The role of salivary cortisol and DHEA-S in response to sexual, humorous, and anxiety-inducing stimuli

Dopamine Gene Polymorphism, Biochemical and Oxidative Stress Parameters in Geriatric Population with and Without Depression: A Pilot Study

Dopamine transporter takes released dopamine back into presynaptic terminals and has been implicated in several aging disorders including depression. The present study was designed to demonstrate dopamine gene polymorphism, its circulatory levels, biochemical and oxidative stress parameters in geriatric population with and without depression. Thirty geriatric patients with depression and thirty age and sex matched normal controls were genotyped for Dopamine Active Transporter (DAT TaqA1 and DAT VNTR) gene polymorphisms using the Polymerase Chain Reaction-Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism method. The frequency of genotypes and alleles were compared in study groups. Biochemical markers, oxidative stress parameters, and dopamine levels were also measured using standard protocols and compared between patients and controls. The frequency distribution of DAT TaqA1 and DAT VNTR genotypes and alleles in patients were not statistically significant as compared to controls. At DAT TaqA1 gene polymorphism we found that the levels of dopamine were significantly high in genotypes A1A2 as compared to A2A2 (p ≤ 0.01). The present study demonstrated elevated levels of Catalase, Lipid Peroxide, and Glutathione Reductase, whereas decreased levels of Superoxide Dismutase, Dehydroepiandrosterone, Glutathione Peroxidase and Melatonin, in depressive patients as compared to controls. Our results clearly suggested that elevated mean levels of Catalase, Lipid Peroxides and Glutathione Reductase and decreased levels of Dehydroepiandrosterone, Superoxide Dismutase, Glutathione Peroxidase and Melatonin in depressed individuals may be a consequence of depression. Moreover, DAT TaqA1 allele A1 has a protective effect with high dopamine levels and DAT VNTR genotype 10R/10R has the highest protective effect followed by 9R/10R and 10R/11R.

Between Pleasure and Pain: A Pilot Study on the Biological Mechanisms Associated With BDSM Interactions in Dominants and Submissives

BACKGROUND

BDSM is an abbreviation used to reference the concepts of bondage and discipline, dominance and submission, sadism, and masochism, enacted by power exchanges between consensual partners.

AIM

To shed light upon the rewarding biological mechanisms associated with BDSM interactions.

METHODS

A group of 35 BDSM couples (dominant and submissive counterparts) were recruited and tested during a BDSM interaction, with an additional control group of 27 non-BDSM interested people tested in a normal social interaction.

OUTCOMES

We compared the evolution of the stress and reward hormone levels of cortisol, beta-endorphins, and endocannabinoids (2AG and anandamide) in a group of BDSM practitioners before and after an active BDSM interaction with the levels in control individuals.

RESULTS

We showed that submissives showed increases in cortisol and endocannabinoid levels due to the BDSM interaction, with dominants only showing increased endocannabinoid levels when the BDSM interaction was associated with power play.

CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS

This study effectively provides a link between behavior that many think of as aberrant on one hand, and biological pleasure experience on the other, in the hope that it may relieve some of the stigma these practitioners still endure.

STRENGTHS & LIMITATIONS

It is one of the first and largest studies of its kind, but is still limited in sample size and only represents a specific population of Flemish BDSM practitioners.

CONCLUSION

Even though this is one of the first studies of its kind, we can conclude that there is a clear indication for increased pleasure in submissives when looking at biological effects of a BDSM interaction, which was related to the increases in experienced stress. Wuyts E, De Neef N, Coppens V, et al. Between Pleasure and Pain: A Pilot Study on the Biological Mechanisms Associated With BDSM Interactions in Dominants and Submissives. J Sex Med 2020;17:784-792.

Associations Between Affective States and Sexual and Health Status Among Men Who Have Sex With Men in China: Exploratory Study Using Social Media Data

Background

Affective states, including sentiment and emotion, are critical determinants of health. However, few studies among men who have sex with men (MSM) have examined sentiment and emotion specifically using real-time social media technologies. Moreover, the explorations on their associations with sexual and health status among MSM are limited.

Objective

This study aimed to understand and examine the associations of affective states with sexual behaviors and health status among MSM using public data from the Blued (Blued International Inc) app.

Methods

A total of 843,745 public postings of 377,610 MSM users located in Guangdong were saved from the Blued app by automatic screen capture. Positive affect, negative affect, sexual behaviors, and health status were measured using the Simplified Chinese Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count. Emotions, including joy, sadness, anger, fear, and disgust, were measured using the Weibo Basic Mood Lexicon. A positive sentiment score and a positive emotion score were also calculated. Univariate and multivariate linear regression models on the basis of a permutation test were used to assess the associations of affective states with sexual behaviors and health status.

Results

A total of 5871 active MSM users and their 477,374 postings were finally selected. Both positive affect and positive emotions (eg, joy) peaked between 7 AM and 9 AM. Negative affect and negative emotions (eg, sadness and disgust) peaked between 2 AM and 4 AM. During that time, 25.1% (97/387) of negative postings were related to health and 13.4% (52/387) of negative postings were related to seeking social support. A multivariate analysis showed that the MSM who were more likely to post sexual behaviors were more likely to express positive affect (beta=0.3107; P<.001) and positive emotions (joy: beta=0.027; P<.001), as well as negative emotions (sadness: beta=0.0443; P<.001 and disgust: beta=0.0256; P<.001). They also had a higher positive sentiment score (beta=0.2947; P<.001) and a higher positive emotion score (beta=0.1612; P<.001). The MSM who were more likely to post their health status were more likely to express negative affect (beta=0.8088; P<.001) and negative emotions, including sadness (beta=0.0705; P<.001), anger (beta=0.0058; P<.001), fear (beta=0.0052; P<.001), and disgust (beta=0.3065; P<.001), and less likely to express positive affect (beta=−0.0224; P=.02). In addition, they had a lower positive sentiment score (beta=−0.8306; P<.001) and a lower positive emotion score (beta=−0.3743; P<.001).

