Scribble is required for normal epithelial cell-cell contacts and lumen morphogenesis in the mammalian lung

The Scribble/SGEF/Dlg1 complex regulates the stability of apical junctions in epithelial cells

SGEF, a RhoG specific GEF, can form a ternary complex with the Scribble polarity complex proteins Scribble and Dlg1, which regulates the formation and maintenance of adherens junctions and barrier function of epithelial cells. Notably, silencing SGEF results in a dramatic downregulation of the expression of both E-cadherin and ZO-1. However, the molecular mechanisms involved in the regulation of this pathway are not known. Here, we describe a novel signaling pathway governed by the Scribble/SGEF/Dlg1 complex. Our results show that an intact ternary complex is required to maintain the stability of the apical junctions, the expression of ZO-1, and TJ permeability. In contrast, only SGEF is necessary to regulate E-cadherin expression. The absence of SGEF destabilizes the E-cadherin/catenin complex at the membrane, triggering a positive feedback loop that exacerbates the phenotype through the repression of E-cadherin transcription in a process that involves the internalization of E-cadherin by endocytosis, β-catenin signaling and the transcriptional repressor Slug.

Sortilin in biliary epithelial cells promotes ductular reaction and fibrosis during cholestatic injury

Cholestatic injuries are accompanied by a ductular reaction, initiated by proliferation and activation of biliary epithelial cells (BEC), leading to fibrosis. Sortilin (Sort1) facilitates IL-6 secretion and leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF) signaling. This study investigated the interplay between sortilin, IL-6 and LIF in cholestatic injury-induced ductular reaction, morphogenesis of new ducts and fibrosis. Cholestatic injury was induced by bile duct ligation (BDL) in WT and Sort1-/- mice, with or without augmentation of IL-6 or LIF. Mice with BEC sortilin deletion (HgfapcreSort1fl/fl) and controls were subjected to BDL and 3,5-Diethoxycarbonyl-1,4-Dihydrocollidine diet (DDC)-induced cholestatic injury. Sort1-/- mice displayed reduced BEC proliferation and expression of BEC reactive markers. Administration of LIF or IL-6 restored BEC proliferation in Sort1-/- mice, without affecting BEC reactive or inflammatory markers. Sort1-/- mice also displayed impaired morphogenesis, which was corrected by LIF treatment. Similarly, HgfapcreSort1fl/f mice exhibited reduced BEC proliferation, but similar expression of reactive and inflammatory markers. Serum IL-6 and LIF levels were comparable, yet liver pSTAT3 was reduced, indicating that sortilin is essential for co-activation of LIFR/gp130 signaling in BEC, but not for IL-6 secretion. Notably, HgfapcreSortfl/fl mice displayed impaired morphogenesis and diminished fibrosis following BDL and DDC. In conclusion, sortilin-governed engagement of LIF signaling in BEC promotes ductular reaction and morphogenesis during cholestatic injury. Moreover, BEC sortilin is pivotal for the development of fibrosis.

Cell polarity signaling in the regulation of syncytiotrophoblast homeostasis and inflammatory response

Maintenance of cell polarity and the structure of the apical surface of epithelial cells is a tightly regulated process necessary for tissue homeostasis. The syncytiotrophoblast of the human placenta is an entirely unique epithelial layer. It is a single giant multinucleate syncytial layer that comprises the maternal-facing surface of the human placenta. Like other epithelia, the syncytiotrophoblast is highly polarized with the apical surface dominated by microvillar membrane protrusions. Syncytiotrophoblast dysfunction is a key feature of pregnancy complications like preeclampsia. Preeclampsia is commonly associated with a heightened maternal immune response and pro-inflammatory environment. Importantly, reports have observed disruption of syncytiotrophoblast apical microvilli in placentas from preeclamptic pregnancies, indicating a loss of apical polarity, but little is known about how the syncytiotrophoblast regulates polarity. Here, we review the evolutionarily conserved mechanisms that regulate apical-basal polarization in epithelial cells, and the emerging evidence that PAR polarity complex components are critical regulators of syncytiotrophoblast homeostasis and apical membrane structure. Pro-inflammatory cytokines have been shown to disrupt the expression of polarity regulating proteins. We also discuss initial data showing that syncytiotrophoblast apical polarity can be disrupted by the addition of the pro-inflammatory cytokine tumor necrosis factor-α, revealing that physiologically relevant signals can modulate syncytiotrophoblast polarization. Since disrupted polarity is a feature of preeclampsia, further elucidation of the syncytiotrophoblast-specific polarity signaling network and testing whether the disruption of polarity-factor signaling networks may contribute to the development of preeclampsia is warranted.

An interaction between OTULIN and SCRIB uncovers roles for linear ubiquitination in planar cell polarity

Planar cell polarity (PCP) plays critical roles in developmental and homeostatic processes. Membrane presentation of PCP complexes containing Van Gogh-like (VANGL) transmembrane proteins is central to PCP and can be directed by the scaffold protein scribble (SCRIB). The role atypical linear ubiquitin (Met1-Ub) chains might play in PCP is unknown. Here, HEK293 cell-based interactomic analyses of the Met1-Ub deubiquitinase OTULIN revealed that OTULIN can interact with SCRIB. Moreover, Met1-Ub chains associated with VANGL2 and PRICKLE1, but not SCRIB, can direct VANGL2 surface presentation. Mouse embryos lacking Otulin showed variable neural tube malformations, including rare open neural tubes, a deficit associated with PCP disruption in mice. In Madin-Darby canine kidney cells, in which the enrichment of VANGL2-GFP proteins at cell-cell contacts represents activated PCP complexes, endogenous OTULIN was recruited to these sites. In the human MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cell model, OTULIN loss caused deficits in Wnt5a-induced filopodia extension and trafficking of transfected HA-VANGL2. Taken together, these findings support a role for linear (de)ubiquitination in PCP signaling. The association of Met1-Ub chains with PCP complex components offers new opportunities for integrating PCP signaling with OTULIN-dependent immune and inflammatory pathways.

Membrane recruitment of the polarity protein Scribble by the cell adhesion receptor TMIGD1

Scribble (Scrib) is a multidomain polarity protein and member of the leucine-rich repeat and PDZ domain (LAP) protein family. A loss of Scrib expression is associated with disturbed apical-basal polarity and tumor formation. The tumor-suppressive activity of Scrib correlates with its membrane localization. Despite the identification of numerous Scrib-interacting proteins, the mechanisms regulating its membrane recruitment are not fully understood. Here, we identify the cell adhesion receptor TMIGD1 as a membrane anchor of Scrib. TMIGD1 directly interacts with Scrib through a PDZ domain-mediated interaction and recruits Scrib to the lateral membrane domain in epithelial cells. We characterize the association of TMIGD1 with each Scrib PDZ domain and describe the crystal structure of the TMIGD1 C-terminal peptide complexed with PDZ domain 1 of Scrib. Our findings describe a mechanism of Scrib membrane localization and contribute to the understanding of the tumor-suppressive activity of Scrib.

