1
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MacTaggart B, Shimogawa M, Lougee M, Tang HY, Petersson EJ, Kashina A. Global Analysis of Post-Translational Side-Chain Arginylation Using Pan-Arginylation Antibodies. Mol Cell Proteomics 2023; 22:100664. [PMID: 37832787 PMCID: PMC10656225 DOI: 10.1016/j.mcpro.2023.100664] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2023] [Revised: 10/05/2023] [Accepted: 10/09/2023] [Indexed: 10/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Arginylation is a post-translational modification mediated by the arginyltransferase 1 (ATE1), which transfers the amino acid arginine to a protein or peptide substrate from a tRNA molecule. Initially, arginylation was thought to occur only on N-terminally exposed acidic residues, and its function was thought to be limited to targeting proteins for degradation. However, more recent data have shown that ATE1 can arginylate side chains of internal acidic residues in a protein without necessarily affecting metabolic stability. This greatly expands the potential targets and functions of arginylation, but tools for studying this process have remained limited. Here, we report the first global screen specifically for side-chain arginylation. We generate and validate "pan-arginylation" antibodies, which are designed to detect side-chain arginylation in any amino acid sequence context. We use these antibodies for immunoaffinity enrichment of side-chain arginylated proteins from wildtype and Ate1 knockout cell lysates. In this way, we identify a limited set of proteins that likely undergo ATE1-dependent side-chain arginylation and that are enriched in specific cellular roles, including translation, splicing, and the cytoskeleton.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brittany MacTaggart
- School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Marie Shimogawa
- Department of Chemistry, School of Arts and Sciences, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Marshall Lougee
- Department of Chemistry, School of Arts and Sciences, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Hsin-Yao Tang
- Proteomics and Metabolomics Facility, Wistar Institute, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - E J Petersson
- Department of Chemistry, School of Arts and Sciences, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Anna Kashina
- School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA.
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2
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Abeywansha T, Huang W, Ye X, Nawrocki A, Lan X, Jankowsky E, Taylor DJ, Zhang Y. The structural basis of tRNA recognition by arginyl-tRNA-protein transferase. Nat Commun 2023; 14:2232. [PMID: 37076488 PMCID: PMC10115844 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-38004-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2022] [Accepted: 04/03/2023] [Indexed: 04/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Arginyl-tRNA-protein transferase 1 (ATE1) is a master regulator of protein homeostasis, stress response, cytoskeleton maintenance, and cell migration. The diverse functions of ATE1 arise from its unique enzymatic activity to covalently attach an arginine onto its protein substrates in a tRNA-dependent manner. However, how ATE1 (and other aminoacyl-tRNA transferases) hijacks tRNA from the highly efficient ribosomal protein synthesis pathways and catalyzes the arginylation reaction remains a mystery. Here, we describe the three-dimensional structures of Saccharomyces cerevisiae ATE1 with and without its tRNA cofactor. Importantly, the putative substrate binding domain of ATE1 adopts a previously uncharacterized fold that contains an atypical zinc-binding site critical for ATE1 stability and function. The unique recognition of tRNAArg by ATE1 is coordinated through interactions with the major groove of the acceptor arm of tRNA. Binding of tRNA induces conformational changes in ATE1 that helps explain the mechanism of substrate arginylation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thilini Abeywansha
- Department of Biochemistry, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, 44106, USA
| | - Wei Huang
- Department of Pharmacology, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, 44106, USA
| | - Xuan Ye
- Department of Biochemistry, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, 44106, USA
- Center for RNA Science and Therapeutics, School of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, 44106, USA
| | - Allison Nawrocki
- Department of Biochemistry, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, 44106, USA
| | - Xin Lan
- Department of Biochemistry, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, 44106, USA
| | - Eckhard Jankowsky
- Department of Biochemistry, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, 44106, USA
- Center for RNA Science and Therapeutics, School of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, 44106, USA
- Case Comprehensive Cancer Center, School of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, 44106, USA
| | - Derek J Taylor
- Department of Biochemistry, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, 44106, USA.
- Department of Pharmacology, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, 44106, USA.
- Case Comprehensive Cancer Center, School of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, 44106, USA.
| | - Yi Zhang
- Department of Biochemistry, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, 44106, USA.
- Case Comprehensive Cancer Center, School of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, 44106, USA.
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3
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Shahbazi M, Zhang X, Dinh PC, Sanchez VA, Trendowski MR, Shuey MM, Nguyen T, Feldman DR, Vaughn DJ, Fung C, Kollmannsberger C, Martin NE, Einhorn LH, Cox NJ, Frisina RD, Travis LB, Dolan ME. Comprehensive association analysis of speech recognition thresholds after cisplatin-based chemotherapy in survivors of adult-onset cancer. Cancer Med 2023; 12:2999-3012. [PMID: 36097363 PMCID: PMC9939144 DOI: 10.1002/cam4.5218] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2022] [Revised: 08/14/2022] [Accepted: 08/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE Deficits in speech understanding constitute one of the most severe consequences of hearing loss. Here we investigate the clinical and genetic risk factors for symmetric deterioration of speech recognition thresholds (SRT) among cancer survivors treated with cisplatin. METHODS SRT was measured using spondaic words and calculating the mean of measurements for both ears with symmetric SRT values. For clinical associations, SRT-based hearing disability (SHD) was defined as SRT≥15 dB hearing loss and clinical variables were derived from the study dataset. Genotyped blood samples were used for GWAS with rank-based inverse normal transformed SRT values as the response variable. Age was used as a covariate in association analyses. RESULTS SHD was inversely associated with self-reported health (p = 0.004). Current smoking (p = 0.002), years of smoking (p = 0.02), BMI (p < 0.001), and peripheral motor neuropathy (p = 0.003) were positively associated with SHD, while physical activity was inversely associated with SHD (p = 0.005). In contrast, cumulative cisplatin dose, peripheral sensory neuropathy, hypertension, and hypercholesterolemia were not associated with SHD. Although no genetic variants had an association p value < 5 × 10-8 , 22 genetic variants were suggestively associated (p < 10-5 ) with SRT deterioration. Three of the top variants in 10 respective linkage disequilibrium regions were either positioned within the coding sequence or were eQTLs for genes involved in neuronal development (ATE1, ENAH, and ZFHX3). CONCLUSION Current results improve our understanding of risk factors for SRT deterioration in cancer survivors. Higher BMI, lower physical activity, and smoking are associated with SHD. Larger samples would allow for expansion of the current findings on the genetic architecture of SRT.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Xindi Zhang
- Department of MedicineUniversity of ChicagoChicagoIllinoisUSA
| | - Paul C. Dinh
- Department of Medical OncologyIndiana UniversityIndianapolisIndianaUSA
| | - Victoria A. Sanchez
- Department of Otolaryngology—Head and Neck SurgeryUniversity of South FloridaTampaFloridaUSA
