Fullerenol nanoparticles prevents doxorubicin-induced acute hepatotoxicity in rats

The impact of fullerenol nanoparticles on the growth of toxigenic Aspergillus flavus and aflatoxins production in vitro and in corn flour

Antifungal and antimycotoxigenic activity of fullerenol nanoparticles (FNPs) were investigated on Aspergillus flavus growth isolated from a real food sample and aflatoxins (AFs) (AFB1 and AFB2 ) production. The final FNPs concentrations in in vitro and in commercial corn flour after the stationary incubation period of 7 and 14 days were in the range 0.16-80 µg/mL and 0.16-80 µg/g, respectively. Nanocharacterization of FNPs revealed an average size of 5-20 nm and a zeta potential of -35 mV. The highest degree of A. flavus mycelium growth inhibition (28%) after 7 days was observed for applied FNP concentration of 8.0 µg/mL, while after 14 days FNP concentration of 0.32 µg/mL led to the maximal inhibition of A. flavus mycelium growth (36%). Spearman's correlations analysis revealed a strong positive correlation between AFB1 and AFB2 concentrations in YES broth after 7 (R = 0.994, p < 0.05) and 14 days (R = 0.976), as well as between AFs concentrations and A. flavus mycelium mass after 7 (R = 0.786 for AFB1 and R = 0.766 for AFB2 ) and 14 days (R = 0.810 for AFB1 and R = 0.833 for AFB2 ). Paired samples t-test showed the existence of a statistically significant difference (p < 0.05) between the produced AFs concentrations after the incubation of 7 and 14 days. Regarding the artificially inoculated corn flour the lower applied FNP concentrations (0.16-0.8 µg/g) achieved a reduction of AFB1 up to 42% and 60% after 7 and 14 days, respectively.

The Effect of Sevoflurane and Fullerenol C 60 on the Liver and Kidney in Lower Extremity Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury in Mice with Streptozocin-Induced Diabetes

Objective

This study aimed to demonstrate whether fullerenol C60, sevoflurane anesthesia, or a combination of both had protective effects on the liver and kidneys in lower extremity ischemia-reperfusion injury (IRI) in mice with streptozocin-induced diabetes.

Methods

A total of 46 Swiss albino mice were divided into six groups as follows: control group (group C, n=7), diabetes group (group D, n=7), diabetes-ischemia/reperfusion (group DIR, n=8), diabetes-ischemia/reperfusion-fullerenol C60 (group DIR-FC60, n=8), diabetes-ischemia/reperfusion-sevoflurane (group DIR-S, n=8), and the diabetes-ischemia/reperfusion-fullerenol C60-sevoflurane (group DIR-S-FC60, n=8). Fullerenol C60 (100mg/kg) was administered intraperitoneally 30 min before the ischemia-reperfusion procedure to the fullerenol groups (DIR-FC60 and DIR-S-FC60). In the DIR groups, 2 hours (h) ischemia-2h reperfusion periods were performed. In the sevoflurane groups, sevoflurane was applied during the ischemia-reperfusion period with 100% O2. Liver and kidney tissues were removed at the end of the reperfusion procedure for biochemical and histopathological examinations.

Results

In liver tissue, hydropic degeneration, sinusoidal dilatation, pycnotic nuclei, prenecrotic cells, and mononuclear cell infiltration in parenchyma were significantly more frequent in group DIR than in groups D and group C. In terms of the histopathologic criteria examined, more positive results were seen in group DIR-FC60, and when group DIR-FC60 was compared with group DIR, the difference was significant. The best results in AST, ALT, glucose, TBARS levels, and SOD enzyme activities in liver tissue were in group DIR-FC60 compared with group DIR, followed by groups DIR-S-FC60 and DIR-S, respectively. Regarding TBARS levels and SOD enzyme activities in kidney tissue, the best results were in groups DIR-FC60, DIR-S-FC60, and DIR-S, respectively.

Conclusion

According to our findings, it is clear that fullerenol C60 administered intraperitoneally 30 min before ischemia, alone or together with sevoflurane, reduces oxidative stress in distant organ damage caused by lower extremity IRI, and reduces liver and kidney tissue damage in histopathologic examinations.

In Vitro and Preclinical Antitumor Evaluation of Doxorubicin Liposomes Coated with a Cholesterol-Based Trimeric β-D-Glucopyranosyltriazole

The coating of liposomes with polyethyleneglycol (PEG) has been extensively discussed over the years as a strategy for enhancing the in vivo and in vitro stability of nanostructures, including doxorubicin-loaded liposomes. However, studies have shown some important disadvantages of the PEG molecule as a long-circulation agent, including the immunogenic role of PEG, which limits its clinical use in repeated doses. In this context, hydrophilic molecules as carbohydrates have been proposed as an alternative to coating liposomes. Thus, this work studied the cytotoxicity and preclinical antitumor activity of liposomes coated with a glycosyl triazole glucose (GlcL-DOX) derivative as a potential strategy against breast cancer. The glucose-coating of liposomes enhanced the storage stability compared to PEG-coated liposomes, with the suitable retention of DOX encapsulation. The antitumor activity, using a 4T1 breast cancer mouse model, shows that GlcL-DOX controlled the tumor growth in 58.5% versus 35.3% for PEG-coated liposomes (PegL-DOX). Additionally, in the preliminary analysis of the GlcL-DOX systemic toxicity, the glucose-coating liposomes reduced the body weight loss and hepatotoxicity compared to other DOX-treated groups. Therefore, GlcL-DOX could be a promising alternative for treating breast tumors. Further studies are required to elucidate the complete GlcL-DOX safety profile.

Clinical observation of liposomal doxorubicin on liver and renal function in patients with breast cancer

Background

Doxorubicin has become the first-line antitumor drug clinically, but severely limited by multiple side effects, especially cardiotoxicity. Liposomal doxorubicin therefore replaced traditional doxorubicin for low toxicity and high efficiency. Previous studies have suggested liver and kidney may be the main organs affected by liposomal doxorubicin. Due to insufficient clinical evidence, we set out to analyze the effect of liposomal doxorubicin on liver and renal function in breast cancer patients.

