Light and melatonin schedule neuronal differentiation in the habenular nuclei

The effect of light during embryonic development on laterality and exploration in Western Rainbowfish

Several factors affect the development of lateralization such as hormones and light exposure during early development. Laterality also often correlates with other behavioral traits. To examine whether there is a common mechanism underlying the development of laterality and other behaviors, we manipulated laterality by exposing embryos of the Western rainbowfish (Melatotaenia australis) to light or continuous darkness during early development and determined whether a shift in laterality was associated with a change in behavior in a novel environment test at two different ages. We found that exposing eggs to darkness led to offspring that displayed significantly less lateralized behavior in the mirror test two weeks after hatching than offspring from eggs exposed to light. Interestingly, the effects of rearing condition were lost by 3 months of age. These data suggest that exposure to light can influence laterality very early in development, but such bias can be overwritten by developmental processes post-hatch. Moreover, our manipulation of laterality apparently had no influence on exploration suggesting independent causal mechanisms. The experimental manipulation of light exposure during development could be a useful tool for enhancing individuals with a specific laterality and behavioral traits to aid future research into the causes and consequences of laterality.

Melatonin as a Harmonizing Factor of Circadian Rhythms, Neuronal Cell Cycle and Neurogenesis: Additional Arguments for Its Therapeutic Use in Alzheimer's Disease

The synthesis and release of melatonin in the brain harmonize various physiological functions. The apparent decline in melatonin levels with advanced aging is an aperture to the neurodegenerative processes. It has been indicated that down regulation of melatonin leads to alterations of circadian rhythm components, which further causes a desynchronization of several genes and results in an increased susceptibility to develop neurodegenerative diseases. Additionally, as circadian rhythms and memory are intertwined, such rhythmic disturbances influence memory formation and recall. Besides, cell cycle events exhibit a remarkable oscillatory system, which is downstream of the circadian phenomena. The linkage between the molecular machinery of the cell cycle and complex fundamental regulatory proteins emphasizes the conjectural regulatory role of cell cycle components in neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer's disease. Among the mechanisms intervening long before the signs of the disease appear, the disturbances of the circadian cycle, as well as the alteration of the machinery of the cell cycle and impaired neurogenesis, must hold our interest. Therefore, in the present review, we propose to discuss the underlying mechanisms of action of melatonin in regulating the circadian rhythm, cell cycle components and adult neurogenesis in the context of AD pathogenesis with the view that it might further assist to identify new therapeutic targets.

Physiological and pharmacological perspectives of melatonin

The pineal gland is a interface between light-dark cycle and shows neuro-endocrine functions. Melatonin is the primary hormone of pineal gland, secreted at night. The night-time melatonin peak regulates the physiological functions at dark. Melatonin has several unique features as it synchronises internal rhythm with daily and seasonal variations, regulates circadian rhythm and sleep-wake cycle. Physiologically melatonin involves in detoxification of free radicals, immune functions, neuro-protection, oncostatic effects, cardiovascular functions, reproduction, and foetal development. The precise functions of melatonin are exhibited by specific receptors. In relation to pathophysiology, impaired melatonin secretion promotes sleep disorder, cancer progression, type-2 diabetes, and neurodegenerative diseases. Several reports have highlighted the therapeutic benefits of melatonin specially related to cancer protection, sleep disorder, psychiatric disorders, and jet lag problems. This review will touch the most of the area of melatonin-oriented health impacts and its therapeutic aspects.

The Zebrafish, an Outstanding Model for Biomedical Research in the Field of Melatonin and Human Diseases

The zebrafish has become an excellent model for the study of human diseases because it offers many advantages over other vertebrate animal models. The pineal gland, as well as the biological clock and circadian rhythms, are highly conserved in zebrafish, and melatonin is produced in the pineal gland and in most organs and tissues of the body. Zebrafish have several copies of the clock genes and of aanat and asmt genes, the latter involved in melatonin synthesis. As in mammals, melatonin can act through its membrane receptors, as with zebrafish, and through mechanisms that are independent of receptors. Pineal melatonin regulates peripheral clocks and the circadian rhythms of the body, such as the sleep/wake rhythm, among others. Extrapineal melatonin functions include antioxidant activity, inducing the endogenous antioxidants enzymes, scavenging activity, removing free radicals, anti-inflammatory activity through the regulation of the NF-κB/NLRP3 inflammasome pathway, and a homeostatic role in mitochondria. In this review, we introduce the utility of zebrafish to analyze the mechanisms of action of melatonin. The data here presented showed that the zebrafish is a useful model to study human diseases and that melatonin exerts beneficial effects on many pathophysiological processes involved in these diseases.