| | | | - Megan M. Shuey
- Department of Medicine and Vanderbilt Genetics Institute, Vanderbilt University Medical CenterNashvilleTennesseeUSA
| | - Tessa Nguyen
- Center for Audiology, Speech, Language and LearningNorthwesthern UniversityChicagoIllinoisUSA
| | | | - Darren R. Feldman
- Department of Medical Oncology, Memorial Sloan‐Kettering Cancer CenterNew YorkNew YorkUSA
| | - David J. Vaughn
- Department of MedicineUniversity of PennsylvaniaPhiladelphiaPennsylvaniaUSA
| | - Chunkit Fung
- J.P. Wilmot Cancer Institute, University of Rochester Medical CenterRochesterNew YorkUSA
| | | | - Neil E. Martin
- Department of Radiation OncologyDana‐Farber Cancer InstituteBostonMassachusettsUSA
| | | | - Nancy J. Cox
- Department of Medicine and Vanderbilt Genetics Institute, Vanderbilt University Medical CenterNashvilleTennesseeUSA
| | - Robert D. Frisina
- Departments of Medical Engineering and Communication Sciences and Disorders, Global Center for Hearing and Speech ResearchUniversity of South FloridaTampaFloridaUSA
| | - Lois B. Travis
- Department of Medical OncologyIndiana UniversityIndianapolisIndianaUSA
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4
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Van V, Brown JB, O'Shea CR, Rosenbach H, Mohamed I, Ejimogu NE, Bui TS, Szalai VA, Chacón KN, Span I, Zhang F, Smith AT. Iron-sulfur clusters are involved in post-translational arginylation. Nat Commun 2023; 14:458. [PMID: 36709327 PMCID: PMC9884297 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-36158-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2021] [Accepted: 01/18/2023] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Eukaryotic arginylation is an essential post-translational modification that modulates protein stability and regulates protein half-life. Arginylation is catalyzed by a family of enzymes known as the arginyl-tRNA transferases (ATE1s), which are conserved across the eukaryotic domain. Despite their conservation and importance, little is known regarding the structure, mechanism, and regulation of ATE1s. In this work, we show that ATE1s bind a previously undiscovered [Fe-S] cluster that is conserved across evolution. We characterize the nature of this [Fe-S] cluster and find that the presence of the [Fe-S] cluster in ATE1 is linked to its arginylation activity, both in vitro and in vivo, and the initiation of the yeast stress response. Importantly, the ATE1 [Fe-S] cluster is oxygen-sensitive, which could be a molecular mechanism of the N-degron pathway to sense oxidative stress. Taken together, our data provide the framework of a cluster-based paradigm of ATE1 regulatory control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Verna Van
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Maryland, Baltimore County, Baltimore, MD, 21250, USA
| | - Janae B Brown
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Maryland, Baltimore County, Baltimore, MD, 21250, USA
| | - Corin R O'Shea
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Pharmacology, University of Miami, Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, 33136, USA
| | - Hannah Rosenbach
- Institut für Physikalische Biologie, Heinrich-Heine-Universität Düsseldorf, 40225, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Ijaz Mohamed
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Maryland, Baltimore County, Baltimore, MD, 21250, USA
| | - Nna-Emeka Ejimogu
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Maryland, Baltimore County, Baltimore, MD, 21250, USA
| | - Toan S Bui
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Maryland, Baltimore County, Baltimore, MD, 21250, USA
| | - Veronika A Szalai
- Physical Measurement Laboratory, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, 20899, USA
| | - Kelly N Chacón
- Department of Chemistry, Reed College, Portland, OR, 97202, USA
| | - Ingrid Span
- Institut für Physikalische Biologie, Heinrich-Heine-Universität Düsseldorf, 40225, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Fangliang Zhang
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Pharmacology, University of Miami, Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, 33136, USA.,Sylvester Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, 33136, USA
| | - Aaron T Smith
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Maryland, Baltimore County, Baltimore, MD, 21250, USA.
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5
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Lazar I, Fabre B, Feng Y, Khateb A, Frit P, Kashina A, Zhang T, Avitan-Hersh E, Kim H, Brown K, Topisirovic I, Ronai ZA. Arginyl-tRNA-protein transferase 1 (ATE1) promotes melanoma cell growth and migration. FEBS Lett 2022; 596:1468-1480. [PMID: 35561126 PMCID: PMC10118390 DOI: 10.1002/1873-3468.14376] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2021] [Revised: 04/21/2022] [Accepted: 04/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Arginyl-tRNA-protein transferase 1 (ATE1) catalyses N-terminal protein arginylation, a post-translational modification implicated in cell migration, invasion and the cellular stress response. Herein, we report that ATE1 is overexpressed in NRAS-mutant melanomas, while it is downregulated in BRAF-mutant melanomas. ATE1 expression was higher in metastatic tumours, compared with primary tumours. Consistent with these findings, ATE1 depletion reduced melanoma cell viability, migration and colony formation. Reduced ATE1 expression also affected cell responses to mTOR and MEK inhibitors and to serum deprivation. Among putative ATE1 substrates is the tumour suppressor AXIN1, pointing to the possibility that ATE1 may fine-tune AXIN1 function in melanoma. Our findings highlight an unexpected role for ATE1 in melanoma cell aggressiveness and suggest that ATE1 constitutes a potential new therapeutic target.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ikrame Lazar
- Sanford Burnham Prebys Medical Discovery Institute, La Jolla, CA, USA.,Technion Integrated Cancer Center, Faculty of Medicine, Technion Institute of Technology, Haifa, Israel.,MCD, Centre de Biologie Intégrative (CBI), CNRS, UT3, Université de Toulouse, France
| | - Bertrand Fabre
- Technion Integrated Cancer Center, Faculty of Medicine, Technion Institute of Technology, Haifa, Israel.,Laboratoire de Recherche en Sciences Végétales, UMR5546, UT3, INP, CNRS, Université de Toulouse, Auzeville-Tolosane, France
| | - Yongmei Feng
- Sanford Burnham Prebys Medical Discovery Institute, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Ali Khateb
- Sanford Burnham Prebys Medical Discovery Institute, La Jolla, CA, USA.,Technion Integrated Cancer Center, Faculty of Medicine, Technion Institute of Technology, Haifa, Israel
| | - Philippe Frit
- Institut de Pharmacologie et de Biologie Structurale (IPBS), UMR 5089, CNRS, UT3, Université de Toulouse, France
| | - Anna Kashina
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Tongwu Zhang
- Division of Cancer Epidemiology and Genetics, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Emily Avitan-Hersh
- Technion Integrated Cancer Center, Faculty of Medicine, Technion Institute of Technology, Haifa, Israel
| | - Hyungsoo Kim
- Sanford Burnham Prebys Medical Discovery Institute, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Kevin Brown
- Division of Cancer Epidemiology and Genetics, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Ivan Topisirovic
- Gerald Bronfman Department of Oncology, Departments of Experimental Medicine and Biochemistry, Lady Davis Institute, Sir Mortimer B. Davis Jewish General Hospital, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Ze'ev A Ronai
- Sanford Burnham Prebys Medical Discovery Institute, La Jolla, CA, USA
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6
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Zhao J, Pan B, Fina M, Huang Y, Shimogawa M, Luk KC, Rhoades E, Petersson EJ, Dong DW, Kashina A. α-Synuclein arginylation in the human brain. Transl Neurodegener 2022; 11:20. [PMID: 35395956 PMCID: PMC8991655 DOI: 10.1186/s40035-022-00295-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2021] [Accepted: 03/23/2022] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Alpha-synuclein (α-syn) exhibits pathological misfolding in many human neurodegenerative disorders. We previously showed that α-syn is arginylated in the mouse brain and that lack of arginylation leads to neurodegeneration in mice.