Materials and Methods

Our retrospective analysis included breast cancer patients aged 30-70 years old who were assigned to two groups based on liposomal doxorubicin intake. We evaluated changes in liver and renal function. Multivariate logistic regression model was used to assess the risk factors of liver function damage.

Results

Ultimately, 631 patients for liver function analysis cohort and 611 cases for renal function analysis cohort. Patients receiving liposomal doxorubicin had significantly higher liver function damage rate compared to control group (52.20% vs 9.82%, p < 0.001), but there was no difference in the incidence of renal damage events between the two groups. Multivariate analysis shows total doses divided by body surface area is a significant, independent risk factor for liver function damage (odds ratio 1.005 [1.002-1.018], p < 0.001).

Conclusion

Liposomal doxorubicin treatment is associated with higher liver function damage in breast cancer patients, but has no effect on renal function. Together with risk factor analysis, our study underlines the importance to pay attention for patient's age before taking liposomal doxorubicin, alongside liver function after the first and long-term treatments.

Antioxidant and anti-inflammatory potential of crocin on the doxorubicin mediated hepatotoxicity in Wistar rats

Doxorubicin (DXR) is widely used in cancer treatment. However, it has not yet been possible to prevent the side effects of DXR. The aim of this study was to investigate the hepatoprotective effect of crocin against DXR used in cancer treatment. For this reason; forty Wistar rats (male-250-300 g) were allocated into four groups (n = 10/group): Control, Crocin, DXR and DXR+Crocin. Control and Crocin groups were administered saline and crocin (40 mg/kg, i.p) for 15 days, respectively. DXR group, cumulative dose 12 mg/kg DXR, was administered for 12 days via 48 h intervals in six injections (2 mg/kg each, i.p). DXR+Crocin group, crocin (40 mg/kg-i.p) was administered for 15 days, and DXR was given as in the DXR group. The results revealed that serum liver markers (alanine transaminase (ALT), aspartate transaminase (AST), and alkaline phosphatase (ALP) increased significantly after DXR administration but recovered after crocin therapy. In addition, lipid peroxidation (MDA), and inflammatory cytokine (TNF-α) increased after DXR application and the antioxidative defense system (GSH, SOD, CAT) significantly decreased and re-achieved by crocin treatment. Our results conclude that crocin treatment was related to ameliorated hepatocellular architecture and reduced hepatic oxidative stress and inflammation in rats with DXR-induced hepatotoxicity.

Oxidative stress status assessment of rats' brains injury following subacute exposure to K-oximes

Oxidative stress status and morphological injuries in the brain of Wistar rats induced by repeated application of selected acetylcholinesterase reactivators - asoxime, obidoxime, K027, K048, K074, and K075 were evaluated. Each oxime in a dose of 0.1 of LD50/kg im was given 2x/week for 4 weeks. Markers of lipid peroxidation (malondialdehyde, MDA), and protein oxidation (advanced oxidation protein products, AOPP), as well as the activity of antioxidant enzymes (catalase, CAT, superoxide dismutase, SOD, glutathione reductase, GR, and glutathione peroxidase, GPx), were estimated in the brain tissue homogenates on day 35 of the study. Brain alterations were carefully quantified by semiquantitative grading scales - brain damage score (BDS). Oxidative stress parameters, MDA and AOPP were significantly highest in the asoxime-, obidoxime- and K075-treated groups (p < 0.001). The activity of SOD and CAT was significantly elevated in the obidoxime-, K048-, and K075-treated groups (p < 0.001). Besides, GR was markedly decreased in the obidoxime- and K074-treated groups (p < 0.01), while treatment with K048, K074 and K075 induced extremely high elevation in GPx levels (p < 0.001). In the same groups of rats, brain alterations associated with polymorphonuclear cell infiltrate were significantly more severe than those observed in animals receiving only asoxime or K027 (p < 0.001). The presented results confirmed that treatment with different oximes significantly improved the oxidative status and attenuated signs of inflammation in rats' brains. Presented results, together with our previously published data can help to predict likely adverse systemic toxic effects, and target organ systems, which are crucial for establishing risk categories, as well as in dose selection of K-oximes as drug candidates.

Topically applied fullerenols protect against radiation dermatitis by scavenging reactive oxygen species

Adverse skin reactions caused by ionizing radiation are collectively called radiation dermatitis (RD), and the use of nanomedicine is an attractive approach to this condition. Therefore, we designed and large-scale synthesized fullerenols that showed free radical scavenging ability in vitro. Next, we pretreated X-ray-exposed cells with fullerenols. The results showed that pretreatment with fullerenols significantly scavenged intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) produced and enhanced the antioxidant capacity, protecting skin cells from X-ray-induced DNA damage and apoptosis. Moreover, we induced RD in mice by applying 30 Gy of X-ray irradiation, followed by treatment with fullerenols. We found that after treatment, the RD scores dropped, and the histological results systematically demonstrated that topically applied fullerenols could reduce radiation-induced skin epidermal thickening, collagen deposition and skin appendage damage and promote hair regeneration after 35 days. Compared with Trolamine cream, a typical RD drug, fullerenols showed superior radiation protection. Overall, the in vitro and in vivo experiments proved that fullerenols agents against RD.

Protective Effects of Omega-3 Supplementation against Doxorubicin-Induced Deleterious Effects on the Liver and Kidneys of Rats

Anthracycline doxorubicin (DOX) is still widely used as a chemotherapeutic drug for some solid tumors. Although DOX is highly effective, its side effects are limiting factors, such as cardio, nephro and hepatotoxicity. As such, approaches used to mitigate these adverse effects are highly encouraged. Omega 3 (ω-3), which is a class of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids, has been shown to have anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects in preclinical bioassays. Thus, we evaluated the protective effects of ω-3 supplementation on hepatotoxicity and nephrotoxicity induced by multiple DOX administrations in rodents. Male Wistar rats (10 rats/group) were treated daily with ω-3 (400 mg/kg/day) by gavage for six weeks. Two weeks after the first ω-3 administration, the rats received DOX (3.5 mg/kg, intraperitoneal, 1×/week) for four weeks. DOX treatment reduced body weight gain increased systemic genotoxicity and caused liver-related (increase in serum ALT levels, thickness of the Glisson’s capsule, compensatory proliferation and p65 levels) and kidney-related (increase in serum urea and creatinine levels, and incidence of tubular dilatation) deleterious outcomes. In contrast, ω-3 supplementation was safe and abrogated the DOX-related enhancement of systemic genotoxicity, serum urea and creatinine levels. Furthermore, ω-3 intervention reduced by 50% the incidence of kidney histological lesions while reducing by 40–50% the p65 protein level, and the proliferative response in the liver induced by DOX. Our findings indicate that ω-3 intervention attenuated the DOX-induced deleterious effects in the liver and kidney. Therefore, our findings may inspire future mechanistical investigations and clinical interventions with ω-3 on the reported outcomes.