Planar cell polarity regulators in asymmetric organogenesis during development and disease

The phenomenon of planar cell polarity is critically required for a myriad of morphogenetic processes in metazoan and is accurately controlled by several conserved modules. Six "core" proteins, including Frizzled, Flamingo (Celsr), Van Gogh (Vangl), Dishevelled, Prickle, and Diego (Ankrd6), are major components of the Wnt/planar cell polarity pathway. The Fat/Dchs protocadherins and the Scrib polarity complex also function to instruct cellular polarization. In vertebrates, all these pathways are essential for tissue and organ morphogenesis, such as neural tube closure, left-right symmetry breaking, heart and gut morphogenesis, lung and kidney branching, stereociliary bundle orientation, and proximal-distal limb elongation. Mutations in planar polarity genes are closely linked to various congenital diseases. Striking advances have been made in deciphering their contribution to the establishment of spatially oriented pattern in developing organs and the maintenance of tissue homeostasis. The challenge remains to clarify the complex interplay of different polarity pathways in organogenesis and the link of cell polarity to cell fate specification. Interdisciplinary approaches are also important to understand the roles of mechanical forces in coupling cellular polarization and differentiation. This review outlines current advances on planar polarity regulators in asymmetric organ formation, with the aim to identify questions that deserve further investigation.

Simple Models of Lung Development

Models are essential to further our understanding of lung development and regeneration and to facilitate identification and testing of potential treatments for lung diseases. A wide variety of rodent and human models are available that recapitulate one or more stages of lung development. This chapter describes the existing 'simple' in vitro, in silico and ex vivo models of lung development. We define which stage(s) of development each model recapitulates and highlight their pros and cons.

Polarity in respiratory development, homeostasis and disease

The respiratory system is composed of a multitude of cells that organize to form complex branched airways that end in alveoli, which respectively function to guide air flow and mediate gas exchange with the bloodstream. The organization of the respiratory sytem relies on distinct forms of cell polarity, which guide lung morphogenesis and patterning in development and provide homeostatic barrier protection from microbes and toxins. The stability of lung alveoli, the luminal secretion of surfactants and mucus in the airways, and the coordinated motion of multiciliated cells that generate proximal fluid flow, are all critical functions regulated by cell polarity, with defects in polarity contributing to respiratory disease etiology. Here, we summarize the current knowledge of cell polarity in lung development and homeostasis, highlighting key roles for polarity in alveolar and airway epithelial function and outlining relationships with microbial infections and diseases, such as cancer.

Apical-basal polarity and the control of epithelial form and function

Epithelial cells are the most common cell type in all animals, forming the sheets and tubes that compose most organs and tissues. Apical-basal polarity is essential for epithelial cell form and function, as it determines the localization of the adhesion molecules that hold the cells together laterally and the occluding junctions that act as barriers to paracellular diffusion. Polarity must also target the secretion of specific cargoes to the apical, lateral or basal membranes and organize the cytoskeleton and internal architecture of the cell. Apical-basal polarity in many cells is established by conserved polarity factors that define the apical (Crumbs, Stardust/PALS1, aPKC, PAR-6 and CDC42), junctional (PAR-3) and lateral (Scribble, DLG, LGL, Yurt and RhoGAP19D) domains, although recent evidence indicates that not all epithelia polarize by the same mechanism. Research has begun to reveal the dynamic interactions between polarity factors and how they contribute to polarity establishment and maintenance. Elucidating these mechanisms is essential to better understand the roles of apical-basal polarity in morphogenesis and how defects in polarity contribute to diseases such as cancer.

Cytosolic β-catenin is involved in macrophage M2 activation and antiviral defense in teleosts: Delineation through molecular characterization of β-catenin homolog from redlip mullet (Planiliza haematocheila)

β-catenin is a structural protein that makes the cell-cell connection in adherence junctions. Besides the structural functions, it also plays a role as a central transducer of the canonical Wnt signaling cascade, regulating nearly four hundred genes related to various cellular processes. Recently the immune functions of β-catenin during pathogenic invasion have gained more attention. In the present study, we elucidated the immune function of fish β-catenin by identifying and characterizing the β-catenin homolog (PhCatβ) from redlip mullet, Planiliza haematocheila. The complete open reading frame of PhCatβ consists of 2352 bp, which encodes a putative β-catenin homolog (molecular weight: 85.7 kDa). Multiple sequence alignment analysis revealed that β-catenin is highly conserved in vertebrates. Phylogenetic reconstruction demonstrated the close evolutionary relationship between PhCatβ and other fish β-catenin counterparts. The tissue distribution analysis showed the highest mRNA expression of PhCatβ in heart tissues of the redlip mullet under normal physiological conditions. While in response to pathogenic stress, the PhCatβ transcription level was dramatically increased in the spleen and gill tissues. The overexpression of PhCatβ stimulated M2 polarization and cell proliferation of murine RAW 264.7 macrophage. In fish cells, the overexpression of PhCatβ resulted in a significant upregulation of antiviral gene transcription and vice versa. Moreover, the overexpression of PhCatβ could inhibit the replication of VHSV in FHM cells. Our results strongly suggest that PhCatβ plays a role in macrophage activation and antiviral immune response in redlip mullet.

Scribble mutation disrupts convergent extension and apical constriction during mammalian neural tube closure

Morphogenesis of the vertebrate neural tube occurs by elongation and bending of the neural plate, tissue shape changes that are driven at the cellular level by polarized cell intercalation and cell shape changes, notably apical constriction and cell wedging. Coordinated cell intercalation, apical constriction, and wedging undoubtedly require complex underlying cytoskeletal dynamics and remodeling of adhesions. Mutations of the gene encoding Scribble result in neural tube defects in mice, however the cellular and molecular mechanisms by which Scrib regulates neural cell behavior remain unknown. Analysis of Scribble mutants revealed defects in neural tissue shape changes, and live cell imaging of mouse embryos showed that the Scrib mutation results in defects in polarized cell intercalation, particularly in rosette resolution, and failure of both cell apical constriction and cell wedging. Scrib mutant embryos displayed aberrant expression of the junctional proteins ZO-1, Par3, Par6, E- and N-cadherins, and the cytoskeletal proteins actin and myosin. These findings show that Scribble has a central role in organizing the molecular complexes regulating the morphomechanical neural cell behaviors underlying vertebrate neurulation, and they advance our understanding of the molecular mechanisms involved in mammalian neural tube closure.

Structural basis of the human Scribble-Vangl2 association in health and disease

Scribble is a critical cell polarity regulator that has been shown to work as either an oncogene or tumor suppressor in a context dependent manner, and also impacts cell migration, tissue architecture and immunity. Mutations in Scribble lead to neural tube defects in mice and humans, which has been attributed to a loss of interaction with the planar cell polarity regulator Vangl2. We show that the Scribble PDZ domains 1, 2 and 3 are able to interact with the C-terminal PDZ binding motif of Vangl2 and have now determined crystal structures of these Scribble PDZ domains bound to the Vangl2 peptide. Mapping of mammalian neural tube defect mutations reveal that mutations located distal to the canonical PDZ domain ligand binding groove can not only ablate binding to Vangl2 but also disrupt binding to multiple other signaling regulators. Our findings suggest that PDZ-associated neural tube defect mutations in Scribble may not simply act in a Vangl2 dependent manner but as broad-spectrum loss of function mutants by disrupting the global Scribble-mediated interaction network.