Type II Opsins in the Eye, the Pineal Complex and the Skin of Xenopus laevis: Using Changes in Skin Pigmentation as a Readout of Visual and Circadian Activity

The eye, the pineal complex and the skin are important photosensitive organs. The African clawed frog, Xenopus laevis, senses light from the environment and adjusts skin color accordingly. For example, light reflected from the surface induces camouflage through background adaptation while light from above produces circadian variation in skin pigmentation. During embryogenesis, background adaptation, and circadian skin variation are segregated responses regulated by the secretion of α-melanocyte-stimulating hormone (α-MSH) and melatonin through the photosensitivity of the eye and pineal complex, respectively. Changes in the color of skin pigmentation have been used as a readout of biochemical and physiological processes since the initial purification of pineal melatonin from pigs, and more recently have been employed to better understand the neuroendocrine circuit that regulates background adaptation. The identification of 37 type II opsin genes in the genome of the allotetraploid X. laevis, combined with analysis of their expression in the eye, pineal complex and skin, is contributing to the elucidation of the role of opsins in the different photosensitive organs, but also brings new questions and challenges. In this review, we analyze new findings regarding the anatomical localization and functions of type II opsins in sensing light. The contribution of X. laevis in revealing the neuroendocrine circuits that regulate background adaptation and circadian light variation through changes in skin pigmentation is discussed. Finally, the presence of opsins in X. laevis skin melanophores is presented and compared with the secretory melanocytes of birds and mammals.

Co-occurring environmental stressors have emerging impacts on sensory-motor behavior

Anthropogenic activities often lead to alterations in the natural environment via multiple routes. Simultaneous occurrence of interacting environmental perturbations may influence animals via more complex pathways than when being exposed to environmental stressors discretely. In our study, we investigated the interactive effects of poor visual environment and exposure to an environmentally realistic concentration of a common contaminant on the behavior of larval zebrafish, Danio rerio. Specifically, we tested the sensory-motor behavior of zebrafish larvae by exposing them to low-light conditions and a low concentration of Bisphenol-A (BPA) for 7 days post-fertilization. We found that zebrafish exposed to both BPA and low-light conditions had significantly weaker response to a moving-visual cue. However, those exposed to only one of these treatments did not have altered response to visual cues. Since the response to a moving, visual cue involves locomotion, we also examined the distance they traveled as a proxy for activity level of individuals across treatments. However, the distance traveled by individuals did not significantly differ across treatments, suggesting that the differences in response are linked to visual sensory pathways. Here, we emphasize that the adverse effects of environmental stressors, particularly of those that occur at environmentally relevant concentrations, may emerge only when they co-occur with another environmental stressor. These findings highlight the need to incorporate multiple environmental stressors to comprehensively assess impacts that human activities have on behavioral strategies of animals.

Brain and Behavioral Asymmetry: A Lesson From Fish

It is widely acknowledged that the left and right hemispheres of human brains display both anatomical and functional asymmetries. For more than a century, brain and behavioral lateralization have been considered a uniquely human feature linked to language and handedness. However, over the past decades this idea has been challenged by an increasing number of studies describing structural asymmetries and lateralized behaviors in non-human species extending from primates to fish. Evidence suggesting that a similar pattern of brain lateralization occurs in all vertebrates, humans included, has allowed the emergence of different model systems to investigate the development of brain asymmetries and their impact on behavior. Among animal models, fish have contributed much to the research on lateralization as several fish species exhibit lateralized behaviors. For instance, behavioral studies have shown that the advantages of having an asymmetric brain, such as the ability of simultaneously processing different information and perform parallel tasks compensate the potential costs associated with poor integration of information between the two hemispheres thus helping to better understand the possible evolutionary significance of lateralization. However, these studies inferred how the two sides of the brains are differentially specialized by measuring the differences in the behavioral responses but did not allow to directly investigate the relation between anatomical and functional asymmetries. With respect to this issue, in recent years zebrafish has become a powerful model to address lateralization at different level of complexity, from genes to neural circuitry and behavior. The possibility of combining genetic manipulation of brain asymmetries with cutting-edge in vivo imaging technique and behavioral tests makes the zebrafish a valuable model to investigate the phylogeny and ontogeny of brain lateralization and its relevance for normal brain function and behavior.