Potential Medical Use of Fullerenols After Two Decades of Oncology Research

Fullerenes are carbon molecules that are found in nature in various forms. They are composed of hexagonal and pentagonal rings that create closed structures. Almost 4 decades ago, fullerenes were identified in the form of C60 and C70, and following the award of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for this discovery in 1996, many laboratories started working on their water-soluble derivatives that could be used in different industries, including pharmaceutical industries. One of the first fullerene forms that was the focus of different research groups was fullerenol, C60(OH)n (n  =  2-44). Both in-vitro and in-vivo studies have shown that polyhydroxylate fullerene derivatives can potentially be used as either antioxidative agents or cytostatics (depending on their co-administration, forms, and concentration/dose) in biological systems. The current review aimed to present a critical view of the potential applications and limitations of fullerenols in oncology, as understood from the past 2 decades of research.

Nanozymes in the Treatment of Diseases Caused by Excessive Reactive Oxygen Specie

Excessive reactive oxygen species (ROS) may generate deleterious effects on biomolecules, such as DNA damage, protein oxidation and lipid peroxidation, causing cell and tissue damage and eventually leading to the pathogenesis of diseases, such as neurodegenerative diseases, ischemia/reperfusion ((I/R)) injury, and inflammatory diseases. Therefore, the modulation of ROS can be an efficient means to relieve the aforementioned diseases. Several studies have verified that antioxidants such as Mitoquinone (a mitochondrial-targeted coenzyme Q10 derivative) can scavenge ROS and attenuate related diseases. Nanozymes, defined as nanomaterials with intrinsic enzyme-like properties that also possess antioxidant properties, are hence expected to be promising alternatives for the treatment of ROS-related diseases. This review introduces the types of nanozymes with inherent antioxidant activities, elaborates on various strategies (eg, controlling the size or shape of nanozymes, regulating the composition of nanozymes and environmental factors) for modulating their catalytic activities, and summarizes their performances in treating ROS-induced diseases.

Preparation and Evaluation of the Cytoprotective Activity of Micelles with DSPE-PEG-C60 as a Carrier Against Doxorubicin-Induced Cytotoxicity

To deliver doxorubicin (DOX) with enhanced efficacy and safety in vivo, fullerenol-modified micelles were prepared with the amphiphilic polymer DSPE-PEG-C60 as a carrier, which was synthesized by linking C60(OH)₂₂ with DSPE-PEG-NH₂. Studies of its particle size, PDI, zeta potential, and encapsulation efficiency were performed. DOX was successfully loaded into the micelles, exhibiting a suitable particle size [97 nm, 211 nm, 260 nm, vector: DOX = 5:1, 10:1; 15:1 (W/W)], a negative zeta potential of around −30 mv, and an acceptable encapsulation efficiency [86.1, 95.4, 97.5%, vector: DOX = 5:1, 10:1; 15:1 (W/W)]. The release behaviors of DOX from DSPE-PEG-C60 micelles were consistent with the DSPE-PEG micelles, and it showed sustained release. There was lower cytotoxicity of DSPE-PEG-C60 micelles on normal cell lines (L02, H9c2, GES-1) than free DOX and DSPE-PEG micelles. We explored the protective role of DSPE-PEG-C60 on doxorubicin-induced cardiomyocyte damage in H9c2 cells, which were evaluated with a reactive oxygen species (ROS) assay kit, JC-1, and an FITC annexin V apoptosis detection kit for cellular oxidative stress, mitochondrial membrane potential, and apoptosis. The results showed that H9c2 cells exposed to DSPE-PEG-C60 micelles displayed decreased intracellular ROS, an increased ratio of red fluorescence (JC-1 aggregates) to green fluorescence (JC-1 monomers), and a lower apoptotic ratio than the control and DSPE-PEG micelle cells. In conclusion, the prepared DOX-loaded DSPE-PEG-C60 micelles have great promise for safe, effective tumor therapy.

Colchicine Ameliorates Dilated Cardiomyopathy Via SIRT2-Mediated Suppression of NLRP3 Inflammasome Activation

Background Dilated cardiomyopathy remains a leading cause of heart failure worldwide. Immune inflammation response is recognized as a significant player in the progression of heart failure; however, immunomodulatory strategies remain a long-term challenge. Colchicine, a potent anti-inflammatory drug, has many benefits in ischemic cardiovascular events, but its role in nonischemic heart failure remains unclear. Methods and Results Doxorubicin administration was used to establish a murine dilated cardiomyopathy model, and colchicine or saline was orally given. At the end point, cardiac function and fibrosis were measured to investigate the effects of colchicine. Inflammatory cytokine levels, neutrophil recruitment, and NLRP3 (NOD-like receptor protein 3) inflammasome activation were detected to evaluate the inflammatory response. Furthermore, to examine the downstream target of colchicine, SIRT2 (Sirtuin 2) was pharmacologically inhibited in vitro; thus, changes in the NLRP3 inflammasome were detected by immunoblotting. These results showed that murine cardiac function was significantly improved and fibrosis was significantly alleviated after colchicine treatment. Moreover, the infiltration of neutrophils and the levels of inflammatory cytokines in the failing myocardium were both decreased by colchicine treatment. Mechanistically, colchicine upregulated the expression of SIRT2, leading to the inactivation of the NLRP3 inflammasome in an NLRP3 deacetylated manner. Conversely, the inhibition of SIRT2 attenuated the suppressive effect of colchicine on NLRP3 inflammasome activation. Conclusions This study indicated that colchicine could be a promising therapeutic candidate for dilated cardiomyopathy and other nonischemic heart failure associated with the inflammatory response.