Methods Here, we tested α-syn arginylation in human brain pathology using newly derived antibodies in combination with Western blotting, biochemical assays, and experiments in live neurons. Results We found that α-syn was arginylated in the human brain on E46 and E83, two sites previously implicated in α-syn pathology and familial cases of Parkinson’s disease. The levels of arginylation in different brain samples ranged between ~ 3% and ~ 50% of the total α-syn pool, and this arginylation nearly exclusively concentrated in the subcellular α-syn fraction that sedimented at low centrifugation speeds and appeared to be simultaneously targeted by multiple posttranslational modifications. Arginylated α-syn was less susceptible to S129 phosphorylation and pathological aggregation in neurons. The arginylation level inversely correlated with the overall α-syn levels and with patient age, suggesting a possible causal relationship between arginylation decline and α-syn-dependent neuropathology. Conclusion We propose that α-syn arginylation constitutes a potential neuroprotective mechanism that prevents its abnormal accumulation during neurodegeneration and aging in the human brain. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s40035-022-00295-0.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Zhao
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Pennsylvania School of Veterinary Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 19104, USA
| | - Buyan Pan
- Department of Chemistry, University of Pennsylvania School of Arts and Sciences, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 19104, USA
| | - Marie Fina
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Pennsylvania School of Veterinary Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 19104, USA
| | - Yun Huang
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Pennsylvania School of Veterinary Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 19104, USA
| | - Marie Shimogawa
- Department of Chemistry, University of Pennsylvania School of Arts and Sciences, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 19104, USA
| | - Kelvin C Luk
- Center for Neurodegenerative Disease Research, Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 19104, USA
| | - Elizabeth Rhoades
- Department of Chemistry, University of Pennsylvania School of Arts and Sciences, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 19104, USA
| | - E James Petersson
- Department of Chemistry, University of Pennsylvania School of Arts and Sciences, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 19104, USA
| | - Dawei W Dong
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Pennsylvania School of Veterinary Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 19104, USA
| | - Anna Kashina
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Pennsylvania School of Veterinary Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 19104, USA.
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7
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Drazic A, Timmerman E, Kajan U, Marie M, Varland S, Impens F, Gevaert K, Arnesen T. The Final Maturation State of β-actin Involves N-terminal Acetylation by NAA80, not N-terminal Arginylation by ATE1. J Mol Biol 2022; 434:167397. [PMID: 34896361 PMCID: PMC7613935 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmb.2021.167397] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2021] [Revised: 12/03/2021] [Accepted: 12/04/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Actin is a hallmark protein of the cytoskeleton in eukaryotic cells, affecting a range of cellular functions. Actin dynamics is regulated through a myriad of actin-binding proteins and post-translational modifications. The mammalian actin family consists of six different isoforms, which vary slightly in their N-terminal (Nt) sequences. During and after synthesis, actins undergo an intricate Nt-processing that yields mature actin isoforms. The ubiquitously expressed cytoplasmic β-actin is Nt-acetylated by N-alpha acetyltransferase 80 (NAA80) yielding the Nt-sequence Ac-DDDI-. In addition, β-actin was also reported to be Nt-arginylated by arginyltransferase 1 (ATE1) after further peptidase-mediated processing, yielding RDDI-. To characterize in detail the Nt-processing of actin, we used state-of-the-art proteomics. To estimate the relative cellular levels of Nt-modified proteoforms of actin, we employed NAA80-lacking cells, in which actin was not Nt-acetylated. We found that targeted proteomics is superior to a commercially available antibody previously used to analyze Nt-arginylation of β-actin. Significantly, despite the use of sensitive mass spectrometry-based techniques, we could not confirm the existence of the previously claimed Nt-arginylated β-actin (RDDI-) in either wildtype or NAA80-lacking cells. A very minor level of Nt-arginylation of the initially cleaved β-actin (DDDI-) could be identified, but only in NAA80-lacking cells, not in wildtype cells. We also identified small fractions of cleaved and unmodified β-actin (DDI-) as well as cleaved and Nt-acetylated β-actin (Ac-DDI-). In sum, we show that the multi-step Nt-maturation of β-actin is terminated by NAA80, which Nt-acetylates the exposed Nt-Asp residues, in the virtual absence of previously claimed Nt-arginylation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adrian Drazic
- Department of Biomedicine, University of Bergen, N-5020 Bergen, Norway
| | - Evy Timmerman
- VIB-UGent Center for Medical Biotechnology, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium; VIB Proteomics Core, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium; Department of Biomolecular Medicine, Ghent University, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Ulrike Kajan
- Department of Biomedicine, University of Bergen, N-5020 Bergen, Norway
| | - Michaël Marie
- Department of Biomedicine, University of Bergen, N-5020 Bergen, Norway
| | - Sylvia Varland
- Department of Biomedicine, University of Bergen, N-5020 Bergen, Norway; Department of Biological Sciences, University of Bergen, N-5020 Bergen, Norway
| | - Francis Impens
- VIB-UGent Center for Medical Biotechnology, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium; VIB Proteomics Core, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium; Department of Biomolecular Medicine, Ghent University, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Kris Gevaert
- VIB-UGent Center for Medical Biotechnology, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium; Department of Biomolecular Medicine, Ghent University, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Thomas Arnesen
- Department of Biomedicine, University of Bergen, N-5020 Bergen, Norway; Department of Biological Sciences, University of Bergen, N-5020 Bergen, Norway; Department of Surgery, Haukeland University Hospital, N-5021 Bergen, Norway.
