI partly through divergent regulation of S100B and SOD pathways. (The trial was registered at Chinese Clinical Trial Registry (ChiCTR) trial registration number: ChiCTR2000030280).

A novel prefabricated patient-specific titanium cranioplasty: reconsideration from a traditional approach

OBJECTIVE

Patient-specific implants (PSI) for cranioplasty are expensive, and cost remains the limiting factor in low- to middle-income countries. The authors describe a novel, reproducible and cost-effective method of designing prefabricated titanium PSI cranioplasty.

METHODS

Ten patients from June 2018 to December 2020 were included in this retrospective study. A three-dimensional stereolithography model was made on a custom-built 3D printer with variable layer heights to produce efficient and accurate details. A certain amount of defect in the temporal region was left uncovered to avoid complications related to temporalis muscle dissection. The stereolithography model with a cranial defect was reconstructed with modelling wax. The wax model was scanned with a blue light visible scanner. The digital data was transferred to the milling machine (Jayon Surgical®, Kerala, India), where a 1-mm-thick sheet of titanium was milled according to the specifications. RFCC scoring system was used for assessing cosmetic outcome.

RESULTS

The mean duration of the surgery was 56.50 min, SD = 14.916 min (range 45-75 min). In 9/10 patients, the RFCC score was 4 points. No other complications were found at a minimum follow-up of 18 months in all patients. The cost per patient was approximately 30,000 INR or 400 US dollars. The average time required for us to get the PSI ready for surgery was about 15 days.

CONCLUSION

The authors demonstrate a novel, cost-effective and reproducible method of PSI using titanium for cranioplasty.

Escalate and De-Escalate Therapies for Intracranial Pressure Control in Traumatic Brain Injury

Severe traumatic brain injury (TBI) is frequently associated with an elevation of intracranial pressure (ICP), followed by cerebral perfusion pressure (CPP) reduction. Invasive monitoring of ICP is recommended to guide a step-by-step “staircase approach” which aims to normalize ICP values and reduce the risks of secondary damage. However, if such monitoring is not available clinical examination and radiological criteria should be used. A major concern is how to taper the therapies employed for ICP control. The aim of this manuscript is to review the criteria for escalating and withdrawing therapies in TBI patients. Each step of the staircase approach carries a risk of adverse effects related to the duration of treatment. Tapering of barbiturates should start once ICP control has been achieved for at least 24 h, although a period of 2–12 days is often required. Administration of hyperosmolar fluids should be avoided if ICP is normal. Sedation should be reduced after at least 24 h of controlled ICP to allow neurological examination. Removal of invasive ICP monitoring is suggested after 72 h of normal ICP. For patients who have undergone surgical decompression, cranioplasty represents the final step, and an earlier cranioplasty (15–90 days after decompression) seems to reduce the rate of infection, seizures, and hydrocephalus.

Management of Australian Patients with Severe Traumatic Brain Injury: Are Potentially Harmful Treatments Still Used?

Clinical trials have shown that intravenous albumin and decompressive craniectomy to treat early refractory intracranial hypertension can cause harm in patients with severe traumatic brain injury (TBI). The extent to which these treatments remain in use is unknown. We conducted a multi-center retrospective cohort study of adult patients with severe TBI admitted to five neurotrauma centers across Australia between April 2013 and March 2015. Patients were identified from local trauma and intensive care unit (ICU) registries and followed until hospital discharge. Main outcome measures were the administration of intravenous albumin, and decompressive craniectomy for intracranial hypertension. Analyses were predominantly descriptive. There were 303 patients with severe TBI, of whom a minority received albumin (6.9%) or underwent early decompressive craniectomy for treatment of refractory intracranial hypertension complicating diffuse TBI (2.3%). The median (intequartile range [IQR]) age was 35 (24, 58), and most injuries were caused by road traffic accidents (57.4%) or falls (25.1%). Overall, 34.3% of patients died while in the hospital and the remainder were discharged to rehabilitation (44.6%), other health care facilities (4.6%), or home (16.5%). There were no patient characteristics significantly associated with use of albumin or craniectomy. Intravenous albumin and craniectomy for treatment of intracranial hypertension were used infrequently in Australian neurotrauma centers, indicating alignment between best available evidence and practice.

Escalation therapy in severe traumatic brain injury: how long is intracranial pressure monitoring necessary?