Distinct effect of early and late embryonic light-stimulation on chicks' lateralization

Embryonic light exposure affects similarly functional lateralization in fish and birds. While the light acts on an asymmetric habenular system during the first post fertilization hours in zebrafish, in the domestic chicks it shapes the thalamofugal visual pathway affecting the right retinal photoreceptors in the last stages before hatching. However, recent evidence has shown that also in chicks a precocial embryonic time window seems open to light action. Here we addressed the issue of whether the light effect is comparable in the early and late sensitive periods of chicks' embryonic development by testing birds coming from early (EL) and late (LL) light stimulated eggs compared to dark maintained eggs (DK) under different conditions of vision in a gravel-grain task. The perseveration of pecks directed to irrelevant elements revealed that in all chicks the right hemisphere was heavily attracted by the novel elements when tested with the left eye. When using the right eye, instead, only DK chicks attended repeatedly to distractors whereas LL and EL chicks showed a left hemisphere advantage for fine discrimination and sustained attention; conversely, when tested binocularly, LL chicks perseverated significantly more than both DK and EL chicks, likely compensating the distraction with the analysis carried out by both hemispheres. For the first time, we unveiled a fine graded difference between the light modulation exerted during the two time windows, adding evidence to the idea that genes and environmental factors interplay in several separate routes to the modulation of the neurodevelopment of cerebral lateralization in vertebrates.

Trek2a regulates gnrh3 expression under control of melatonin receptor Mt1 and α2-adrenoceptor

Gonadotrophin-releasing hormone (GnRH) expression is associated with the two-pore domain potassium ion (K⁺) channel-related K⁺ (TREK) channel trek2a expression and melatonin levels. We aimed to investigate correlation of trek2a expression with gnrh3 expression, and regulatory mechanisms of trek2a expression by the melatonin receptor Mt1 and α₂-adrenoceptor which are regulated by melatonin. trek2a specific siRNA, Mt1 antagonist luzindole and α₂-adrenoceptor antagonist prazosin were administered into the adult zebrafish brain and gene expressions were examined by real-time PCR. trek2a specific siRNA administration significantly reduced expression levels of trek2a, gnrh3 and mt1. Luzindole administration suppressed trek2a and gnrh3 expressions. Prazosin administration reduced trek2a and gnrh3 expressions. It is suggested that Trek2a regulates gnrh3 expression under the control of Mt1 and α₂-adrenoceptor.

Endogenous melatonin promotes rhythmic recruitment of neutrophils toward an injury in zebrafish

Neutrophil recruitment to injured tissue appears to be an evolutionarily conserved strategy for organisms to fight against exogenous insults. Recent studies have shown rhythmic migration of neutrophils and several factors, including melatonin, have been implicated in regulating this rhythmic migration. The mechanisms underlying how endogenous melatonin regulates rhythmic neutrophils migration, however, are unclear. Here we generated a zebrafish annat2 mutant that lacks endogenous melatonin and, subsequently, a Tg(lyz:EGFP);aanat2^−/− transgenic line that allows for monitoring neutrophils migration visually in live zebrafish. We observed that migrating neutrophils are significantly reduced in aanat2^−/− mutant zebrafish under a light/dark condition, and the disrupted migrating rhythmicity of neutrophils in aanat2^−/− zebrafish is independent of the circadian clock. Further, we also found that endogenous melatonin enhances neutrophils migration likely by inducing the expression of cytokines such as interleukin-8 and interleukin-1β. Together, our findings provide evidence that endogenous melatonin promotes rhythmic migration of neutrophils through cytokines in zebrafish.

Comparison of melatonin with growth factors in promoting precursor cells proliferation in adult mouse subventricular zone

Melatonin, secreted mainly by the pineal gland, plays roles in various physiological functions including protecting cell death. We showed in previous study that the proliferation and differentiation of precursor cells from the adult mouse subventricular zone (SVZ) can be modulated by melatonin via the MT1 melatonin receptor. Since melatonin and epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) share some signaling pathway components, we investigated whether melatonin can promote the proliferation of precursor cells from the adult mouse SVZ via the extracellular signal-regulated protein kinase /mitogen-activated protein kinase (ERK/MAPK) pathways in comparison with epidermal growth factor (EGF). Melatonin-induced ERK/MAPK pathways compared with EGF were measured by using in vitro and vivo models. We used neurosphere proliferation assay, immunocytochemistry, and immuno-blotting to analyze significant differences between melatonin and growth factor treatment. We also used specific antagonist and inhibitors to confirm the exactly signaling pathway including luzindole and U0126. We found that significant increase in proliferation was observed when two growth factors (EGF+bFGF) and melatonin were used simultaneously compared with EGF + bFGF or compared with melatonin alone. In addition, the present result suggested the synergistic effect occurred of melatonin and growth factors on the activating the ERK/MAPK pathway. This study exhibited that melatonin could act as a trophic factor, increasing proliferation in precursor cells mediated through the melatonin receptor coupled to ERK/MAPK signaling pathways. Understanding the mechanism by which melatonin regulates precursor cells may conduct to the development of novel strategies for neurodegenerative disease therapy.