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8
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Fina ME, Wang J, Vedula P, Tang HY, Kashina A, Dong DW. Arginylation Regulates G-protein Signaling in the Retina. Front Cell Dev Biol 2022; 9:807345. [PMID: 35127722 PMCID: PMC8815403 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2021.807345] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2021] [Accepted: 12/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Arginylation is a post-translational modification mediated by the arginyltransferase (Ate1). We recently showed that conditional deletion of Ate1 in the nervous system leads to increased light-evoked response sensitivities of ON-bipolar cells in the retina, indicating that arginylation regulates the G-protein signaling complexes of those neurons and/or photoreceptors. However, none of the key players in the signaling pathway were previously shown to be arginylated. Here we show that Gαt1, Gβ1, RGS6, and RGS7 are arginylated in the retina and RGS6 and RGS7 protein levels are elevated in Ate1 knockout, suggesting that arginylation plays a direct role in regulating their protein level and the G-protein-mediated responses in the retina.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie E. Fina
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicines, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Junling Wang
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicines, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Pavan Vedula
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicines, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Hsin-Yao Tang
- Proteomics and Metabolomics Facility, The Wistar Institute, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Anna Kashina
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicines, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States
- *Correspondence: Anna Kashina, ; Dawei W. Dong,
| | - Dawei W. Dong
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicines, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States
- Institute for Biomedical Informatics, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States
- *Correspondence: Anna Kashina, ; Dawei W. Dong,
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9
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Palandri A, Bonnet LV, Farias MG, Hallak ME, Galiano MR. Ablation of arginyl-tRNA-protein transferase in oligodendrocytes impairs central nervous system myelination. Glia 2021; 70:303-320. [PMID: 34669233 DOI: 10.1002/glia.24107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2021] [Revised: 09/29/2021] [Accepted: 10/05/2021] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Addition of arginine (Arg) from tRNA can cause major alterations of structure and function of protein substrates. This post-translational modification, termed protein arginylation, is mediated by the enzyme arginyl-tRNA-protein transferase 1 (Ate1). Arginylation plays essential roles in a variety of cellular processes, including cell migration, apoptosis, and cytoskeletal organization. Ate1 is associated with neuronal functions such as neurogenesis and neurite growth. However, the role of Ate1 in glial development, including oligodendrocyte (OL) differentiation and myelination processes in the central nervous system, is poorly understood. The present study revealed a peak in Ate1 protein expression during myelination process in primary cultured OLs. Post-transcriptional downregulation of Ate1 reduced the number of OL processes, and branching complexity, in vitro. We conditionally ablated Ate1 from OLs in mice using 2',3'-cyclic nucleotide 3'-phosphodiesterase-Cre promoter ("Ate1-KO" mice), to assess the role of Ate1 in OL function and axonal myelination in vivo. Immunostaining for OL differentiation markers revealed a notable reduction of mature OLs in corpus callosum of 14-day-old Ate1-KO, but no changes in spinal cord, in comparison with wild-type controls. Local proliferation of OL precursor cells was elevated in corpus callosum of 21-day-old Ate1-KO, but was unchanged in spinal cord. Five-month-old Ate1-KO displayed reductions of mature OL number and myelin thickness, with alterations of motor behaviors. Our findings, taken together, demonstrate that Ate1 helps maintain proper OL differentiation and myelination in corpus callosum in vivo, and that protein arginylation plays an essential role in developmental myelination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anabela Palandri
- Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Departamento de Química Biológica Ranwel Caputto, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Córdoba, Argentina.,Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), CIQUIBIC, Córdoba, Argentina
| | - Laura Vanesa Bonnet
- Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Departamento de Química Biológica Ranwel Caputto, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Córdoba, Argentina.,Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), CIQUIBIC, Córdoba, Argentina
| | - Maria Gimena Farias
- Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Departamento de Química Biológica Ranwel Caputto, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Córdoba, Argentina.,Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), CIQUIBIC, Córdoba, Argentina
| | - Marta Elena Hallak
- Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Departamento de Química Biológica Ranwel Caputto, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Córdoba, Argentina.,Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), CIQUIBIC, Córdoba, Argentina
| | - Mauricio Raul Galiano
- Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Departamento de Química Biológica Ranwel Caputto, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Córdoba, Argentina.,Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), CIQUIBIC, Córdoba, Argentina
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10
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Xu C, Li YM, Sun B, Zhong FJ, Yang LY. ATE1 Inhibits Liver Cancer Progression through RGS5-Mediated Suppression of Wnt/β-Catenin Signaling. Mol Cancer Res 2021; 19:1441-1453. [PMID: 34158395 PMCID: PMC9398136 DOI: 10.1158/1541-7786.mcr-21-0027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2021] [Revised: 05/04/2021] [Accepted: 06/15/2021] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Arginyltransferase (ATE1) plays critical roles in many biological functions including cardiovascular development, angiogenesis, adipogenesis, muscle contraction, and metastasis of cancer. However, the role of ATE1 in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) remains unknown. In this study, we find that ATE1 plays an essential role in growth and malignancy of liver cancer. ATE1 expression is significantly reduced in human HCC samples compared with normal liver tissue. In addition, low ATE1 expression is correlated with aggressive clinicopathologic features and is an independent poor prognostic factor for overall survival and disease-free survival of patients with HCC. Lentivirus-mediated ATE1 knockdown significantly promoted liver cancer growth, migration, and disease progression in vitro and in vivo. Opposing results were observed when ATE1 was upregulated. Mechanistically, ATE1 accelerated the degradation of β-catenin and inhibited Wnt signaling by regulating turnover of Regulator of G Protein Signaling 5 (RGS5). Loss- and gain-of-function assays confirmed that RGS5 was a key effector of ATE1-mediated regulation of Wnt signaling. Further studies indicated that RGS5 might be involved in regulating the activity of GSK3-β, a crucial component of the cytoplasmic destruction complex. Treatment with a GSK inhibitor (CHIR99021) cooperated with ablation of ATE1 or RGS5 overexpression to promote Wnt/β-catenin signaling, but overexpression of ATE1 or RGS5 knockdown did not reverse the effect of GSK inhibitor. IMPLICATIONS: ATE1 inhibits liver cancer progression by suppressing Wnt/β-catenin signaling and can serve as a potentially valuable prognostic biomarker for HCC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cong Xu
- Liver Cancer Laboratory, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Yi-Ming Li
- Liver Cancer Laboratory, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Bo Sun
- Liver Cancer Laboratory, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Fang-Jing Zhong
- Liver Cancer Laboratory, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Lian-Yue Yang
- Liver Cancer Laboratory, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China.,Department of Surgery, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China.,Corresponding Author: Lian-Yue Yang, Department of Surgery, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Xiangya Road 87, Changsha, Hunan 410008, China. Phone: 731-8432-7365; Fax: 731-8432-7618; E-mail:
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11
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Cheng S, Wen Y, Liu L, Cheng B, Liang C, Ye J, Chu X, Yao Y, Jia Y, Kafle OP, Zhang F. Traumatic events during childhood and its risks to substance use in adulthood: an observational and genome-wide by environment interaction study in UK Biobank. Transl Psychiatry 2021; 11:431. [PMID: 34417442 PMCID: PMC8379203 DOI: 10.1038/s41398-021-01557-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2021] [Revised: 07/13/2021] [Accepted: 07/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
We aimed to explore the underlying genetic mechanisms of traumatic events during childhood affecting the risks of adult substance use in present study. Using UK Biobank cohort, linear regression model was first applied to assess the relationships between cigarette smoking and alcohol drinking in adults with traumatic events during childhood, including felt hated by family member (41,648-111,465), felt loved (46,394-124,481) and sexually molested (47,598-127,766). Using traumatic events as exposure variables, genome-wide by environment interaction study was then performed by PLINK 2.0 to identify cigarette smoking and alcohol drinking associated genes interacting with traumatic events during childhood. We found that the frequency of cigarette smoking was significantly associated with felt hated by family member (coefficient = 0.42, P < 1.0 × 10-9), felt loved (coefficient = -0.31, P < 1.0 × 10-9) and sexually molested (coefficient = 0.46, P < 1.0 × 10-9). We also observed weaker associations of alcohol drinking with felt hated by family member (coefficient = 0.08, P = 3.10 × 10-6) and felt loved (coefficient = -0.06, P = 3.15 × 10-7). GWEIS identified multiple candidate loci interacting with traumatic events, such as CTNNA3 (rs189142060, P = 4.23 × 10-8) between felt hated by family member and the frequency of cigarette smoking, GABRG3 (rs117020886, P = 2.77 × 10-8) between felt hated by family member and the frequency of alcohol drinking. Our results suggested the significant impact of traumatic events during childhood on the risk of cigarette smoking and alcohol drinking.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shiqiang Cheng
- grid.43169.390000 0001 0599 1243Key Laboratory of Trace Elements and Endemic Diseases of National Health and Family Planning Commission, School of Public Health, Health Science Center, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, China
| | - Yan Wen
- grid.43169.390000 0001 0599 1243Key Laboratory of Trace Elements and Endemic Diseases of National Health and Family Planning Commission, School of Public Health, Health Science Center, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, China
| | - Li Liu
- grid.43169.390000 0001 0599 1243Key Laboratory of Trace Elements and Endemic Diseases of National Health and Family Planning Commission, School of Public Health, Health Science Center, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, China
| | - Bolun Cheng
- grid.43169.390000 0001 0599 1243Key Laboratory of Trace Elements and Endemic Diseases of National Health and Family Planning Commission, School of Public Health, Health Science Center, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, China
| | - Chujun Liang
- grid.43169.390000 0001 0599 1243Key Laboratory of Trace Elements and Endemic Diseases of National Health and Family Planning Commission, School of Public Health, Health Science Center, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, China
| | - Jing Ye
- grid.43169.390000 0001 0599 1243Key Laboratory of Trace Elements and Endemic Diseases of National Health and Family Planning Commission, School of Public Health, Health Science Center, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, China
| | - Xiaomeng Chu
- grid.43169.390000 0001 0599 1243Key Laboratory of Trace Elements and Endemic Diseases of National Health and Family Planning Commission, School of Public Health, Health Science Center, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, China
| | - Yao Yao
- grid.43169.390000 0001 0599 1243Key Laboratory of Trace Elements and Endemic Diseases of National Health and Family Planning Commission, School of Public Health, Health Science Center, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, China
| | - Yumeng Jia
- grid.43169.390000 0001 0599 1243Key Laboratory of Trace Elements and Endemic Diseases of National Health and Family Planning Commission, School of Public Health, Health Science Center, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, China
| | - Om Prakash Kafle
- grid.43169.390000 0001 0599 1243Key Laboratory of Trace Elements and Endemic Diseases of National Health and Family Planning Commission, School of Public Health, Health Science Center, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, China
| | - Feng Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Trace Elements and Endemic Diseases of National Health and Family Planning Commission, School of Public Health, Health Science Center, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, China.