Amelioration of Endotoxin-Induced Acute Lung Injury and Alveolar Epithelial Cells Apoptosis by Simvastatin Is Associated with Up-Regulation of Survivin/NF-kB/p65 Pathway

Disruption of the alveolar−endothelial barrier caused by inflammation leads to the progression of septic acute lung injury (ALI). In the present study, we investigated the beneficial effects of simvastatin on the endotoxin lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced ALI and its related mechanisms. A model of ALI was induced within experimental sepsis developed by intraperitoneal injection of a single non-lethal LPS dose after short-term simvastatin pretreatment (10−40 mg/kg orally). The severity of the lung tissue inflammatory injury was expressed as pulmonary damage scores (PDS). Alveolar epithelial cell apoptosis was confirmed by TUNEL assay (DNA fragmentation) and expressed as an apoptotic index (AI), and immunohistochemically for cleaved caspase-3, cytochrome C, and anti-apoptotic Bcl-xL, an inhibitor of apoptosis, survivin, and transcriptional factor, NF-kB/p65. Severe inflammatory injury of pulmonary parenchyma (PDS 3.33 ± 0.48) was developed after the LPS challenge, whereas simvastatin significantly and dose-dependently protected lung histology after LPS (p < 0.01). Simvastatin in a dose of 40 mg/kg showed the most significant effects in amelioration alveolar epithelial cells apoptosis, demonstrating this as a marked decrease of AI (p < 0.01 vs. LPS), cytochrome C, and cleaved caspase-3 expression. Furthermore, simvastatin significantly enhanced the expression of Bcl-xL and survivin. Finally, the expression of survivin and its regulator NF-kB/p65 in the alveolar epithelium was in strong positive correlation across the groups. Simvastatin could play a protective role against LPS-induced ALI and apoptosis of the alveolar−endothelial barrier. Taken together, these effects were seemingly mediated by inhibition of caspase 3 and cytochrome C, a finding that might be associated with the up-regulation of cell-survival survivin/NF-kB/p65 pathway and Bcl-xL.

How fullerene derivatives (FDs) act on therapeutically important targets associated with diabetic diseases

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Five proteins related to diabetic disease were selected from Protein Data Bank.

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Binding scores were calculated for five proteins with 169 fullerene derivatives.

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Correlation between drug-like descriptors and binding scores activity was examined.

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The contribution of descriptors to protein-ligand binding was demonstrated.

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The QSARs models for prediction of binding scores activity were built.

Fullerene derivatives (FDs) belong to a relatively new family of nano-sized organic compounds. They are widely applied in materials science, pharmaceutical industry, and (bio) medicine. This research focused on the study of FDs in terms of their potential inhibitory effect on therapeutic targets associated with diabetic disease, as well as analysis of protein–ligand binding in order to identify the key binding characteristics of FDs.

Therapeutic drug compounds when entering the biological system usually inevitably encounter and interact with a vast variety of biomolecules that are responsible for many different functions in organisms. Protein biomolecules are the most important functional components and used in this study as target structures. The structures of proteins [(PDB ID: 1BMQ, 1FM6, 1GPB, 1H5U, 1US0)] belonging to the class of anti-diabetes targets were obtained from the Protein Data Bank (PDB). Protein binding activity data (binding scores) were calculated for the dataset of 169 FDs related to these five proteins. Subsequently, the resulting data were analyzed using various machine learning and cheminformatics methods, including artificial neural network algorithms for variable selection and property prediction.

The Quantitative Structure-Activity Relationship (QSAR) models for prediction of binding scores activity were built up according to five Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) principles.

All the data obtained can provide important information for further potential use of FDs with different functional groups as promising medical antidiabetic agents. Binding scores activity can be used for ranking of FDs in terms of their inhibitory activity (pharmacological properties) and potential toxicity.

Trehalose alleviates doxorubicin-induced cardiotoxicity in female Swiss albino mice by suppression of oxidative stress and autophagy

Clinically, the use of doxorubicin (DOX) is limited due to DOX-induced cardiotoxicity (DIC). The current study aimed to evaluate the cardioprotective effect of trehalose (TRE) against DIC in a female Swiss albino mouse model. Mice were divided into five experimental groups: Gp. I: saline control group (200 μl/mouse saline three times per week for 3 weeks day after day), Gp. II: DOX-treated group (2 mg/kg body weight three times per week for 3 weeks day after day), Gp. III: TRE group (200 μg/mouse three times per week for 3 weeks day after day), Gp. IV: DOX + TRE cotreatment group (animals were coadministered with DOX and TRE as in Gp. II and III, respectively), and Gp. V: DOX + TRE posttreatment group (animals were treated with DOX as in Gp. II followed by treatment with TRE as in Gp. III). DOX-treated mice showed significant elevation in cardiac injury biomarkers (lactate dehydrogenase, creatine kinase isoenzyme-MB, and cardiac troponin I), cardiac oxidative stress (OS) markers (malondialdehyde and myeloperoxidase), and cardiac levels of autophagy-related protein 5. Moreover, DOX significantly reduced the levels of total antioxidant capacity and activities of catalase and glutathione S-transferase. In contrast, TRE treatment of DOX-administered mice significantly improved almost all of the above-mentioned assessed parameters. Furthermore, histopathological changes of cardiac tissues observed in mice treated with TRE in combination with DOX were significantly improved as compared to DOX-treated animals. Taken together, the present study provides evidence that TRE has cardioprotective effects against DIC, which is likely mediated via suppression of OS and autophagy.