Polarity scaffolds signaling in epithelial cell permeability

As an integral part of the innate immune system, the epithelial membrane is exposed to an array of insults that may trigger an immune response. One of the immune system's main functions is to regulate the level of communications between the mucosa and the lumen of various tissues. While it is clear that inhaled or ingested substances, or microorganisms may induce changes that affect the epithelial barrier in various ways, the proteins involved in the signaling cascades and physiological events leading to the regulation and maintenance of the barrier are not always well characterized. We review here some of the signaling components involved in regulating the barrier's paracellular permeability, and their potential effects on the activation of an immune response. While an effective immune response must be launched against pathogenic insults, tolerance must also be maintained for non-pathogenic antigens such as those in the commensal flora or for endogenous metabolites. Along with other members of the innate and adaptive immunity, the endocannabinoid system also plays an instrumental role in maintaining the balance between inflammation and tolerance. We discuss the potential effects of endo- and phytocannabinoids on epithelial permeability and how the dysregulation of this system could be involved in diseases and targeted for therapy.

Fgf10/Fgfr2b Signaling Orchestrates the Symphony of Molecular, Cellular, and Physical Processes Required for Harmonious Airway Branching Morphogenesis

Airway branching morphogenesis depends on the intricate orchestration of numerous biological and physical factors connected across different spatial scales. One of the key regulatory pathways controlling airway branching is fibroblast growth factor 10 (Fgf10) signaling via its epithelial fibroblast growth factor receptor 2b (Fgfr2b). Fine reviews have been published on the molecular mechanisms, in general, involved in branching morphogenesis, including those mechanisms, in particular, connected to Fgf10/Fgfr2b signaling. However, a comprehensive review looking at all the major biological and physical factors involved in branching, at the different scales at which branching operates, and the known role of Fgf10/Fgfr2b therein, is missing. In the current review, we attempt to summarize the existing literature on airway branching morphogenesis by taking a broad approach. We focus on the biophysical and mechanical forces directly shaping epithelial bud initiation, branch elongation, and branch tip bifurcation. We then shift focus to more passive means by which branching proceeds, via extracellular matrix remodeling and the influence of the other pulmonary arborized networks: the vasculature and nerves. We end the review by briefly discussing work in computational modeling of airway branching. Throughout, we emphasize the known or speculative effects of Fgfr2b signaling at each point of discussion. It is our aim to promote an understanding of branching morphogenesis that captures the multi-scalar biological and physical nature of the phenomenon, and the interdisciplinary approach to its study.

An overview of signaling pathways regulating YAP/TAZ activity

YAP and TAZ are ubiquitously expressed homologous proteins originally identified as penultimate effectors of the Hippo signaling pathway, which plays a key role in maintaining mammalian tissue/organ size. Presently, it is known that YAP/TAZ also interact with various non-Hippo signaling pathways, and have diverse roles in multiple biological processes, including cell proliferation, tissue regeneration, cell lineage fate determination, tumorigenesis, and mechanosensing. In this review, we first examine the various microenvironmental cues and signaling pathways that regulate YAP/TAZ activation, through the Hippo and non-Hippo signaling pathways. This is followed by a brief summary of the interactions of YAP/TAZ with TEAD1-4 and a diverse array of other non-TEAD transcription factors. Finally, we offer a critical perspective on how increasing knowledge of the regulatory mechanisms of YAP/TAZ signaling might open the door to novel therapeutic applications in the interrelated fields of biomaterials, tissue engineering, regenerative medicine and synthetic biology.

The Planar Polarity Component VANGL2 Is a Key Regulator of Mechanosignaling

VANGL2 is a component of the planar cell polarity (PCP) pathway, which regulates tissue polarity and patterning. The Vangl2 Lp mutation causes lung branching defects due to dysfunctional actomyosin-driven morphogenesis. Since the actomyosin network regulates cell mechanics, we speculated that mechanosignaling could be impaired when VANGL2 is disrupted. Here, we used live-imaging of precision-cut lung slices (PCLS) from Vangl2 Lp/+ mice to determine that alveologenesis is attenuated as a result of impaired epithelial cell migration. Vangl2 Lp/+ tracheal epithelial cells (TECs) and alveolar epithelial cells (AECs) exhibited highly disrupted actomyosin networks and focal adhesions (FAs). Functional assessment of cellular forces confirmed impaired traction force generation in Vangl2 Lp/+ TECs. YAP signaling in Vangl2 Lp airway epithelium was reduced, consistent with a role for VANGL2 in mechanotransduction. Furthermore, activation of RhoA signaling restored actomyosin organization in Vangl2 Lp/+ , confirming RhoA as an effector of VANGL2. This study identifies a pivotal role for VANGL2 in mechanosignaling, which underlies the key role of the PCP pathway in tissue morphogenesis.

The formation of paranodal spirals at the ends of CNS myelin sheaths requires the planar polarity protein Vangl2

During axonal ensheathment, noncompact myelin channels formed at lateral edges of the myelinating process become arranged into tight paranodal spirals that resemble loops when cut in cross section. These adhere to the axon, concentrating voltage-dependent sodium channels at nodes of Ranvier and patterning the surrounding axon into distinct molecular domains. The signals responsible for forming and maintaining the complex structure of paranodal myelin are poorly understood. Here, we test the hypothesis that the planar cell polarity determinant Vangl2 organizes paranodal myelin. We show that Vangl2 is concentrated at paranodes and that, following conditional knockout of Vangl2 in oligodendrocytes, the paranodal spiral loosens, accompanied by disruption to the microtubule cytoskeleton and mislocalization of autotypic adhesion molecules between loops within the spiral. Adhesion of the spiral to the axon is unaffected. This results in disruptions to axonal patterning at nodes of Ranvier, paranodal axon diameter and conduction velocity. When taken together with our previous work showing that loss of the apico-basal polarity protein Scribble has the opposite phenotype-loss of axonal adhesion but no effect on loop-loop autotypic adhesion-our results identify a novel mechanism by which polarity proteins control the shape of nodes of Ranvier and regulate conduction in the CNS.

Scribble and Discs-large direct initial assembly and positioning of adherens junctions during the establishment of apical-basal polarity

Apical-basal polarity is a fundamental property of animal tissues. Drosophila embryos provide an outstanding model for defining mechanisms that initiate and maintain polarity. Polarity is initiated during cellularization, when cell-cell adherens junctions are positioned at the future boundary of apical and basolateral domains. Polarity maintenance then involves complementary and antagonistic interplay between apical and basal polarity complexes. The Scribble/Dlg module is well-known for promoting basolateral identity during polarity maintenance. Here, we report a surprising role for Scribble/Dlg in polarity initiation, placing it near the top of the network-positioning adherens junctions. Scribble and Dlg are enriched in nascent adherens junctions, are essential for adherens junction positioning and supermolecular assembly, and also play a role in basal junction assembly. We test the hypotheses for the underlying mechanisms, exploring potential effects on protein trafficking, cytoskeletal polarity or Par-1 localization/function. Our data suggest that the Scribble/Dlg module plays multiple roles in polarity initiation. Different domains of Scribble contribute to these distinct roles. Together, these data reveal novel roles for Scribble/Dlg as master scaffolds regulating assembly of distinct junctional complexes at different times and places.