Melatonin receptor activation increases glutamatergic synaptic transmission in the rat medial lateral habenula

Melatonin (MLT) is secreted from the pineal gland and mediates its physiological effects through activation of two G protein-coupled receptors, MT1 and MT2 . These receptors are expressed in several brain areas, including the habenular complex, a pair of nuclei that relay information from forebrain to midbrain and modulate a plethora of behaviors, including sleep, mood, and pain. However, so far, the precise mechanisms by which MLT control the function of habenula neurons remain unknown. Using whole cell recordings from male rat brain slices, we examined the effects of MLT on the excitability of medial lateral habenula (MLHb) neurons. We found that MLT had no significant effects on the intrinsic excitability of MLHb neurons, but profoundly increased the amplitude of glutamate-mediated evoked excitatory post-synaptic currents (EPSC). The increase in strength of glutamate synapses onto MLHb neurons was mediated by an increase in glutamate release. The MLT-induced increase in glutamatergic synaptic transmission was blocked by the competitive MT1 /MT2 receptor antagonist luzindole (LUZ). These results unravel a potential cellular mechanism by which MLT receptor activation enhances the excitability of MLHb neurons. The MLT-mediated control of glutamatergic inputs to the MLHb may play a key role in the modulation of various behaviors controlled by the habenular complex.

Asymmetry of the Brain: Development and Implications

Although the left and right hemispheres of our brains develop with a high degree of symmetry at both the anatomical and functional levels, it has become clear that subtle structural differences exist between the two sides and that each is dominant in processing specific cognitive tasks. As the result of evolutionary conservation or convergence, lateralization of the brain is found in both vertebrates and invertebrates, suggesting that it provides significant fitness for animal life. This widespread feature of hemispheric specialization has allowed the emergence of model systems to study its development and, in some cases, to link anatomical asymmetries to brain function and behavior. Here, we present some of what is known about brain asymmetry in humans and model organisms as well as what is known about the impact of environmental and genetic factors on brain asymmetry development. We specifically highlight the progress made in understanding the development of epithalamic asymmetries in zebrafish and how this model provides an exciting opportunity to address brain asymmetry at different levels of complexity.

Exogenous melatonin inhibits neutrophil migration through suppression of ERK activation

Neutrophil migration to inflammatory sites is the fundamental process of innate immunity among organisms against pathogen invasion. As a major sleep adjusting hormone, melatonin has also been proved to be involved in various inflammatory events. This study aimed to evaluate the impact of exogenous melatonin on neutrophil migration to the injury site in live zebrafish and further investigate whether ERK signaling is involved in this process. Using the tail fin transection model, the fluorescently labeled neutrophil was in vivo visualized in transgenic Tg(lyz:EGFP), Tg(lyz:DsRed) zebrafish. We found that exogenous melatonin administration dramatically inhibited the injury-induced neutrophil migration in a dose-dependent and time-dependent manner. The inhibited effect of melatonin on neutrophil migration could be attenuated by melatonin receptor 1, 2, and 3 antagonists. The ERK phosphorylation level was significantly decreased post injury when treated with melatonin. The blocking of ERK activation with inhibitor PD0325901 suppressed the number of migrated neutrophils in response to injury. However, the activation of ERK with the epidermal growth factor could impair the inhibited effect of melatonin on neutrophil migration. We also detected that PD0325901 significantly suppressed the in vivo neutrophils transmigrating over the vessel endothelial cell using the transgenic Tg(flk:EGFP);(lyz:DsRed) line labeled as both vessel and neutrophil. Taking all of these data together, the results indicated that exogenous melatonin had an anti-migratory effect on neutrophils by blocking the ERK phosphorylation signal, and it led to the subsequent adhesion molecule expression. Thus, the crossing of the vessel endothelial cells of neutrophils became difficult.