Synthesis, Characterization, Cellular Uptake, and In Vitro Anticancer Activity of Fullerenol-Doxorubicin Conjugates

Doxorubicin (DOX) is one of the most commonly used chemotherapeutic agents for treating human cancer. However, its clinical use has been limited by DOX-induced cardiotoxicity as well as other side effects. In the present study, we designed and synthesized the fullerenol (FU)-DOX conjugates and folic acid (FA)-grafted FU-DOX conjugates for improving the selectivity and activity of DOX in cancer cells. We further characterized the physicochemical properties and examined the release kinetics, cellular uptake, and in vitro anticancer activities of FU-DOX and FA-FU-DOX. The results showed that FU-DOX and FA-FU-DOX had a mean diameter of <200 nm and a low polydispersity. Both FU-DOX and FA-FU-DOX exhibited pH sensitivity and their DOX release rates were higher at pH 5.9 vs. pH 7.4. The cellular uptake studies indicated that FU conjugation enhanced the intracellular accumulation of DOX in human hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) cell lines (BEL-7402 and HepG2) and the immortalized normal human hepatocytes (L02). The conjugation of FA to FU-DOX further promoted the drug internalization in an FR-dependent manner and enhanced the cytotoxicity against HCC cells. In conclusion, the newly prepared FA-FU-DOX conjugates can optimize the safety and efficacy profile of DOX.

Carbonaceous Nanomaterials-Mediated Defense Against Oxidative Stress

The concept of nanoscale materials and their applications in industrial technologies, consumer goods, as well as in novel medical therapies has rapidly escalated in the last several years. Consequently, there is a critical need to understand the mechanisms that drive nanomaterials biocompatibility or toxicity to human cells and tissues. The ability of nanomaterials to initiate cellular pathways resulting in oxidative stress has emerged as a leading hypothesis in nanotoxicology. Nevertheless, there are a few examples revealing another face of nanomaterials - they can alleviate oxidative stress via decreasing the level of reactive oxygen species. The fundamental structural and physicochemical properties of carbonaceous nanomaterials that govern these anti-oxidative effects are discussed in this article. The signaling pathways influenced by these unique nanomaterials, as well as examples of their applications in the biomedical field, e.g. cell culture, cell-based therapies or drug delivery, are presented. We anticipate this emerging knowledge of intrinsic anti-oxidative properties of carbon nanomaterials to facilitate the use of tailored nanoparticles in vivo.

Antidotal Potency of the Novel, Structurally Different Adsorbents in Rats Acutely Intoxicated with the T-2 Toxin

In this paper, the potential antidote efficacy of commercially available formulations of various feed additives such as Minazel-Plus^®, Mycosorb^®, and Mycofix^® was considered by recording their incidence on general health, body weight, and food and water intake, as well as through histopathology and semiquantitative analysis of gastric alterations in Wistar rats treated with the T-2 toxin in a single-dose regimen of 1.67 mg/kg p.o. (1 LD₅₀) for 4 weeks. As an organic adsorbent, Mycosorb^® successfully antagonized acute lethal incidence of the T-2 toxin (protective index (PI) = 2.25; p < 0.05 vs. T-2 toxin), and had adverse effects on body weight gain as well as food and water intake during the research (p < 0.001). However, the protective efficacy of the other two food additives was significantly lower (p < 0.05). Treatment with Mycosorb^® significantly reduced the severity of gastric damage, which was not the case when the other two adsorbents were used. Our results suggest that Mycosorb^® is a much better adsorbent for preventing the adverse impact of the T-2 toxin as well as its toxic metabolites compared with Minazel-plus^® or Mycofix-plus^®, and it almost completely suppresses its acute toxic effects and cytotoxic potential on the gastric epithelial, glandular, and vascular endothelial cells.

Protective Effects of Simvastatin on Endotoxin-Induced Acute Kidney Injury through Activation of Tubular Epithelial Cells' Survival and Hindering Cytochrome C-Mediated Apoptosis

Increasing evidence suggests that apoptosis of tubular cells and renal inflammation mainly determine the outcome of sepsis-associated acute kidney injury (AKI). The study aim was to investigate the molecular mechanism involved in the renoprotective effects of simvastatin in endotoxin (lipopolysaccharide, LSP)-induced AKI. A sepsis model was established by intraperitoneal injection of a single non-lethal LPS dose after short-term simvastatin pretreatment. The severity of the inflammatory injury was expressed as renal damage scores (RDS). Apoptosis of tubular cells was detected by Terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated dUTP Nick End Labeling (TUNEL assay) (apoptotic DNA fragmentation, expressed as an apoptotic index, AI) and immunohistochemical staining for cleaved caspase-3, cytochrome C, and anti-apoptotic Bcl-xL and survivin. We found that endotoxin induced severe renal inflammatory injury (RDS = 3.58 ± 0.50), whereas simvastatin dose-dependently prevented structural changes induced by LPS. Furthermore, simvastatin 40 mg/kg most profoundly attenuated tubular apoptosis, determined as a decrease of cytochrome C, caspase-3 expression, and AIs (p  <  0.01 vs. LPS). Conversely, simvastatin induced a significant increase of Bcl-XL and survivin, both in the strong inverse correlations with cleaved caspase-3 and cytochrome C. Our study indicates that simvastatin has cytoprotective effects against LPS-induced tubular apoptosis, seemingly mediated by upregulation of cell-survival molecules, such as Bcl-XL and survivin, and inhibition of the mitochondrial cytochrome C and downstream caspase-3 activation.

The Puzzling Potential of Carbon Nanomaterials: General Properties, Application, and Toxicity

Being a member of the nanofamily, carbon nanomaterials exhibit specific properties that mostly arise from their small size. They have proved to be very promising for application in the technical and biomedical field. A wide spectrum of use implies the inevitable presence of carbon nanomaterials in the environment, thus potentially endangering their whole nature. Although scientists worldwide have conducted research investigating the impact of these materials, it is evident that there are still significant gaps concerning the knowledge of their mechanisms, as well as the prolonged and chronic exposure and effects. This manuscript summarizes the most prominent representatives of carbon nanomaterial groups, giving a brief review of their general physico-chemical properties, the most common use, and toxicity profiles. Toxicity was presented through genotoxicity and the activation of the cell signaling pathways, both including in vitro and in vivo models, mechanisms, and the consequential outcomes. Moreover, the acute toxicity of fullerenol, as one of the most commonly investigated members, was briefly presented in the final part of this review. Thinking small can greatly help us improve our lives, but also obliges us to deeply and comprehensively investigate all the possible consequences that could arise from our pure-hearted scientific ambitions and work.