Tandem mass tag (TMT) proteomic analysis of fetal lungs revealed differential expression of tight junction proteins in a rat model of congenital diaphragmatic hernia

OBJECTIVE

Congenital diaphragmatic hernia (CDH) is a common and often lethal birth defect characterized by congenital lung malformation, which severely affects neonate prognosis and mortality. This study aimed to investigate differences in protein expression in order to elucidate the mechanism of CDH-associated pulmonary hypoplasia during the early stage of lung development using tandem mass tag (TMT) quantitative proteomics.

METHODS

Nitrofen was administered orally to establish a rat CDH model, and pathological changes were evaluated through hematoxylin-eosin (H&E), PCNA, and Ki67 staining at the pseudoglandular stage. Fetal lungs were then collected, pooled before TMT labeling, and subjected to mass spectrometry. Immunohistochemistry (IHC), Western blotting, and Q-PCR were used to further validate the candidate proteins.

RESULTS

A total of 79 differentially expressed proteins (DEPs) were identified when CDH and control lungs were compared, and further bioinformatics analysis showed that these proteins play important roles in tight-junctions, phospholipase D signaling, and the HIF-1 signaling pathway. Three differentially expressed proteins, Cldn3, Magi1, and Myh9 are involved in the tight-junction pathway (P < 0.05), and their differential expressions were confirmed by IHC, Western blotting, and Q-PCR.

CONCLUSION

These findings indicate that alterations of tight-junction protein expression may play an important role in the pathogenesis of abnormal lung development in CDH. Further studies are warranted to verify the mechanism by which these tight-junction proteins influence the pathogenesis of CDH-associated pulmonary hypoplasia.

Scribble, Erbin, and Lano redundantly regulate epithelial polarity and apical adhesion complex

The basolateral protein Scribble (Scrib), a member of the LAP protein family, is essential for epithelial apicobasal polarity (ABP) in Drosophila However, a conserved function for this protein in mammals is unclear. Here we show that the crucial role for Scrib in ABP has remained obscure due to the compensatory function of two other LAP proteins, Erbin and Lano. A combined Scrib/Erbin/Lano knockout disorganizes the cell-cell junctions and the cytoskeleton. It also results in mislocalization of several apical (Par6, aPKC, and Pals1) and basolateral (Llgl1 and Llgl2) identity proteins. These defects can be rescued by the conserved "LU" region of these LAP proteins. Structure-function analysis of this region determined that the so-called LAPSDb domain is essential for basolateral targeting of these proteins, while the LAPSDa domain is essential for supporting the membrane basolateral identity and binding to Llgl. In contrast to the key role in Drosophila, mislocalization of Llgl proteins does not appear to be critical in the scrib ABP phenotype.

SGEF forms a complex with Scribble and Dlg1 and regulates epithelial junctions and contractility

The canonical Scribble polarity complex is implicated in regulation of epithelial junctions and apical polarity. Here, we show that SGEF, a RhoG-specific GEF, forms a ternary complex with Scribble and Dlg1, two members of the Scribble complex. SGEF targets to apical junctions in a Scribble-dependent fashion and functions in the regulation of actomyosin-based contractility and barrier function at tight junctions as well as E-cadherin-mediated formation of adherens junctions. Surprisingly, SGEF does not control the establishment of polarity. However, in 3D cysts, SGEF regulates the formation of a single open lumen. Interestingly, SGEF's nucleotide exchange activity regulates the formation and maintenance of adherens junctions, and in cysts the number of lumens formed, whereas SGEF's scaffolding activity is critical for regulation of actomyosin contractility and lumen opening. We propose that SGEF plays a key role in coordinating junctional assembly and actomyosin contractility by bringing together Scribble and Dlg1 and targeting RhoG activation to cell-cell junctions.

The core planar cell polarity gene, Vangl2, maintains apical-basal organisation of the corneal epithelium

The role of the core planar cell polarity (PCP) pathway protein, Vangl2, was investigated in the corneal epithelium of the mammalian eye, a paradigm anatomical model of planar cell migration. The gene was conditionally knocked out in vivo and knocked down by siRNA, followed by immunohistochemical, behavioural and morphological analysis of corneal epithelial cells. The primary defects observed in vivo were of apical-basal organisation of the corneal epithelium, with abnormal stratification throughout life, mislocalisation of the cell membrane protein, Scribble, to the basal side of cells, and partial loss of the epithelial basement membrane. Planar defects in migration after wounding and in the presence of an applied electric field were noted. However, knockdown of Vangl2 also retarded cell migration in individual cells that had no contact with their neighbours, which precluded a classic PCP mechanism. It is concluded that some of the planar polarity phenotypes in PCP mutants may arise from disruption of apical-basal polarity.

Scribble: A master scaffold in polarity, adhesion, synaptogenesis, and proliferation

Key events ranging from cell polarity to proliferation regulation to neuronal signaling rely on the assembly of multiprotein adhesion or signaling complexes at particular subcellular sites. Multidomain scaffolding proteins nucleate assembly and direct localization of these complexes, and the protein Scribble and its relatives in the LAP protein family provide a paradigm for this. Scribble was originally identified because of its role in apical-basal polarity and epithelial integrity in Drosophila melanogaster It is now clear that Scribble acts to assemble and position diverse multiprotein complexes in processes ranging from planar polarity to adhesion to oriented cell division to synaptogenesis. Here, we explore what we have learned about the mechanisms of action of Scribble in the context of its multiple known interacting partners and discuss how this knowledge opens new questions about the full range of Scribble protein partners and their structural and signaling roles.

Planar cell polarity in organ formation

The planar cell polarity (PCP) pathway controls a variety of morphological events across many species. During embryonic development, the PCP pathway regulates coordinated behaviour of groups of cells to direct morphogenetic processes such as convergent extension and collective cell migration. In this review we discuss the increasingly prominent role of the PCP pathway in organogenesis, focusing on the lungs, kidneys and heart. We also highlight emerging evidence that PCP gene mutations are associated with adult diseases.

Lats1/2 inactivation reveals Hippo function in alveolar type I cell differentiation during lung transition to air breathing

Lung growth to its optimal size at birth is driven by reiterative airway branching followed by differentiation and expansion of alveolar cell types. How this elaborate growth is coordinated with the constraint of the chest is poorly understood. Here, we investigate the role of Hippo signaling, a cardinal pathway in organ size control, in mouse lung development. Unexpectedly, we found that epithelial loss of the Hippo kinase genes Lats1 and Lats2 (Lats1/2) leads to a striking reduction of lung size owing to an early arrest of branching morphogenesis. This growth defect is accompanied by abnormalities in epithelial cell polarity, cell division plane and extracellular matrix deposition, as well as precocious and increased expression of markers for type 1 alveolar epithelial cells (AEC1s), an indicator of terminal differentiation. Increased AEC1s were also observed in transgenic mice with overexpression of a constitutive nuclear form of downstream transcriptional effector YAP. Conversely, loss of Yap and Taz led to decreased AEC1s, demonstrating that the canonical Hippo signaling pathway is both sufficient and necessary to drive AEC1 fate. These findings together reveal unique roles of Hippo-LATS-YAP signaling in the developing mouse lung.