Melatonin regulates the rhythmic migration of neutrophils in live zebrafish

The circadian clock plays a vital role in physiology and behavior such as the sleep-wake cycle and blood pressure and hormone levels. Immune responses also display circadian rhythmicity and particularly pineal melatonin contributes to immunological processes. Little attention, however, is given to mechanisms underlying rhythmic neutrophil responses to the injury. Here, we used a transgenic Tg(lyz:EGFP) zebrafish tail fin transection model to investigate whether the recruitment of neutrophils toward the injured site is regulated by the circadian clock. We found that migrating neutrophils display robust rhythmicity, peaking at darkness. Melatonin positively regulates rhythmic neutrophil migration, as evidenced that treatment with melatonin at low dosage can significantly enhance neutrophil recruitment toward the injured site, which is attenuated by luzindole treatment and in pinealectomized fish. Furthermore, using a transgenic zebrafish eyeball model, we observed that melatonin enhances secretion of two cytokines, TNF-α and IL-8, both of which markedly enhance neutrophil migration. Taken together, these results highlight a positive role of melatonin in rhythmic neutrophil migration and help obtain a better understanding of circadian regulation in immunology.

A review of the melatonin functions in zebrafish physiology

Melatonin is part of the evolutionary conserved highly functional network in vertebrates. It plays a central role in the adaptative behavior of the animal to the environment, including entrainment of daily and annual physiological rhythms, reproductive behavior, food intake, locomotor activity, growth, and breeding performance. In zebrafish, apart from its synchronizing capabilities, melatonin seems to have a major role in multiple physiological processes. Extensive knowledge of its genome and the identification of a series of genes with the same functions as those in humans, the relative ease of obtaining mutants, and the similarities between zebrafish and human pathologies make it an excellent experimental model organism of human diseases. Moreover, it is a common experimental species because of easy handling, breeding, and developmental control. Among other pathophysiologies, zebrafish are now used in studies of neurodegeneration and neurological diseases, endocrine diseases, behavior, muscular dystrophies, developmental alterations, circadian rhythms, and drugs screening. The purpose of this review was to update the current knowledge on the synthesis and biological functions of melatonin in zebrafish, keeping in mind its relevance not only in the physiology of the animal, but also in pathophysiological conditions.

Functional development of the circadian clock in the zebrafish pineal gland

The zebrafish constitutes a powerful model organism with unique advantages for investigating the vertebrate circadian timing system and its regulation by light. In particular, the remarkably early and rapid development of the zebrafish circadian system has facilitated exploring the factors that control the onset of circadian clock function during embryogenesis. Here, we review our understanding of the molecular basis underlying functional development of the central clock in the zebrafish pineal gland. Furthermore, we examine how the directly light-entrainable clocks in zebrafish cell lines have facilitated unravelling the general mechanisms underlying light-induced clock gene expression. Finally, we summarize how analysis of the light-induced transcriptome and miRNome of the zebrafish pineal gland has provided insight into the regulation of the circadian system by light, including the involvement of microRNAs in shaping the kinetics of light- and clock-regulated mRNA expression. The relative contributions of the pineal gland central clock and the distributed peripheral oscillators to the synchronization of circadian rhythms at the whole animal level are a crucial question that still remains to be elucidated in the zebrafish model.

Left-right asymmetry is required for the habenulae to respond to both visual and olfactory stimuli

Left-right asymmetries are most likely a universal feature of bilaterian nervous systems and may serve to increase neural capacity by specializing equivalent structures on left and right sides for distinct roles [1]. However, little is known about how asymmetries are encoded within vertebrate neural circuits and how lateralization influences processing of information in the brain. Consequently, it remains unclear the extent to which lateralization of the nervous system is important for normal cognitive and other brain functions and whether defects in lateralization contribute to neurological deficits [2]. Here we show that sensory responses to light and odor are lateralized in larval zebrafish habenulae and that loss of brain asymmetry leads to concomitant loss of responsiveness to either visual or olfactory stimuli. We find that in wild-type zebrafish, most habenular neurons responding to light are present on the left, whereas neurons responding to odor are more frequent on the right. Manipulations that reverse the direction of brain asymmetry reverse the functional properties of habenular neurons, whereas manipulations that generate either double-left- or double-right-sided brains lead to loss of habenular responsiveness to either odor or light, respectively. Our results indicate that loss of brain lateralization has significant consequences upon sensory processing and circuit function.