Protective role of chrysin on doxorubicin-induced oxidative stress and DNA damage in rat testes

This study investigated the role of chrysin (CR) in DNA damage likely to occur in the testicle and oxidative stress caused by doxorubicin (DXR). Twenty-eight rats were divided into four groups as control, DXR, DXR + CR and CR groups. Sperm parameters, oxidative status, testicular biopsy score, DNA damage and plasma testosterone levels were analysed. Noticeable reductions in sperm count, motility and testosterone were detected in the DXR group compared to controls. In addition, significant increases in malondialdehyde (MDA), catalase (CAT) and glutathione (GSH) levels, and in abnormal sperm rates were detected. Severe degenerative changes occurred in the tubules of DXR rat testes; the inter-tubular areas were oedematous. Immunofluorescence staining was conducted with 8-OhDG (8 oxo-2'-deoxyguanosine) to evaluate DNA damage, and severe positivity was found in tubular gaps in the DXR rat testes. When the DXR + CR group was compared with the DXR group, the abnormal sperm rate was found to have decreased significantly. Positivity in the tubular space and degenerative changes in the seminiferous tubules were also diminished. We recommend the administration of CR with DXR to reduce the possible adverse effects of DXR, a medicine preferred in cancer therapy.

Naringenin Regulates Doxorubicin-Induced Liver Dysfunction: Impact on Oxidative Stress and Inflammation

Doxorubicin (Dox) is an operational and largely used anticancer drug, used to treat an array of malignancies. Nonetheless, its beneficial use is constrained due to its renal and hepatotoxicity dose dependently. Numerous research findings favor the use of antioxidants may impact Dox-induced liver injury/damage. In the current study, Wistar rats were given naringenin (50 and 100 mg/kg b.wt.) orally for 20 days as prophylactic dose, against the hepatotoxicity induced by single intraperitoneal injection of Dox (20 mg/kg b.wt.). Potency of naringenin against the liver damage caused by Dox was assessed by measuring malonyl aldehyde (MDA) as a by-product of lipid peroxidation, biochemical estimation of antioxidant enzyme system, reactive oxygen species (ROS) level, and inflammatory mediators. Naringenin-attenuated ROS production, ROS-induced lipid peroxidation, and replenished reduced antioxidant armory, namely, catalase (CAT), glutathione reductase (GR), superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), and glutathione (GSH). Naringenin similarly diminished expression of Cox-2 and levels of NF-κB and other inflammatory molecules induced by the Dox treatment. Histology added further evidence to the defensive effects of naringenin on Dox-induced liver damage. The outcomes of the current study reveal that oxidative stress and inflammation are meticulously linked with Dox-triggered damage, and naringenin illustrates the potential effect on Dox-induced hepatotoxicity probably through diminishing the oxidative stress and inflammation.

A Multiparametric Study of Internalization of Fullerenol C60(OH)36 Nanoparticles into Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells: Cytotoxicity in Oxidative Stress Induced by Ionizing Radiation

The aim of this study was to investigate the uptake and accumulation of fullerenol C₆₀(OH)₃₆ into peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs). Some additional studies were also performed: measurement of fullerenol nanoparticle size, zeta potential, and the influence of fullerenol on the ionizing radiation-induced damage to PMBCs. Fullerenol C₆₀(OH)₃₆ demonstrated an ability to accumulate in PBMCs. The accumulation of fullerenol in those cells did not have a significant effect on cell survival, nor on the distribution of phosphatidylserine in the plasma membrane. However, fullerenol-induced depolarization of the mitochondrial membrane proportional to the compound level in the medium was observed. Results also indicated that increased fullerenol level in the medium was associated with its enhanced transport into cells, corresponding to its influence on the mitochondrial membrane. The obtained results clearly showed the ability of C₆₀(OH)₃₆ to enter cells and its effect on PBMC mitochondrial membrane potential. However, we did not observe radioprotective properties of fullerenol under the conditions used in our study.

Doxorubicin Induces Endotheliotoxicity and Mitochondrial Dysfunction via ROS/eNOS/NO Pathway

Background: Doxorubicin (Dox) can induce endotheliotoxicity and damage the vascular endothelium (VE). The most principle mechanism might be excess reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation. Nevertheless, the characteristics of ROS generation, downstream mechanisms, and target organelles in Dox-induced endotheliotoxicity have yet to be elucidated.

Methods and Results: In order to explore the related problems, the VE injury models were established in mice and human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) by Dox-induced endotheliotoxicity. Results showed that the activities of lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) and creatine kinase of mice’s serum increased after injected Dox. The thoracic aortic strips’ endothelium-dependent dilation was significantly impaired, seen noticeable inflammatory changes, and brown TUNEL-positive staining in microscopy. After Dox-treated, HUVECs viability lowered, LDH and caspase-3 activities, and apoptotic cells increased. Both intracellular/mitochondrial ROS generation significantly increased, and intracellular ROS generation lagged behind mitochondria. HUVECs treated with Dox plus ciclosporin A (CsA) could basically terminate ROS burst, but plus edaravone (Eda) could only delay or inhibit, but could not completely cancel ROS burst. Meanwhile, the expression of endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) decreased, especially phosphorylation of eNOS significantly. Then nitric oxide content decreased, the mitochondrial function was impaired, mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) impeded, mitochondrial swelled, mitochondrial permeability transition pore (mPTP) was opened, and cytochrome C was released from mitochondria into the cytosol.

Conclusion: Dox produces excess ROS in the mitochondria, thereby weakens the MMP, opens mPTP, activates the ROS-induced ROS release mechanism, induces ROS burst, and leads to mitochondrial dysfunction, which in turn damages VE. Therefore, interrupting any step of the cycles, as mentioned above can end the related vicious cycle and prevent the occurrence and development of injury.