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12
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Fina ME, Wang J, Nikonov SS, Sterling S, Vardi N, Kashina A, Dong DW. Arginyltransferase (Ate1) regulates the RGS7 protein level and the sensitivity of light-evoked ON-bipolar responses. Sci Rep 2021; 11:9376. [PMID: 33931669 PMCID: PMC8087773 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-88628-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2021] [Accepted: 04/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Regulator of G-protein signaling 7 (RGS7) is predominately present in the nervous system and is essential for neuronal signaling involving G-proteins. Prior studies in cultured cells showed that RGS7 is regulated via proteasomal degradation, however no protein is known to facilitate proteasomal degradation of RGS7 and it has not been shown whether this regulation affects G-protein signaling in neurons. Here we used a knockout mouse model with conditional deletion of arginyltransferase (Ate1) in the nervous system and found that in retinal ON bipolar cells, where RGS7 modulates a G-protein to signal light increments, deletion of Ate1 raised the level of RGS7. Electroretinographs revealed that lack of Ate1 leads to increased light-evoked response sensitivities of ON-bipolar cells, as well as their downstream neurons. In cultured mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEF), RGS7 was rapidly degraded via proteasome pathway and this degradation was abolished in Ate1 knockout MEF. Our results indicate that Ate1 regulates RGS7 protein level by facilitating proteasomal degradation of RGS7 and thus affects G-protein signaling in neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie E Fina
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicines, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA
| | - Junling Wang
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicines, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA
| | - Sergei S Nikonov
- Department of Neuroscience, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA
| | - Stephanie Sterling
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicines, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA
| | - Noga Vardi
- Department of Neuroscience, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA
| | - Anna Kashina
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicines, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA.
| | - Dawei W Dong
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicines, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA.
- Institute for Biomedical Informatics, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA.
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13
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Seo T, Kim J, Shin HC, Kim JG, Ju S, Nawale L, Han G, Lee HS, Bang G, Kim JY, Bang JK, Lee KH, Soung NK, Hwang J, Lee C, Kim SJ, Kim BY, Cha-Molstad H. R-catcher, a potent molecular tool to unveil the arginylome. Cell Mol Life Sci 2021; 78:3725-3741. [PMID: 33687501 PMCID: PMC8038991 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-021-03805-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2020] [Revised: 02/18/2021] [Accepted: 02/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Protein arginylation is a critical regulator of a variety of biological processes. The ability to uncover the global arginylation pattern and its associated signaling pathways would enable us to identify novel disease targets. Here, we report the development of a tool able to capture the N-terminal arginylome. This tool, termed R-catcher, is based on the ZZ domain of p62, which was previously shown to bind N-terminally arginylated proteins. Mutating the ZZ domain enhanced its binding specificity and affinity for Nt-Arg. R-catcher pulldown coupled to LC-MS/MS led to the identification of 59 known and putative arginylated proteins. Among these were a subgroup of novel ATE1-dependent arginylated ER proteins that are linked to diverse biological pathways, including cellular senescence and vesicle-mediated transport as well as diseases, such as Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis and Alzheimer's disease. This study presents the first molecular tool that allows the unbiased identification of arginylated proteins, thereby unlocking the arginylome and provide a new path to disease biomarker discovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taewook Seo
- Anticancer Agent Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Ochang-eup, Cheongju-si, Chungcheongbuk-do, 28116, Republic of Korea.,Department of Biomolecular Science, KRIBB School, University of Science and Technology, Daejeon, 34113, Republic of Korea
| | - Jihyo Kim
- Anticancer Agent Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Ochang-eup, Cheongju-si, Chungcheongbuk-do, 28116, Republic of Korea
| | - Ho-Chul Shin
- Disease Target Structure Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Daejeon, 34141, Republic of Korea
| | - Jung Gi Kim
- Anticancer Agent Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Ochang-eup, Cheongju-si, Chungcheongbuk-do, 28116, Republic of Korea.,Department of Biomolecular Science, KRIBB School, University of Science and Technology, Daejeon, 34113, Republic of Korea
| | - Shinyeong Ju
- Center for Theragnosis, Korea Institute of Science and Technology, Seoul, 02792, Republic of Korea.,KHU-KIST Department of Converging Science and Technology, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, 02447, Republic of Korea
| | - Laxman Nawale
- Anticancer Agent Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Ochang-eup, Cheongju-si, Chungcheongbuk-do, 28116, Republic of Korea.,Department of Biomolecular Science, KRIBB School, University of Science and Technology, Daejeon, 34113, Republic of Korea
| | - Goeun Han
- Anticancer Agent Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Ochang-eup, Cheongju-si, Chungcheongbuk-do, 28116, Republic of Korea.,Department of Biomolecular Science, KRIBB School, University of Science and Technology, Daejeon, 34113, Republic of Korea
| | - Hye Seon Lee
- Disease Target Structure Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Daejeon, 34141, Republic of Korea
| | - Geul Bang
- Research Center for Bioconvergence Analysis, Korea Basic Science Institute, Ochang, 28116, Republic of Korea
| | - Jin Young Kim
- Research Center for Bioconvergence Analysis, Korea Basic Science Institute, Ochang, 28116, Republic of Korea
| | - Jeong Kyu Bang
- Division of Magnetic Resonance, Korea Basic Science Institute, Ochang, 28116, Republic of Korea
| | - Kyung Ho Lee
- Anticancer Agent Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Ochang-eup, Cheongju-si, Chungcheongbuk-do, 28116, Republic of Korea
| | - Nak-Kyun Soung
- Anticancer Agent Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Ochang-eup, Cheongju-si, Chungcheongbuk-do, 28116, Republic of Korea
| | - Joonsung Hwang
- Anticancer Agent Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Ochang-eup, Cheongju-si, Chungcheongbuk-do, 28116, Republic of Korea
| | - Cheolju Lee
- Center for Theragnosis, Korea Institute of Science and Technology, Seoul, 02792, Republic of Korea.,KHU-KIST Department of Converging Science and Technology, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, 02447, Republic of Korea
| | - Seung Jun Kim
- Department of Biomolecular Science, KRIBB School, University of Science and Technology, Daejeon, 34113, Republic of Korea. .,Disease Target Structure Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Daejeon, 34141, Republic of Korea.