Transcriptional regulation of cell shape during organ morphogenesis

The emerging field of transcriptional regulation of cell shape changes aims to address the critical question of how gene expression programs produce a change in cell shape. Together with cell growth, division, and death, changes in cell shape are essential for organ morphogenesis. Whereas most studies of cell shape focus on posttranslational events involved in protein organization and distribution, cell shape changes can be genetically programmed. This review highlights the essential role of transcriptional regulation of cell shape during morphogenesis of the heart, lungs, gastrointestinal tract, and kidneys. We emphasize the evolutionary conservation of these processes across different model organisms and discuss perspectives on open questions and research avenues that may provide mechanistic insights toward understanding birth defects.

Regulation of cellular and PCP signalling by the Scribble polarity module

Since the first identification of the Scribble polarity module proteins as a new class of tumour suppressors that regulate both cell polarity and proliferation, an increasing amount of evidence has uncovered a broader role for Scribble, Dlg and Lgl in the control of fundamental cellular functions and their signalling pathways. Here, we review these findings as well as discuss more specifically the role of the Scribble module in PCP signalling.

Paving the Rho in cancer metastasis: Rho GTPases and beyond

Malignant carcinomas are often characterized by metastasis, the movement of carcinoma cells from a primary site to colonize distant organs. For metastasis to occur, carcinoma cells first must adopt a pro-migratory phenotype and move through the surrounding stroma towards a blood or lymphatic vessel. Currently, there are very limited possibilities to target these processes therapeutically. The family of Rho GTPases is an ubiquitously expressed division of GTP-binding proteins involved in the regulation of cytoskeletal dynamics and intracellular signaling. The best characterized members of the Rho family GTPases are RhoA, Rac1 and Cdc42. Abnormalities in Rho GTPase function have major consequences for cancer progression. Rho GTPase activation is driven by cell surface receptors that activate GTP exchange factors (GEFs) and GTPase-activating proteins (GAPs). In this review, we summarize our current knowledge on Rho GTPase function in the regulation of metastasis. We will focus on key discoveries in the regulation of epithelial-mesenchymal-transition (EMT), cell-cell junctions, formation of membrane protrusions, plasticity of cell migration and adaptation to a hypoxic environment. In addition, we will emphasize on crosstalk between Rho GTPase family members and other important oncogenic pathways, such as cyclic AMP-mediated signaling, canonical Wnt/β-catenin, Yes-associated protein (YAP) and hypoxia inducible factor 1α (Hif1α) and provide an overview of the advancements and challenges in developing pharmacological tools to target Rho GTPase and the aforementioned crosstalk in the context of cancer therapeutics.

A mutation in Nischarin causes otitis media via LIMK1 and NF-κB pathways

Otitis media (OM), inflammation of the middle ear (ME), is a common cause of conductive hearing impairment. Despite the importance of the disease, the aetiology of chronic and recurrent forms of middle ear inflammatory disease remains poorly understood. Studies of the human population suggest that there is a significant genetic component predisposing to the development of chronic OM, although the underlying genes are largely unknown. Using N-ethyl-N-nitrosourea mutagenesis we identified a recessive mouse mutant, edison, that spontaneously develops a conductive hearing loss due to chronic OM. The causal mutation was identified as a missense change, L972P, in the Nischarin (NISCH) gene. edison mice develop a serous or granulocytic effusion, increasingly macrophage and neutrophil rich with age, along with a thickened, inflamed mucoperiosteum. We also identified a second hypomorphic allele, V33A, with only modest increases in auditory thresholds and reduced incidence of OM. NISCH interacts with several proteins, including ITGA5 that is thought to have a role in modulating VEGF-induced angiogenesis and vascularization. We identified a significant genetic interaction between Nisch and Itga5; mice heterozygous for Itga5-null and homozygous for edison mutations display a significantly increased penetrance and severity of chronic OM. In order to understand the pathological mechanisms underlying the OM phenotype, we studied interacting partners to NISCH along with downstream signalling molecules in the middle ear epithelia of edison mouse. Our analysis implicates PAK1 and RAC1, and downstream signalling in LIMK1 and NF-κB pathways in the development of chronic OM.

Otitis media (OM) is the most common cause of deafness in children and is primarily characterised by inflammation of the middle ear. It is the most common cause of surgery in children in the developed world, with many children developing recurrent and chronic forms of OM undergoing tympanostomy tube insertion. There is evidence that a significant genetic component contributes towards the development of recurrent and chronic forms of OM. The mouse has been a powerful tool for identifying the genes involved in chronic OM. In this study we identified and characterised edison, a novel mouse model of chronic OM that shares important features with the chronic disease in humans. A mutation in the Nisch gene causes edison mice to spontaneously develop OM following birth and subsequently develop chronic OM, with an associated hearing loss. Our molecular analysis of the mutation reveals the underlying pathological mechanisms and pathways involved in OM in the edison mouse, involving PAK1, RAC1 and downstream signalling in LIMK1 and NF-κB pathways. Identification of the edison mutant provides an important genetic disease model of chronic OM and implicates a new gene and genetic pathways involved in predisposition to OM.

TAp63 suppresses mammary tumorigenesis through regulation of the Hippo pathway

Mechanisms regulating the transition of mammary epithelial cells (MECs) to mammary stem cells (MaSCs) and to tumor-initiating cells (TICs) have not been entirely elucidated. The p53 family member, p63, is critical for mammary gland development and contains transactivation domain isoforms, which have tumor-suppressive activities, and the ΔN isoforms, which act as oncogenes. In the clinic, p63 is often used as a diagnostic marker, and further analysis of the function of TAp63 in the mammary gland is critical for improved diagnosis and patient care. Loss of TAp63 in mice leads to the formation of aggressive metastatic mammary adenocarcinoma at 9-16 months of age. Here we show that TAp63 is crucial for the transition of mammary cancer cells to TICs. When TAp63 is lost, MECs express embryonic and MaSC signatures and activate the Hippo pathway. These data indicate a crucial role for TAp63 in mammary TICs and provide a mechanism for its role as a tumor- and metastasis-suppressor in breast cancer.

Pathomechanisms of Congenital Cystic Lung Diseases: Focus on Congenital Cystic Adenomatoid Malformation and Pleuropulmonary Blastoma

It is well established that a number of birth defects are associated with improper formation of the respiratory tract. Important progress has been made in the identification of components of the regulatory networks controlling lung morphogenesis. They comprise a variety of soluble factors, receptors, transcription factors, and miRNAs. However, the underlying molecular mechanisms remain unsolved and fundamental questions, such as those related to lung branching are still unanswered. Congenital cystic lung diseases consist of a heterogeneous group of rare lung diseases mainly detected prenatally and characterized by airway dilatation. Despite their apparent phenotypic heterogeneity, these malformations are proposed to be related to a common malformation sequence occurring during lung branching morphogenesis.