A Comprehensive Cheminformatics Analysis of Structural Features Affecting the Binding Activity of Fullerene Derivatives

Nanostructures like fullerene derivatives (FDs) belong to a new family of nano-sized organic compounds. Fullerenes have found a widespread application in material science, pharmaceutical, biomedical, and medical fields. This fact caused the importance of the study of pharmacological as well as toxicological properties of this relatively new family of chemicals. In this work, a large set of 169 FDs and their binding activity to 1117 proteins was investigated. The structure-based descriptors widely used in drug design (so-called drug-like descriptors) were applied to understand cheminformatics characteristics related to the binding activity of fullerene nanostructures. Investigation of applied descriptors demonstrated that polarizability, topological diameter, and rotatable bonds play the most significant role in the binding activity of FDs. Various cheminformatics methods, including the counter propagation artificial neural network (CPANN) and Kohonen network as visualization tool, were applied. The results of this study can be applied to compose the priority list for testing in risk assessment related to the toxicological properties of FDs. The pharmacologist can filter the data from the heat map to view all possible side effects for selected FDs.

Acute Toxic Injuries of Rat's Visceral Tissues Induced by Different Oximes

Certain AChE reactivators, asoxime, obidoxime, K027, K048, and K075, when taken in overdoses and sometimes even when introduced within therapeutic ranges, may injure the different organs. As a continuation of previously published data, in this study, Wistar rats have sacrificed 24 hrs and 7 days after single im application of 0.1LD₅₀, 0.5LD₅₀ and 1.0LD₅₀ of each reactivator, and examinated tissue samples were obtained for pathohistological and semiquantitative analysis. A severity of tissue alteration, expressed as different tissue damage scores were evaluated. Morphological structure of examinated tissues treated with of 0.1LD₅₀ of all reactivators was comparable with the control group of rats. Moderate injuries were seen in visceral tissues treated with 0.5LD₅₀ of asoxime, obidoxime and K027. Acute damages were enlarged after treatment with 0.5LD₅₀ and 1.0LD₅₀ of all reactivators during the next 7 days. The most prominent changes were seen in rats treated with 1.0LD₅₀ of K048 and K075 (P < 0.001 vs. control and asoxime-treated group). All reactivators given by a single, high, unitary dose regimen, have an adverse effect not only on the main visceral tissue, but on the whole rat as well, but the exact mechanism of cellular injury remains to be confirmed in further investigation.

Efficacy of methylprednisolone on T-2 toxin-induced cardiotoxicity in vivo: A pathohistological study

Our aim was to compare the protective efficacy of two different formulations of methylprednisolone in T-2 toxin-induced cardiomyopathy. Methylprednisolone (soluble form, Lemod-solu^® and/or depot form, Lemod-depo^®, a total single dose of 40 mg/kg im) was given immediately after T-2 toxin (1 LD₅₀ 0.23 mg/kg sc). The myocardial tissue samples were examinated by using histopathology, semiquantitative and imaging analyses on day 1, 7, 14, 21, 28 and 60 of the study. Therapeutic application of Lemod-solu^® significantly decreased the intensity of myocardial degeneration and haemorrhages, distribution of glycogen granules in the endo- and perimysium, a total number of mast cells and the degree of their degranulation was in correlation with the reversible heart structural lesions (p <  0.01 vs. T-2 toxin). These changes were completely abolished by the therapeutic use of Lemod-solu^® plus Lemod-depo^® (p <  0.001 vs. T-2 toxin). Our results show that a significant cardioprotective efficacy of methylprednisolone is mediated by its anti-inflammatory activity.

Real-Time Mapping of Ultratrace Singlet Oxygen in Rat during Acute and Chronic Inflammations via a Chemiluminescent Nanosensor

Sensing nonradiation-induced singlet oxygen (¹ O₂ ) in whole-animal is deemed as one of the most challenging tasks in noninvasive techniques due to the µs level lifetime of ¹ O₂ and quenching by numerous reductants in tissues. Here a distinct chemiluminescent (CL) nanosensor (NTPE-PH) that boasts ultrahigh concentrated CL units in one nanoparticle is reported. Taking advantage of the intramolecular energy transfer mechanism that promises high energy transfer efficiency and the aggregation-induced emission behavior that guarantees high CL amplification, the NTPE-PH sensor is sensitive to a nm level ¹ O₂ . Experiments demonstrate that the NTPE-PH yields a highly selective CL response toward ¹ O₂ among common reactive oxygen species. With proved low cytotoxicity and good animal compatibility, real-time mapping of ultratrace ¹ O₂ in whole-animal during acute and chronic inflammations is first achieved. It is anticipated that the NTPE-PH sensor can be a useful tool for monitoring ¹ O₂ variation during immune response and pathological processes corresponding to different stimuli, even with drug treatment included.

Simvastatin Inhibits Endotoxin-Induced Apoptosis in Liver and Spleen Through Up-Regulation of Survivin/NF-κB/p65 Expression

Endotoxemia is associated by dysregulated apoptosis of immune and non-immune cells. We investigated whether simvastatin has anti-apoptotic effects, and induces hepatocytes and lymphocytes survival signaling in endotoxin-induced liver and spleen injuries. Wistar rats were divided into the groups pretreated with simvastatin (20 or 40 mg/kg, orally) prior to a non-lethal dose of lipopolysaccharide (LPS), the LPS group, and the control. The severity of tissue inflammatory injuries was expressed as hepatic damage scores (HDS) and spleen damage scores (SDS), respectively. The apoptotic cell was detected by TUNEL (Terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP Nick End Labeling) and immunohistochemical staining (expression of cleaved caspase-3, and anti-apoptotic Bcl-xL, survivin and NF-κB/p65). Simvastatin dose-dependently abolished HDS and SDS induced by LPS (p < 0.01), respectively. Simvastatin 40 mg/kg significantly decreased apoptotic index and caspase-3 cleavage in hepatocytes and lymphocytes (p < 0.01 vs. LPS group, respectively), while Bcl-XL markedly increased accordingly with simvastatin doses. In the simvastatin, groups were determined markedly increased cytoplasmic expression of survivin associated with nuclear positivity of NF-κB, in both hepatocytes and lymphocytes (p < 0.01 vs. LPS group). Cell-protective effects of simvastatin against LPS seemed to be mediated by up-regulation of survivin, which leads to reduced caspase-3 activation and inhibition of hepatocytes and lymphocytes apoptosis.