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Habenular neuron responses to light and odor stimuli are lateralized

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Lateralized habenular light responses depend upon the eyes

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Loss of brain asymmetry leads to a loss of either light or odor responses

Effect of lighting conditions on zebrafish growth and development

In the underwater environment, the properties of light (intensity and spectrum) change rapidly with depth and water quality. In this article, we have described how and to what extent lighting conditions can influence the development, growth, and survival of zebrafish. Fertilized eggs and the corresponding larvae were exposed to different visible light wavelengths (violet, blue, green, yellow, red, and white) in a 12-h light-12-h dark (LD) cycle until 30 days posthatching (dph), when the expression of morphometric parameters and growth (igf1a, igf2a)- and stress-related (crh and pomca) genes were examined. Another group of larvae was raised under constant darkness (DD) until 5 or 10 dph, after which they were transferred to a LD of white light. A third group remained under DD to investigate the effects of light deprivation upon zebrafish development. The results revealed that the hatching rate was highest under blue and violet light, while total length at 30 dph was greatest under blue, white, and violet light. Red light led to reduced feeding activity and poor survival (100% mortality). Larvae raised under constant white light (LL) showed a higher proportion of malformations, as did larvae raised under LD violet light. The expression of growth and stress factors was upregulated in the violet (igf1a, igf2a, pomca, and chr) and blue (igf2a) groups, which is consistent with the higher growth recorded and the higher proportion of malformations detected under the violet light. All larvae kept under DD died before 18 dph, but the survival rates improved in larvae transferred to LD at 5 dph and at 10 dph. In summary, these findings revealed that lighting conditions are crucial factors influencing zebrafish larval development and growth.

F-spondin/spon1b expression patterns in developing and adult zebrafish

F-spondin, an extracellular matrix protein, is an important player in embryonic morphogenesis and CNS development, but its presence and role later in life remains largely unknown. We generated a transgenic zebrafish in which GFP is expressed under the control of the F-spondin (spon1b) promoter, and used it in combination with complementary techniques to undertake a detailed characterization of the expression patterns of F-spondin in developing and adult brain and periphery. We found that F-spondin is often associated with structures forming long neuronal tracts, including retinal ganglion cells, the olfactory bulb, the habenula, and the nucleus of the medial longitudinal fasciculus (nMLF). F-spondin expression coincides with zones of adult neurogenesis and is abundant in CSF-contacting secretory neurons, especially those in the hypothalamus. Use of this new transgenic model also revealed F-spondin expression patterns in the peripheral CNS, notably in enteric neurons, and in peripheral tissues involved in active patterning or proliferation in adults, including the endoskeleton of zebrafish fins and the continuously regenerating pharyngeal teeth. Moreover, patterning of the regenerating caudal fin following fin amputation in adult zebrafish was associated with F-spondin expression in the blastema, a proliferative region critical for tissue reconstitution. Together, these findings suggest major roles for F-spondin in the CNS and periphery of the developing and adult vertebrate.

Habenula circuit development: past, present, and future

The habenular neural circuit is attracting increasing attention from researchers in fields as diverse as neuroscience, medicine, behavior, development, and evolution. Recent studies have revealed that this part of the limbic system in the dorsal diencephalon is involved in reward, addiction, and other behaviors and its impairment is associated with various neurological conditions and diseases. Since the initial description of the dorsal diencephalic conduction system (DDC) with the habenulae in its center at the end of the nineteenth century, increasingly sophisticated techniques have resolved much of its anatomy and have shown that these pathways relay information from different parts of the forebrain to the tegmentum, midbrain, and hindbrain. The first part of this review gives a brief historical overview on how the improving experimental approaches have allowed the stepwise uncovering much of the architecture of the habenula circuit as we know it today. Our brain distributes tasks differentially between left and right and it has become a paradigm that this functional lateralization is a universal feature of vertebrates. Moreover, task dependent differential brain activities have been linked to anatomical differences across the left–right axis in humans. A good way to further explore this fundamental issue will be to study the functional consequences of subtle changes in neural network formation, which requires that we fully understand DDC system development. As the habenular circuit is evolutionarily highly conserved, researchers have the option to perform such difficult experiments in more experimentally amenable vertebrate systems. Indeed, research in the last decade has shown that the zebrafish is well suited for the study of DDC system development and the phenomenon of functional lateralization. We will critically discuss the advantages of the zebrafish model, available techniques, and others that are needed to fully understand habenular circuit development.