Scribble is required for pregnancy-induced alveologenesis in the adult mammary gland

The cell polarity protein scribble (SCRIB) is a crucial regulator of polarization, cell migration and tumorigenesis. Whereas SCRIB is known to regulate early stages of mouse mammary gland development, its function in the adult gland is not known. Using an inducible RNA interference (RNAi) mouse model for downregulating SCRIB expression, we report an unexpected role for SCRIB as a positive regulator of cell proliferation during pregnancy-associated mammary alveologenesis. SCRIB was required in the epithelial cell compartment of the mammary gland. Lack of SCRIB attenuated prolactin-induced activation of the JAK2-STAT5 signaling pathway. In addition, loss of SCRIB resulted in the downregulation of prolactin receptor (PRLR) at cell surface and its accumulation in intracellular structures that express markers of the Golgi complex and the recycling endosome. Unlike its role in virgin gland as a negative regulator cell proliferation, SCRIB is a positive regulator of mammary epithelial cell proliferation during pregnancy.

Interactions between the otitis media gene, Fbxo11, and p53 in the mouse embryonic lung

Otitis media with effusion (OME) is the most common cause of hearing loss in children, and tympanostomy (ear tube insertion) to alleviate the condition remains the commonest surgical intervention in children in the developed world. Chronic and recurrent forms of otitis media (OM) are known to have a very substantial genetic component; however, until recently, little was known of the underlying genes involved. The Jeff mouse mutant carries a mutation in the Fbxo11 gene, a member of the F-box family, and develops deafness due to a chronic proliferative OM. We previously reported that Fbxo11 is involved in the regulation of transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β) signalling by regulating the levels of phospho-Smad2 in the epithelial cells of palatal shelves, eyelids and airways of the lungs. It has been proposed that FBXO11 regulates the cell's response to TGF-β through the ubiquitination of CDT2. Additional substrates for FBXO11 have been identified, including p53. Here, we have studied both the genetic and biochemical interactions between FBXO11 and p53 in order to better understand the function of FBXO11 in epithelial development and its potential role in OM. In mice, we show that p53 (also known as Tp53) homozygous mutants and double heterozygous mutants (Jf/+ p53/+) exhibit similar epithelial developmental defects to Fbxo11 homozygotes. FBXO11 and p53 interact in the embryonic lung, and mutation in Fbxo11 prevents the interaction with p53. Both p53 and double mutants show raised levels of pSMAD2, recapitulating that seen in Fbxo11 homozygotes. Overall, our results support the conclusion that FBXO11 regulates the TGF-β pathway in the embryonic lung via cross-talk with p53.

Summary: Genetic interactions between Fbxo11 and p53 illustrate the cross-talk between the TGF-β and p53 signalling pathways in epithelial development, with implications for the underlying molecular pathology of otitis media.

The polarity protein Scrib mediates epidermal development and exerts a tumor suppressive function during skin carcinogenesis

BACKGROUND

The establishment and maintenance of polarity is vital for embryonic development and loss of polarity is a frequent characteristic of epithelial cancers, however the underlying molecular mechanisms remain unclear. Here, we identify a novel role for the polarity protein Scrib as a mediator of epidermal permeability barrier acquisition, skeletal morphogenesis, and as a potent tumor suppressor in cutaneous carcinogenesis.

METHODS

To explore the role of Scrib during epidermal development, we compared the permeability of toluidine blue dye in wild-type, Scrib heterozygous and Scrib KO embryonic epidermis at E16.5, E17.5 and E18.5. Mouse embryos were stained with alcian blue and alizarin red for skeletal analysis. To establish whether Scrib plays a tumor suppressive role during skin tumorigenesis and/or progression, we evaluated an autochthonous mouse model of skin carcinogenesis in the context of Scrib loss. We utilised Cre-LoxP technology to conditionally deplete Scrib in adult epidermis, since Scrib KO embryos are neonatal lethal.

RESULTS

We establish that Scrib perturbs keratinocyte maturation during embryonic development, causing impaired epidermal barrier formation, and that Scrib is required for skeletal morphogenesis in mice. Analysis of conditional transgenic mice deficient for Scrib specifically within the epidermis revealed no skin pathologies, indicating that Scrib is dispensable for normal adult epidermal homeostasis. Nevertheless, bi-allelic loss of Scrib significantly enhanced tumor multiplicity and progression in an autochthonous model of epidermal carcinogenesis in vivo, demonstrating Scrib is an epidermal tumor suppressor. Mechanistically, we show that apoptosis is the critical effector of Scrib tumor suppressor activity during skin carcinogenesis and provide new insight into the function of polarity proteins during DNA damage repair.

CONCLUSIONS

For the first time, we provide genetic evidence of a unique link between skin carcinogenesis and loss of the epithelial polarity regulator Scrib, emphasizing that Scrib exerts a wide-spread tumor suppressive function in epithelia.

Lung endoderm morphogenesis: gasping for form and function

The respiratory endoderm develops from a small cluster of cells located on the ventral anterior foregut. This population of progenitors generates the myriad epithelial lineages required for proper lung function in adults through a complex and delicately balanced series of developmental events controlled by many critical signaling and transcription factor pathways. In the past decade, understanding of this process has grown enormously, helped in part by cell lineage fate analysis and deep sequencing of the transcriptomes of various progenitors and differentiated cell types. This review explores how these new techniques, coupled with more traditional approaches, have provided a detailed picture of development of the epithelial lineages in the lung and insight into how aberrant development can lead to lung disease.

Crumbs3-Mediated Polarity Directs Airway Epithelial Cell Fate through the Hippo Pathway Effector Yap

Epithelial cells undergo dynamic polarity changes as organs pattern, but the relationship between epithelial polarity and cell fate is poorly understood. Using the developing lung as a model, we found that distinct alterations in apical-basal polarity dictate airway epithelial differentiation. We demonstrate that Crb3, a Crumbs isoform that determines epithelial apical domain identity, is required for airway differentiation by controlling the localization of the transcriptional regulator Yap. We show that Crb3 promotes the interaction between Yap and the Hippo pathway kinases Lats1/2 at apical cell junctions to induce Yap phosphorylation and cytoplasmic retention, which drive cell differentiation. Loss of Crb3 in developing mouse airways or isolated adult airway progenitors results in unrestricted nuclear Yap activity and consequent cell differentiation defects. Our findings demonstrate that polarity-dependent cues control airway cell differentiation, offering important molecular insights into organ patterning.

Polarity Protein Scrib Facilitates Endothelial Inflammatory Signaling

OBJECTIVE

The polarity protein Scrib is highly expressed in endothelial cells and is required for planar cell polarity. Scrib also facilitates recycling of integrin α5 to the plasma membrane. Because integrin α5 signals the presence of the inflammatory matrix protein fibronectin, we hypothesized that Scrib contributes to endothelial inflammatory signaling.