Toxic Injury to Muscle Tissue of Rats Following Acute Oximes Exposure

Therapeutic application of newly developed oximes is limited due to their adverse effects on different tissues. Within this article, it has been investigated which morphological changes could be observed in Wistar rats after the treatment with increasing doses of selected acetyl cholinesterase reactivators - asoxime, obidoxime, K027, K048, and K075. Subsequently, heart, diaphragm and musculus popliteus were obtained for pathohistological and semiquantitative analysis 24 hrs and 7 days after im administration of a single dose of 0.1 LD₅₀, 0.5 LD₅₀, and 1.0 LD₅₀ of each oxime. Different muscle damage score was based on an estimation scale from 0 (no damage) to 5 (strong damage). In rats treated with 0.1 LD₅₀ of each oxime, muscle fibres did not show any change. The intensive degeneration was found in all muscles after treatment with 0.5 LD₅₀ of asoxime and obidoxime, respectively. Acute toxic muscle injury was developed within 7 days following treatment with 0.5 LD₅₀ and 1.0 LD₅₀ of each oxime, with the highest values in K048 and K075 group (P < 0.001 vs. control and asoxime), respectively. The early muscle alterations observed in our study seem to contribute to the pathogenesis of the oxime-induced toxic muscle injury, which probably manifests as necrosis and/or inflammation.

The Efficacy of Amifostine against Multiple-Dose Doxorubicin-Induced Toxicity in Rats

Amifostine is well known cytoprotector which is efficient when administered before a wide range of antineoplastic agents. The aim of our study was to investigate amifostine effects on doxorubicin-induced toxic changes in rats. Amifostine (75 mg/kg ip) was given 30 min before each dose of doxorubicin (cumulatively 20 mg/kg ip, for 28 days). The animals’ whole-body, liver, and kidney weight, serum biochemical examination, as well as microscopic examination of bone marrow, peripheral blood, liver, and kidney, were done on day 56 of the study. Hepatic and renal alterations were carefully quantified by semiquantitative grading scales—hepatic and renal damage score, respectively. In amifostine-pretreated rats, the number of peripheral blood leukocytes was significantly higher in comparison to doxorubicin-only treated group, preferentially protecting neutrophils. In the same group of rats, hepatic and renal alterations associated with polymorphonuclear cell infiltrates were significantly less severe than those observed in animals receiving only doxorubicin. Our results showed that amifostine successfully protected rats against multiple-dose doxorubicin-induced toxicity by complex, and still not fully elucidated mechanisms of action.

Toxicity and Safety Evaluation of Doxorubicin-Loaded Cockleshell-Derived Calcium Carbonate Nanoparticle in Dogs

Doxorubicin (DOX) is a potent anticancer agent with cytotoxic effects which limit its clinical usage. This effect is due to its nonselective nature causing injury to the cells as a result of reactive free oxygen radical's release. Cockleshell-derived calcium carbonate nanoparticle (CS-CaCO3NP) is a pH-responsive carrier with targeted delivery potentials. This study aimed at evaluating the toxicity effects of repeated dose administration of DOX-loaded CS-CaCO3NP in healthy dogs. Fifteen dogs with an average body weight of 15 kg were randomized equally into 5 groups. Dogs were subjected to 5 doses at every 3-week interval with (i) normal saline, (ii) DOX, 30 mg/m2, and the experimental groups: CS-CaCO3NP-DOX at (iii) high dose, 50 mg/m2, (iv) clinical dose, 30 mg/m2, and (v) low dose, 20 mg/m2. Radiographs, electrocardiography, and blood samples were collected before every treatment for haematology, serum biochemistry, and cardiac injury assessment. Heart and kidney tissues were harvested after euthanasia for histological and ultrastructural evaluation. The cumulative dose of DOX 150 mg/m2 over 15 weeks revealed significant effects on body weight, blood cells, functional enzymes, and cardiac injury biomarkers with alterations in electrocardiogram, myocardium, and renal tissue morphology. However, the dogs given CS-CaCO3NP-DOX 150 mg/m2 and below did not show any significant change in toxicity biomarker as compared to those given normal saline. The study confirmed the safety of repeated dose administration of CS-CaCO3NP-DOX (30 mg/m2) for 5 cycles in dogs. This finding offers opportunity to dogs with cancer that might require long-term administration of DOX without adverse effects.

Hepatoprotective effect of fullerenol/doxorubicin nanocomposite in acute treatment of healthy rats

In our recent studies we have designed fullerenol/doxorubicin nanocomposite (FNP/DOX) as the new drug nanocarrier. This research has demonstrated that this novel nanocomposite has had better implications on the liver tissue in vivo (Wistar rats treated intraperitoneally), than treatment based only on DOX. FNP/DOX has been characterised by DLS, TEM and AFM measurements which have shown that DOX loaded onto FNP did not influence fullerenol nanoparticle's size. FNP/DOX affected oxidative status in blood causing a significant decrease of catalase and SOD activity in comparison to DOX, implicating the reduction in oxidative stress. qRT-PCR results on the mRNA level of antioxidative enzymes (catalase and MnSOD) revealed that the effect of oxidative stress is significantly reduced by the treatment with FNP/DOX (p < .05). The ultrastructural analysis of the liver tissue has revealed that FNP/DOX nanocomposite generated considerably less damage in the liver tissue, than DOX applied at the same dose. Hence, our results have indicated that FNP, within FNP/DOX nanocomposite, exhibits protective effects to the liver tissue of the healthy rats.

Toxicity of Doxorubicin (Dox) to different experimental organ systems

Doxorubicin (Dox) is a valuable anticancer drug for hematologic and solid tumors. Yet, it can cause multi-organ toxicities in various patients. Since toxicity evaluation is a major criterion to discuss for every experiment, the current mini-review focuses on the toxicity of Dox to multiple organs and suggests the most probable mechanism. Though several mechanisms have been suggested, the role of oxidative stress remains elusive among other mechanisms and remains the most probable mechanism for cardiotoxic effect of Dox.

Fullerenes in Biology and Medicine

Fullerenes and related carbon based derivatives have shown a growing relevance in biology and medicine, mainly due to the unique electronic and structural properties that make them excellent candidates for multiple functionalization. This review focuses on the most recent developments of fullerene derivatives for different biological applications.