Traumatic brain injury frequently causes an elevation of intracranial pressure (ICP) that could lead to reduction of cerebral perfusion pressure and cause brain ischemia. Invasive ICP monitoring is recommended by international guidelines, in order to reduce the incidence of secondary brain injury; although rare, the complications related to ICP probes could be dependent on the duration of monitoring. The aim of this manuscript is to clarify the appropriate timing for removal and management of invasive ICP monitoring, in order to reduce the risk of related complications and guarantee adequate cerebral autoregulatory control. There is no universal consensus concerning the duration of invasive ICP monitoring and its related complications, although the pertinent literature seems to show that the longer is the monitoring maintenance, the higher is the risk of technical issues. Besides, upon 72 h of normal ICP values or less than 72 h if the first computed tomography scan is normal (none or minimal signs of injury) and the neurological exam is available (allowing to observe variations and possible occurrence of new-onset pathological response), the removal of invasive ICP monitoring can be justified. The availability of non-invasive monitoring systems should be considered to follow up patients' clinical course after invasive ICP probe removal or for substituting the invasive monitoring in case of contraindication to its placement. Recently, optic nerve sheath diameter and straight sinus systolic flow velocity evaluation through ultrasound methods showed a good correlation with ICP values, demonstrating their potential role in place of invasive monitoring or in the early weaning phase from the invasive ICP monitoring.

Low-Value Clinical Practices in Adult Traumatic Brain Injury: An Umbrella Review

Despite numerous interventions and treatment options, the outcomes of traumatic brain injury (TBI) have improved little over the last 3 decades, which raises concern about the value of care in this patient population. We aimed to synthesize the evidence on 14 potentially low-value clinical practices in TBI care. Using umbrella review methodology, we identified systematic reviews evaluating the effectiveness of 14 potentially low-value practices in adults with acute TBI. We present data on methodological quality (Assessing the Methodological Quality of Systematic Reviews), reported effect sizes, and credibility of evidence (I to IV). The only clinical practice with evidence of benefit was therapeutic hypothermia (credibility of evidence II to IV). However, the most recent meta-analysis on hypothermia based on high-quality trials suggested harm (credibility of evidence IV). Meta-analyses on platelet transfusion for patients on antiplatelet therapy were all consistent with harm but were statistically non-significant. For the following practices, effect estimates were consistently close to the null: computed tomography (CT) in adults with mild TBI who are low-risk on a validated clinical decision rule; repeat CT in adults with mild TBI on anticoagulant therapy with no clinical deterioration; antibiotic prophylaxis for external ventricular drain placement; and decompressive craniectomy for refractory intracranial hypertension. We identified five clinical practices with evidence of lack of benefit or harm. However, evidence could not be considered to be strong for any clinical practice as effect measures were imprecise and heterogeneous, systematic reviews were often of low quality, and most included studies had a high risk of bias.

Risk factors for corticosteroid insufficiency during the sub-acute phase of acute traumatic brain injury

Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis dysfunction may lead to the occurrence of critical illness-related corticosteroid insufficiency. Critical illness-related corticosteroid insufficiency can easily occur after traumatic brain injury, but few studies have examined this occurrence. A multicenter, prospective, cohort study was performed to evaluate the function of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and the incidence of critical illness-related corticosteroid insufficiency during the sub-acute phase of traumatic brain injury. One hundred and forty patients with acute traumatic brain injury were enrolled from the neurosurgical departments of three tertiary-level hospitals in China, and the critical illness-related corticosteroid insufficiency incidence, critical-illness-related corticosteroid insufficiency-related risk factors, complications, and 28-day mortality among these patients was recorded. Critical illness-related corticosteroid insufficiency was diagnosed in patients with plasma total cortisol levels less than 10 μg/dL (275.9 nM) on post-injury day 4 or when serum cortisol was insufficiently suppressed (less than 50%) during a dexamethasone suppression test on post-injury day 5. The results demonstrated that critical illness-related corticosteroid insufficiency occurred during the sub-acute phase of traumatic brain injury in 5.6% of patients with mild injury, 22.5% of patients with moderate injury, and 52.2% of patients with severe injury. Traumatic brain injury-induced critical illness-related corticosteroid insufficiency was strongly correlated to injury severity during the sub-acute stage of traumatic brain injury. Traumatic brain injury patients with critical illness-related corticosteroid insufficiency frequently presented with hemorrhagic cerebral contusions, diffuse axonal injury, brain herniation, and hypotension. Differences in the incidence of hospital-acquired pneumonia, gastrointestinal bleeding, and 28-day mortality were observed between patients with and without critical illness-related corticosteroid insufficiency during the sub-acute phase of traumatic brain injury. Hypotension, brain-injury severity, and the types of traumatic brain injury were independent risk factors for traumatic brain injury-induced critical illness-related corticosteroid insufficiency. These findings indicate that critical illness-related corticosteroid insufficiency is common during the sub-acute phase of traumatic brain injury and is strongly associated with poor prognosis. The dexamethasone suppression test is a practical assay for the evaluation of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis function and for the diagnosis of critical illness-related corticosteroid insufficiency in patients with traumatic brain injury, especially those with hypotension, hemorrhagic cerebral contusions, diffuse axonal injury, and brain herniation. Sub-acute infection of acute traumatic brain injury may be an important factor associated with the occurrence and development of critical illness-related corticosteroid insufficiency. This study protocol was approved by the Ethics Committee of General Hospital of Tianjin Medical University, China in December 2011 (approval No. 201189).