| | - Bo Yeon Kim
- Anticancer Agent Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Ochang-eup, Cheongju-si, Chungcheongbuk-do, 28116, Republic of Korea. .,Department of Biomolecular Science, KRIBB School, University of Science and Technology, Daejeon, 34113, Republic of Korea.
| | - Hyunjoo Cha-Molstad
- Anticancer Agent Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Ochang-eup, Cheongju-si, Chungcheongbuk-do, 28116, Republic of Korea. .,Department of Biomolecular Science, KRIBB School, University of Science and Technology, Daejeon, 34113, Republic of Korea.
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14
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Jiang C, Moorthy BT, Patel DM, Kumar A, Morgan WM, Alfonso B, Huang J, Lampidis TJ, Isom DG, Barrientos A, Fontanesi F, Zhang F. Regulation of Mitochondrial Respiratory Chain Complex Levels, Organization, and Function by Arginyltransferase 1. Front Cell Dev Biol 2020; 8:603688. [PMID: 33409279 PMCID: PMC7779560 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2020.603688] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2020] [Accepted: 11/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Arginyltransferase 1 (ATE1) is an evolutionary-conserved eukaryotic protein that localizes to the cytosol and nucleus. It is the only known enzyme in metazoans and fungi that catalyzes posttranslational arginylation. Lack of arginylation has been linked to an array of human disorders, including cancer, by altering the response to stress and the regulation of metabolism and apoptosis. Although mitochondria play relevant roles in these processes in health and disease, a causal relationship between ATE1 activity and mitochondrial biology has yet to be established. Here, we report a phylogenetic analysis that traces the roots of ATE1 to alpha-proteobacteria, the mitochondrion microbial ancestor. We then demonstrate that a small fraction of ATE1 localizes within mitochondria. Furthermore, the absence of ATE1 influences the levels, organization, and function of respiratory chain complexes in mouse cells. Specifically, ATE1-KO mouse embryonic fibroblasts have increased levels of respiratory supercomplexes I+III2+IVn. However, they have decreased mitochondrial respiration owing to severely lowered complex II levels, which leads to accumulation of succinate and downstream metabolic effects. Taken together, our findings establish a novel pathway for mitochondrial function regulation that might explain ATE1-dependent effects in various disease conditions, including cancer and aging, in which metabolic shifts are part of the pathogenic or deleterious underlying mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chunhua Jiang
- Department of Molecular & Cellular Pharmacology, University of Miami Leonard M. Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, United States
| | - Balaji T Moorthy
- Department of Molecular & Cellular Pharmacology, University of Miami Leonard M. Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, United States
| | - Devang M Patel
- Department of Molecular & Cellular Pharmacology, University of Miami Leonard M. Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, United States
| | - Akhilesh Kumar
- Department of Molecular & Cellular Pharmacology, University of Miami Leonard M. Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, United States
| | - William M Morgan
- Department of Molecular & Cellular Pharmacology, University of Miami Leonard M. Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, United States
| | - Belkis Alfonso
- Department of Human Genetics, University of Miami Leonard M. Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, United States
| | - Jingyu Huang
- Department of Human Genetics, University of Miami Leonard M. Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, United States
| | - Theodore J Lampidis
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Miami Leonard M. Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, United States.,Sylvester Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Miami Leonard M. Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, United States
| | - Daniel G Isom
- Department of Molecular & Cellular Pharmacology, University of Miami Leonard M. Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, United States.,Sylvester Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Miami Leonard M. Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, United States.,Institute for Data Science and Computing, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL, United States
| | - Antoni Barrientos
- Department of Neurology, University of Miami Leonard M. Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, United States.,Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, University of Miami Leonard M. Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, United States
| | - Flavia Fontanesi
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, University of Miami Leonard M. Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, United States
| | - Fangliang Zhang
- Department of Molecular & Cellular Pharmacology, University of Miami Leonard M. Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, United States.,Sylvester Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Miami Leonard M. Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, United States
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15
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Abstract
It is increasingly recognized that local protein synthesis (LPS) contributes to fundamental aspects of axon biology, in both developing and mature neurons. Mutations in RNA-binding proteins (RBPs), as central players in LPS, and other proteins affecting RNA localization and translation are associated with a range of neurological disorders, suggesting disruption of LPS may be of pathological significance. In this review, we substantiate this hypothesis by examining the link between LPS and key axonal processes, and the implicated pathophysiological consequences of dysregulated LPS. First, we describe how the length and autonomy of axons result in an exceptional reliance on LPS. We next discuss the roles of LPS in maintaining axonal structural and functional polarity and axonal trafficking. We then consider how LPS facilitates the establishment of neuronal connectivity through regulation of axonal branching and pruning, how it mediates axonal survival into adulthood and its involvement in neuronal stress responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julie Qiaojin Lin
- UK Dementia Research Institute at University of Cambridge, Department of Clinical Neurosciences, Island Research Building, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, Cambridge, UK
| | | | - Christine E Holt
- Department of Physiology, Development and Neuroscience, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
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16
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Avcilar-Kucukgoze I, Gamper H, Polte C, Ignatova Z, Kraetzner R, Shtutman M, Hou YM, Dong DW, Kashina A. tRNA Arg-Derived Fragments Can Serve as Arginine Donors for Protein Arginylation. Cell Chem Biol 2020; 27:839-849.e4. [PMID: 32553119 DOI: 10.1016/j.chembiol.2020.05.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2020] [Revised: 03/12/2020] [Accepted: 05/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Arginyltransferase ATE1 mediates posttranslational arginylation and plays key roles in multiple physiological processes. ATE1 utilizes arginyl (Arg)-tRNAArg as the donor of Arg, putting this reaction into a direct competition with the protein synthesis machinery. Here, we address the question of ATE1- Arg-tRNAArg specificity as a potential mechanism enabling this competition in vivo. Using in vitro arginylation assays and Ate1 knockout models, we find that, in addition to full-length tRNA, ATE1 is also able to utilize short tRNAArg fragments that bear structural resemblance to tRNA-derived fragments (tRF), a recently discovered class of small regulatory non-coding RNAs with global emerging biological role. Ate1 knockout cells show a decrease in tRFArg generation and a significant increase in the ratio of tRNAArg:tRFArg compared with wild type, suggesting a functional link between tRFArg and arginylation. We propose that generation of physiologically important tRFs can serve as a switch between translation and protein arginylation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irem Avcilar-Kucukgoze
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Howard Gamper
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA 19144, USA
| | - Christine Polte
- Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Hamburg, 20148 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Zoya Ignatova
- Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Hamburg, 20148 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Ralph Kraetzner
- Department of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, University Medical Center Göttingen, 37075 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Michael Shtutman
- Department of Drug Discovery and Biomedical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC 29208, USA
| | - Ya-Ming Hou
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA 19144, USA
| | - Dawei W Dong
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; Institute for Biomedical Informatics, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Anna Kashina
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA.