APPROACH AND RESULTS

Cytokine treatment of human umbilical vein endothelial cells induced an inflammatory response as evident by the induction of vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1). Downregulation of Scrib greatly attenuated this effect. In endothelial-specific conditional Scrib knockout mice, in vivo lipopolysaccharide treatment resulted in an impaired VCAM-1 induction. These effects were functionally relevant because Scrib small interfering RNAs in human umbilical vein endothelial cells attenuated the VCAM-1-mediated leukocyte adhesion in response to tumor necrosis factor-α. In vivo, tamoxifen-induced endothelial-specific deletion of Scrib resulted in a reduced VCAM-1-mediated leukocyte adhesion in response to tumor necrosis factor-α in the mouse cremaster model. This effect was specific for Scrib and not mediated by other polarity proteins. Moreover, it did not involve integrin α5 or classic pathways supporting inflammatory signaling, such as nuclear factor κ light chain enhancer of activated B-cells or MAP kinases. Co-immunoprecipitation/mass spectrometry identified the zinc finger transcription factor GATA-like protein-1 as a novel Scrib interacting protein. Small interfering RNA depletion of GATA-like protein-1 decreased the tumor necrosis factor-α-stimulated VCAM-1 induction to a similar extent as loss of Scrib did. Silencing of Scrib reduced GATA-like protein-1 protein, but not mRNA abundance.

CONCLUSIONS

Scrib is a novel proinflammatory regulator in endothelial cells, which maintains the protein expression of GATA-like protein-1.

Heterotypic control of basement membrane dynamics during branching morphogenesis

Many mammalian organs undergo branching morphogenesis to create highly arborized structures with maximized surface area for specialized organ function. Cooperative cell-cell and cell-matrix adhesions that sculpt the emerging tissue architecture are guided by dynamic basement membranes. Properties of the basement membrane are reciprocally controlled by the interacting epithelial and mesenchymal cell populations. Here we discuss how basement membrane remodeling is required for branching morphogenesis to regulate cell-matrix and cell-cell adhesions that are required for cell patterning during morphogenesis and how basement membrane impacts morphogenesis by stimulation of cell patterning, force generation, and mechanotransduction. We suggest that in addition to creating mature epithelial architecture, remodeling of the epithelial basement membrane during branching morphogenesis is also essential to promote maturation of the stromal mesenchyme to create mature organ structure. Recapitulation of developmental cell-matrix and cell-cell interactions are of critical importance in tissue engineering and regeneration strategies that seek to restore organ function.

The pulmonary mesenchyme directs lung development

Each of the steps of respiratory system development relies on intricate interactions and coordinated development of the lung epithelium and mesenchyme. In the past, more attention has been paid to the epithelium than the mesenchyme. The mesenchyme is a source of specification and morphogenetic signals as well as a host of surprisingly complex cell lineages that are critical for normal lung development and function. This review highlights recent research focusing on the mesenchyme that has revealed genetic and epigenetic mechanisms of its development in the context of other cell layers during respiratory lineage specification, branching morphogenesis, epithelial differentiation, lineage distinction, vascular development, and alveolar maturation.

Wnt and FGF mediated epithelial-mesenchymal crosstalk during lung development

BACKGROUND

The adaptation to terrestrial life required the development of an organ capable of efficient air-blood gas exchange. To meet the metabolic load of cellular respiration, the mammalian respiratory system has evolved from a relatively simple structure, similar to the two-tube amphibian lung, to a highly complex tree-like system of branched epithelial airways connected to a vast network of gas exchanging units called alveoli. The development of such an elaborate organ in a relatively short time window is therefore an extraordinary feat and involves an intimate crosstalk between mesodermal and endodermal cell lineages.

RESULTS

This review describes the molecular processes governing lung development with an emphasis on the current knowledge on the role of Wnt and FGF signaling in lung epithelial differentiation.

CONCLUSIONS

The Wnt and FGF signaling pathways are crucial for the dynamic and reciprocal communication between epithelium and mesenchyme during lung development. In addition, some of this developmental crosstalk is reemployed in the adult lung after injury to drive regeneration, and may, when aberrantly or chronically activated, result in chronic lung diseases. Novel insights into how the Wnt and FGF pathways interact and are integrated into a complex gene regulatory network will not only provide us with essential information about how the lung regenerates itself, but also enhance our understanding of the pathogenesis of chronic lung diseases, as well as improve the controlled differentiation of lung epithelium from pluripotent stem cells.

Vangl2-regulated polarisation of second heart field-derived cells is required for outflow tract lengthening during cardiac development

Planar cell polarity (PCP) is the mechanism by which cells orient themselves in the plane of an epithelium or during directed cell migration, and is regulated by a highly conserved signalling pathway. Mutations in the PCP gene Vangl2, as well as in other key components of the pathway, cause a spectrum of cardiac outflow tract defects. However, it is unclear why cells within the mesodermal heart tissue require PCP signalling. Using a new conditionally floxed allele we show that Vangl2 is required solely within the second heart field (SHF) to direct normal outflow tract lengthening, a process that is required for septation and normal alignment of the aorta and pulmonary trunk with the ventricular chambers. Analysis of a range of markers of polarised epithelial tissues showed that in the normal heart, undifferentiated SHF cells move from the dorsal pericardial wall into the distal outflow tract where they acquire an epithelial phenotype, before moving proximally where they differentiate into cardiomyocytes. Thus there is a transition zone in the distal outflow tract where SHF cells become more polarised, turn off progenitor markers and start to differentiate to cardiomyocytes. Membrane-bound Vangl2 marks the proximal extent of this transition zone and in the absence of Vangl2, the SHF-derived cells are abnormally polarised and disorganised. The consequent thickening, rather than lengthening, of the outflow wall leads to a shortened outflow tract. Premature down regulation of the SHF-progenitor marker Isl1 in the mutants, and accompanied premature differentiation to cardiomyocytes, suggests that the organisation of the cells within the transition zone is important for maintaining the undifferentiated phenotype. Thus, Vangl2-regulated polarisation and subsequent acquisition of an epithelial phenotype is essential to lengthen the tubular outflow vessel, a process that is essential for on-going cardiac morphogenesis.

Congenital heart defects are common, affecting almost 1% of all live births. Many of these affect the outflow region, where the aorta and pulmonary trunk connect with the main ventricular chambers. Congenital heart defects arise from disruption of normal developmental processes and can be modelled in mice. Thus, studying normal development, together with mouse mutants that develop heart malformations, should shed light on why these common anomalies arise. We have studied cardiac development in a mouse mutant for the Vangl2 gene, a key component of the planar cell polarity (PCP) pathway. This pathway controls the orientations of cells in epithelia and during directional cell migration. Here, we show that PCP signalling is required by cells derived from the second heart field, which forms the outflow tract walls. We show that in the absence of Vangl2, the cells within the distal outflow tract walls are non-polarised and disorganised. As a consequence the outflow tract is shortened and does not align properly with the ventricles. Thus, we show why disruption of a key PCP gene leads to outflow tract malformations. This is important for understanding heart development, but also more generally for understanding how PCP signalling regulates growth of tubular structures.