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17
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Abstract
The aminoacylation reaction is one of most extensively studied cellular processes. The so-called "canonical" reaction is carried out by direct charging of an amino acid (aa) onto its corresponding transfer RNA (tRNA) by the cognate aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase (aaRS), and the canonical usage of the aminoacylated tRNA (aa-tRNA) is to translate a messenger RNA codon in a translating ribosome. However, four out of the 22 genetically-encoded aa are made "noncanonically" through a two-step or indirect route that usually compensate for a missing aaRS. Additionally, from the 22 proteinogenic aa, 13 are noncanonically used, by serving as substrates for the tRNA- or aa-tRNA-dependent synthesis of other cellular components. These nontranslational processes range from lipid aminoacylation, and heme, aa, antibiotic and peptidoglycan synthesis to protein degradation. This chapter focuses on these noncanonical usages of aa-tRNAs and the ways of generating them, and also highlights the strategies that cells have evolved to balance the use of aa-tRNAs between protein synthesis and synthesis of other cellular components.
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18
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Wiley DJ, D’Urso G, Zhang F. Posttranslational Arginylation Enzyme Arginyltransferase1 Shows Genetic Interactions With Specific Cellular Pathways in vivo. Front Physiol 2020; 11:427. [PMID: 32435206 PMCID: PMC7218141 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2020.00427] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2020] [Accepted: 04/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Arginyltransferase1 (ATE1) is a conserved enzyme in eukaryotes mediating posttranslational arginylation, the addition of an extra arginine to an existing protein. In mammals, the dysregulations of the ATE1 gene (ate1) is shown to be involved in cardiovascular abnormalities, cancer, and aging-related diseases. Although biochemical evidence suggested that arginylation may be involved in stress response and/or protein degradation, the physiological role of ATE1 in vivo has never been systematically determined. This gap of knowledge leads to difficulties for interpreting the involvements of ATE1 in diseases pathogenesis. Since ate1 is highly conserved between human and the unicellular organism Schizosaccharomyces pombe (S. pombe), we take advantage of the gene-knockout library of S. pombe, to investigate the genetic interactions between ate1 and other genes in a systematic and unbiased manner. By this approach, we found that ate1 has a surprisingly small and focused impact size. Among the 3659 tested genes, which covers nearly 75% of the genome of S. pombe, less than 5% of them displayed significant genetic interactions with ate1. Furthermore, these ate1-interacting partners can be grouped into a few discrete clustered categories based on their functions or their physical interactions. These categories include translation/transcription regulation, biosynthesis/metabolism of biomolecules (including histidine), cell morphology and cellular dynamics, response to oxidative or metabolic stress, ribosomal structure and function, and mitochondrial function. Unexpectedly, inconsistent to popular belief, very few genes in the global ubiquitination or degradation pathways showed interactions with ate1. Our results suggested that ATE1 specifically regulates a handful of cellular processes in vivo, which will provide critical mechanistic leads for studying the involvements of ATE1 in normal physiologies as well as in diseased conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- David J. Wiley
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Pharmacology, University of Miami Leonard M. Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, United States
| | - Gennaro D’Urso
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Pharmacology, University of Miami Leonard M. Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, United States
| | - Fangliang Zhang
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Pharmacology, University of Miami Leonard M. Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, United States
- Sylvester Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Miami Leonard M. Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, United States
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19
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Kashina AS. Regulation of actin isoforms in cellular and developmental processes. Semin Cell Dev Biol 2020; 102:113-121. [PMID: 32001148 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2019.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2019] [Revised: 12/02/2019] [Accepted: 12/02/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Actin is one of the most abundant and essential intracellular proteins that mediates nearly every form of cellular movement and underlies such key processes as embryogenesis, tissue integrity, cell division and contractility of all types of muscle and non-muscle cells. In mammals, actin is represented by six isoforms, which are encoded by different genes but produce proteins that are 95-99 % identical to each other. The six actin genes have vastly different functions in vivo, and the small amino acid differences between the proteins they encode are rigorously maintained through evolution, but the underlying differences behind this distinction, as well as the importance of specific amino acid sequences for each actin isoform, are not well understood. This review summarizes different levels of actin isoform-specific regulation in cellular and developmental processes, starting with the nuclear actin's role in transcription, and covering the gene-level, mRNA-level, and protein-level regulation, with a special focus on mammalian actins in non-muscle cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna S Kashina
- University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, United States.
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Chen L, Kashina A. Quantification of intracellular N-terminal β-actin arginylation. Sci Rep 2019; 9:16669. [PMID: 31723207 PMCID: PMC6853978 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-52848-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2019] [Accepted: 10/22/2019] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Actin is a ubiquitous, essential, and highly abundant protein in all eukaryotic cells that performs key roles in contractility, adhesion, migration, and leading edge dynamics. The two non-muscle actins, β- and γ-, are ubiquitously present in every cell type and are nearly identical to each other at the amino acid level, but play distinct intracellular roles. The mechanisms regulating this distinction have been the focus of recent interest in the field. Work from our lab has previously shown that β-, but not γ-, actin undergoes N-terminal arginylation on Asp3. While functional evidence suggest that this arginylation may be important to actin's function, progress in these studies so far has been hindered by difficulties in arginylated actin detection, precluding estimations of the abundance of arginylated actin in cells, and its occurrence in different tissues and cell types. The present study represents the first antibody-based quantification of the percentage of arginylated actin in migratory non-muscle cells under different physiological conditions, as well as in different cells and tissues. We find that while the steady-state level of arginylated actin is relatively low, it is consistently present in vivo, and is somewhat more prominent in migratory cells. Inhibition of N-terminal actin acetylation dramatically increases the intracellular actin arginylation level, suggesting that these two modifications may directly compete in vivo. These findings constitute an essential step in our understanding of actin regulation by arginylation, and in uncovering the dynamic interplay of actin's N-terminal modifications in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Chen
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA
| | - Anna Kashina
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA.
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Abstract
Protein arginylation-enzymatic addition of the amino acid arginine (Arg) to proteins, mediated by arginyltransferase ATE1, has been discovered in 1963, but is still relatively poorly understood. Studies of arginylation present many technical challenges, which arise from the fact that Arg is a regular amino acid that also incorporates into proteins during translation. Thus, in vitro arginylation needs to be conducted in a strictly ribosome-free system, in highly controlled conditions. Identification of arginylated proteins is currently only possible by high precision mass spectrometry, which relies on very high mass accuracy of the instruments, specific ionization patterns during mass fragmentation, as well as multiple stringent steps of automated and manual validation. Below we describe the methods of in vitro arginylation and mass spectrometry analysis of arginylated proteins, developed by our groups during the last 15 years.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junling Wang
- University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - John R Yates
- The Scripps Research Institute, LaJolla, CA, United States
| | - Anna Kashina
- University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States.