Canonical Wnt signaling activity in early stages of chick lung development

Wnt signaling pathway is an essential player during vertebrate embryonic development which has been associated with several developmental processes such as gastrulation, body axis formation and morphogenesis of numerous organs, namely the lung. Wnt proteins act through specific transmembrane receptors, which activate intracellular pathways that regulate cellular processes such as cell proliferation, differentiation and death. Morphogenesis of the fetal lung depends on epithelial-mesenchymal interactions that are governed by several growth and transcription factors that regulate cell proliferation, fate, migration and differentiation. This process is controlled by different signaling pathways such as FGF, Shh and Wnt among others. Wnt signaling is recognized as a key molecular player in mammalian pulmonary development but little is known about its function in avian lung development. The present work characterizes, for the first time, the expression pattern of several Wnt signaling members, such as wnt-1, wnt-2b, wnt-3a, wnt-5a, wnt-7b, wnt-8b, wnt-9a, lrp5, lrp6, sfrp1, dkk1, β-catenin and axin2 at early stages of chick lung development. In general, their expression is similar to their mammalian counterparts. By assessing protein expression levels of active/total β-catenin and phospho-LRP6/LRP6 it is revealed that canonical Wnt signaling is active in this embryonic tissue. In vitro inhibition studies were performed in order to evaluate the function of Wnt signaling pathway in lung branching. Lung explants treated with canonical Wnt signaling inhibitors (FH535 and PK115-584) presented an impairment of secondary branch formation after 48 h of culture along with a decrease in axin2 expression levels. Branching analysis confirmed this inhibition. Wnt-FGF crosstalk assessment revealed that this interaction is preserved in the chick lung. This study demonstrates that Wnt signaling is crucial for precise chick lung branching and further supports the avian lung as a good model for branching studies since it recapitulates early mammalian pulmonary development.

Three-dimensional organotypic culture: experimental models of mammalian biology and disease

Mammalian organs are challenging to study as they are fairly inaccessible to experimental manipulation and optical observation. Recent advances in three-dimensional (3D) culture techniques, coupled with the ability to independently manipulate genetic and microenvironmental factors, have enabled the real-time study of mammalian tissues. These systems have been used to visualize the cellular basis of epithelial morphogenesis, to test the roles of specific genes in regulating cell behaviours within epithelial tissues and to elucidate the contribution of microenvironmental factors to normal and disease processes. Collectively, these novel models can be used to answer fundamental biological questions and generate replacement human tissues, and they enable testing of novel therapeutic approaches, often using patient-derived cells.

Breaking barriers. New insights into airway epithelial barrier function in health and disease

Epithelial permeability is a hallmark of mucosal inflammation, but the molecular mechanisms involved remain poorly understood. A key component of the epithelial barrier is the apical junctional complex that forms between neighboring cells. Apical junctional complexes are made of tight junctions and adherens junctions and link to the cellular cytoskeleton via numerous adaptor proteins. Although the existence of tight and adherens junctions between epithelial cells has long been recognized, in recent years there have been significant advances in our understanding of the molecular regulation of junctional complex assembly and disassembly. Here we review the current thinking about the structure and function of the apical junctional complex in airway epithelial cells, emphasizing the translational aspects of relevance to cystic fibrosis and asthma. Most work to date has been conducted using cell culture models, but technical advancements in imaging techniques suggest that we are on the verge of important new breakthroughs in this area in physiological models of airway diseases.

Establishment of epithelial polarity--GEF who's minding the GAP?

Cell polarization is a fundamental process that underlies epithelial morphogenesis, cell motility, cell division and organogenesis. Loss of polarity predisposes tissues to developmental disorders and contributes to cancer progression. The formation and establishment of epithelial cell polarity is mediated by the cooperation of polarity protein complexes, namely the Crumbs, partitioning defective (Par) and Scribble complexes, with Rho family GTPases, including RhoA, Rac1 and Cdc42. The activation of different GTPases triggers distinct downstream signaling pathways to modulate protein-protein interactions and cytoskeletal remodeling. The spatio-temporal activation and inactivation of these small GTPases is tightly controlled by a complex interconnected network of different regulatory proteins, including guanine-nucleotide-exchange factors (GEFs), GTPase-activating proteins (GAPs), and guanine-nucleotide-dissociation inhibitors (GDIs). In this Commentary, we focus on current understanding on how polarity complexes interact with GEFs and GAPs to control the precise location and activation of Rho GTPases (Crumbs for RhoA, Par for Rac1, and Scribble for Cdc42) to promote apical-basal polarization in mammalian epithelial cells. The mutual exclusion of GTPase activities, especially that of RhoA and Rac1, which is well established, provides a mechanism through which polarity complexes that act through distinct Rho GTPases function as cellular rheostats to fine-tune specific downstream pathways to differentiate and preserve the apical and basolateral domains. This article is part of a Minifocus on Establishing polarity.

Developmental programs of lung epithelial progenitors: a balanced progenitor model

The daunting task of lung epithelium development is to transform a cluster of foregut progenitors into a three-dimensional (3D) tubular network with distinct cell types distributed at their appropriate locations. A complete understanding of lung development needs to address not only how, but also where, different cell types form. We propose that the lung epithelium forms through regulated deployment of three developmental programs: branching morphogenesis to expand progenitors and build a tree-like tubular network, airway differentiation to specify cells for the proximal conducting airways, and alveolar differentiation to specify cells for the peripheral gas exchange region. Each developmental program has its unique morphological features and molecular control mechanisms; their spatiotemporal coordination can be accounted for in a balanced progenitor model where progenitors balance between alternative developmental programs in response to spatiotemporal cues. This model integrates progenitor morphogenesis and differentiation, and provides new insights to lung immaturity in preterm birth and lung evolution. Advanced gene targeting and 3D imaging tools are needed to achieve a comprehensive understanding of lung epithelial progenitors on molecular, cellular, and morphological levels. For further resources related to this article, please visit the WIREs website.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST

The authors have declared no conflicts of interest for this article.

Scribble modulates the MAPK/Fra1 pathway to disrupt luminal and ductal integrity and suppress tumour formation in the mammary gland

Polarity coordinates cell movement, differentiation, proliferation and apoptosis to build and maintain complex epithelial tissues such as the mammary gland. Loss of polarity and the deregulation of these processes are critical events in malignant progression but precisely how and at which stage polarity loss impacts on mammary development and tumourigenesis is unclear. Scrib is a core polarity regulator and tumour suppressor gene however to date our understanding of Scrib function in the mammary gland has been limited to cell culture and transplantation studies of cell lines. Utilizing a conditional mouse model of Scrib loss we report for the first time that Scrib is essential for mammary duct morphogenesis, mammary progenitor cell fate and maintenance, and we demonstrate a critical and specific role for Scribble in the control of the early steps of breast cancer progression. In particular, Scrib-deficiency significantly induced Fra1 expression and basal progenitor clonogenicity, which resulted in fully penetrant ductal hyperplasia characterized by high cell turnover, MAPK hyperactivity, frank polarity loss with mixing of apical and basolateral membrane constituents and expansion of atypical luminal cells. We also show for the first time a role for Scribble in mammalian spindle orientation with the onset of mammary hyperplasia being associated with aberrant luminal cell spindle orientation and a failure to apoptose during the final stage of duct tubulogenesis. Restoring MAPK/Fra1 to baseline levels prevented Scrib-hyperplasia, whereas persistent Scrib deficiency induced alveolar hyperplasia and increased the incidence, onset and grade of mammary tumours. These findings, based on a definitive genetic mouse model provide fundamental insights into mammary duct maturation and homeostasis and reveal that Scrib loss activates a MAPK/Fra1 pathway that alters mammary progenitor activity to drive premalignancy and accelerate tumour progression.