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Varland S, Vandekerckhove J, Drazic A. Actin Post-translational Modifications: The Cinderella of Cytoskeletal Control. Trends Biochem Sci 2019; 44:502-516. [PMID: 30611609 DOI: 10.1016/j.tibs.2018.11.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2018] [Revised: 11/22/2018] [Accepted: 11/27/2018] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Actin is one of the most abundant proteins in eukaryotic cells and the main component of the microfilament system. It plays essential roles in numerous cellular activities, including muscle contraction, maintenance of cell integrity, and motility, as well as transcriptional regulation. Besides interacting with various actin-binding proteins (ABPs), proper actin function is regulated by post-translational modifications (PTMs), such as acetylation, arginylation, oxidation, and others. Here, we explain how actin PTMs can contribute to filament formation and stability, and may have additional actin regulatory functions, which potentially contribute to disease development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sylvia Varland
- Department of Biomedicine, University of Bergen, Jonas Lies vei 91, N-5020 Bergen, Norway; Department of Biological Sciences, University of Bergen, Thormøhlensgate 53 A, N-5020 Bergen, Norway; Donnelly Centre for Cellular and Biomolecular Research, University of Toronto, 160 College Street, Toronto, ON M5S 3E1, Canada
| | - Joël Vandekerckhove
- Department of Biochemistry, UGent Center for Medical Biotechnology, Ghent University, Albert Baertsoenkaai 3, 9000 Gent, Belgium
| | - Adrian Drazic
- Department of Biomedicine, University of Bergen, Jonas Lies vei 91, N-5020 Bergen, Norway.
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Nanotechnology-mediated crossing of two impermeable membranes to modulate the stars of the neurovascular unit for neuroprotection. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2018; 115:E12333-E12342. [PMID: 30530697 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1816429115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
The success of nanoparticle-mediated delivery of antioxidant and antiinflammatory-based neuroprotectants to the brain to improve neuronal functions in neurodegenerative diseases has demonstrated lesser impact instead of achieving its full potential. We hypothesized that these failures were due to a combination of parameters, such as: (i) unavailability of a delivery vehicle, which can reproducibly and efficiently transport through the brain capillary endothelium; (ii) inefficient uptake of therapeutic nanoparticles in the neuronal cell population; and (iii) limited ability of a single nanoparticle to cross the two most-impermeable biological barriers, the blood-brain barrier and mitochondrial double membrane, so that a nanoparticle can travel through the brain endothelial barrier to the mitochondria of target cells where oxidative damage is localized. Herein, we demonstrate optimization of a biodegradable nanoparticle for efficient brain accumulation and protection of astrocytes from oxidative damage and mitochondrial dysfunctions to enhance the neuroprotection ability of astrocytes toward neurons using neurodegeneration characteristics in SOD1G93A rats. This biodegradable nanomedicine platform with the ability to accumulate in the brain has the potential to bring beneficial effects in neurodegenerative diseases by modulating the stars, astrocytes in the brain, to enhance their neuroprotective actions.
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Rodriguez A, Kashina A. Posttranscriptional and Posttranslational Regulation of Actin. Anat Rec (Hoboken) 2018; 301:1991-1998. [PMID: 30312009 DOI: 10.1002/ar.23958] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2018] [Revised: 04/12/2018] [Accepted: 04/14/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Actin is one of the most abundant intracellular proteins, essential in every eukaryotic cell type. Actin plays key roles in tissue morphogenesis, cell adhesion, muscle contraction, and developmental reprogramming. Most actin studies have focused on its regulation at the protein level, either directly or through differential interactions with over a hundred intracellular binding partners. However, numerous studies emerging in recent years demonstrate specific types of nucleotide-level regulation that strongly affect non-muscle actins during cell migration and adhesion and are potentially applicable to other members of the actin family. This regulation involves zipcode-mediated actin mRNA targeting to the cell periphery, proposed to mediate local synthesis of actin at the cell leading edge, as well as the recently discovered N-terminal arginylation that specifically targets non-muscle β-actin via a nucleotide-dependent mechanism. Moreover, a study published this year suggests that actin's essential roles at the organismal level may be entirely nucleotide-dependent. This review summarizes the emerging data on actin's nucleotide-level regulation. Anat Rec, 301:1991-1998, 2018. © 2018 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexis Rodriguez
- Department of Biological Sciences, Rutgers University, Newark, New Jersey
| | - Anna Kashina
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Pennsylvania, School of Veterinary Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
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N-terminal arginylation generates a bimodal degron that modulates autophagic proteolysis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2018; 115:E2716-E2724. [PMID: 29507222 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1719110115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The conjugation of amino acids to the protein N termini is universally observed in eukaryotes and prokaryotes, yet its functions remain poorly understood. In eukaryotes, the amino acid l-arginine (l-Arg) is conjugated to N-terminal Asp (Nt-Asp), Glu, Gln, Asn, and Cys, directly or associated with posttranslational modifications. Following Nt-arginylation, the Nt-Arg is recognized by UBR boxes of N-recognins such as UBR1, UBR2, UBR4/p600, and UBR5/EDD, leading to substrate ubiquitination and proteasomal degradation via the N-end rule pathway. It has been a mystery, however, why studies for the past five decades identified only a handful of Nt-arginylated substrates in mammals, although five of 20 principal amino acids are eligible for arginylation. Here, we show that the Nt-Arg functions as a bimodal degron that directs substrates to either the ubiquitin (Ub)-proteasome system (UPS) or macroautophagy depending on physiological states. In normal conditions, the arginylated forms of proteolytic cleavage products, D101-CDC6 and D1156-BRCA1, are targeted to UBR box-containing N-recognins and degraded by the proteasome. However, when proteostasis by the UPS is perturbed, their Nt-Arg redirects these otherwise cellular wastes to macroautophagy through its binding to the ZZ domain of the autophagic adaptor p62/STQSM/Sequestosome-1. Upon binding to the Nt-Arg, p62 acts as an autophagic N-recognin that undergoes self-polymerization, facilitating cargo collection and lysosomal degradation of p62-cargo complexes. A chemical mimic of Nt-Arg redirects Ub-conjugated substrates from the UPS to macroautophagy and promotes their lysosomal degradation. Our results suggest that the Nt-Arg proteome of arginylated proteins contributes to reprogramming global proteolytic flux under stresses.
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Terenzio M, Schiavo G, Fainzilber M. Compartmentalized Signaling in Neurons: From Cell Biology to Neuroscience. Neuron 2017; 96:667-679. [PMID: 29096079 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2017.10.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2017] [Revised: 09/27/2017] [Accepted: 10/09/2017] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Neurons are the largest known cells, with complex and highly polarized morphologies. As such, neuronal signaling is highly compartmentalized, requiring sophisticated transfer mechanisms to convey and integrate information within and between sub-neuronal compartments. Here, we survey different modes of compartmentalized signaling in neurons, highlighting examples wherein the fundamental cell biological processes of protein synthesis and degradation, membrane trafficking, and organelle transport are employed to enable the encoding and integration of information, locally and globally within a neuron. Comparisons to other cell types indicate that neurons accentuate widely shared mechanisms, providing invaluable models for the compartmentalization and transfer mechanisms required and used by most eukaryotic cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Terenzio
- Department of Biomolecular Sciences, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel
| | - Giampietro Schiavo
- Sobell Department of Motor Neuroscience and Movement Disorders, Institute of Neurology, University College London, London WC1N 3BG, UK; Discoveries Centre for Regenerative and Precision Medicine at UCL, London WC1N 3BG, UK; UK Dementia Research Institute at UCL, London WC1E 6BT, UK
| | - Mike Fainzilber
- Department of Biomolecular Sciences, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel.
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