Conclusions

The MSM social media community mainly expressed their positive affect in the early morning and negative affect after midnight. Positive affective states were associated with being sexually active, whereas negative affective states were associated with health problems, mostly about mental health. Our finding suggests the potential to deliver different health-related intervention strategies (eg, psychological counseling and safe sex promotion) on a social media app according to the affective states of MSM in real time.

Hormones in speed-dating: The role of testosterone and cortisol in attraction

There is evidence that testosterone and cortisol levels are related to the attraction of a romantic partner; testosterone levels relate to a wide range of sexual behaviors and cortisol is a crucial component in the response to stress. To investigate this, we conducted a speed-dating study among heterosexual singles. We measured salivary testosterone and cortisol changes in men and women (n = 79) when they participated in a romantic condition (meeting opposite-sex others, i.e., potential romantic partners), as well as a control condition (meeting same-sex others, i.e., potential friends). Over the course of the romantic speed-dating event, results showed that women's but not men's testosterone levels increased and cortisol levels decreased for both men and women. These findings indicate that men's testosterone and cortisol levels were elevated in anticipation of the event, whereas for women, this appears to only be the case for cortisol. Concerning the relationship between attraction and hormonal change, four important findings can be distinguished. First, men were more popular when they arrived at the romantic speed-dating event with elevated cortisol levels. Second, in both men and women, a larger change in cortisol levels during romantic speed-dating was related to more selectivity. Third, testosterone alone was unrelated to any romantic speed-dating outcome (selectivity or popularity). However, fourth, women who arrived at the romantic speed-dating event with higher testosterone levels were more selective when their anticipatory cortisol response was low. Overall, our findings suggest that changes in the hormone cortisol may be stronger associated with the attraction of a romantic partner than testosterone.

Approach and Avoidance Biases Toward Sexual Stimuli and Their Association with the Dual Control Model of Sexual Response in Heterosexual Men

Many models of human behavior work in an interaction of a dual system. While one system usually represents controlled and reflective behavioral responses, the other system reflects automatic and impulsive actions. In the impulsive system, positive stimuli initiate approach reactions and negative cues avoidance reactions. Besides stimulus valence, the behavioral response triggered by the impulsive system is influenced by personality (e.g., the propensity to react with approach or avoidance biases in a specific situation). The present study applied a computerized Approach-Avoidance Task (AAT; Rinck & Becker, 2007) to assess automatic behavioral approach and avoidance biases toward sexual and neutral stimuli in heterosexual men (N = 40). Individual AAT-performance was furthermore related to sexual excitation (SES) and the two sexual inhibition factors (SIS1 and SIS2) as proposed by the Dual Control Model of sexual response (Bancroft & Janssen, 2000). Against our hypotheses, participants did not show a stronger approach bias toward sexually preferred (i.e., images of women) than sexually not preferred stimuli (i.e., images of men or children). However, stronger approach biases toward images of women were positively associated with sexual excitation and negatively correlated with sexual inhibition due to a threat of performance failure (SIS1) even after controlling for potential confounds (i.e., general behavioral activation and inhibition). The results support the importance of the influence of dispositional traits measured with the Dual Control Model of sexual response on approach and avoidance biases toward sexually preferred stimuli in heterosexual men.

The aroma of arousal: Effects of menstrual cycle phase and women's sexual arousal state on men's responsiveness to women's body odor

Humans can detect aspects of identity, reproductive status, and emotional state from body odor. Women have shown a distinctive neural response to male sexually-aroused (vs. resting) sweat. The present study examined olfactory sexual arousal contagion in men. Axial sweat was collected from naturally cycling women when they were sexually aroused and when they were resting, during both their follicular and their luteal phase. Men were exposed to both aroused and resting sweat in a state of low-level sexual arousal. Participants smelling follicular phase sweat reported greater subjective sexual arousal and an increased likelihood to self-disclose than men smelling luteal phase sweat. They also showed increased genital arousal but this effect was moderated by the arousal state of the women; genital responding was greater in men smelling sexually aroused (vs. resting) sweat for those exposed to luteal (but not those exposed to follicular) phase body odor. Being able to detect the scent of sexual arousal could enhance perceiver arousal and provide information on whether to approach someone for sexual interaction.

Average Associations Between Sexual Desire, Testosterone, and Stress in Women and Men Over Time

Sexual desire and testosterone are widely assumed to be directly and positively linked to each other despite the lack of supporting empirical evidence. The literature that does exist is mixed, which may result from a conflation of solitary and dyadic desire, and the exclusion of contextual variables, like stress, known to be relevant. Here, we use the Steroid/Peptide Theory of Social Bonds as a framework for examining how testosterone, solitary and partnered desire, and stress are linked over time. To do so, we collected saliva samples (for testosterone and cortisol) and measured desire as well as other variables via questionnaires over nine monthly sessions in 78 women and 79 men. Linear mixed models showed that testosterone negatively predicted partnered desire in women but not men. Stress moderated associations between testosterone and solitary desire in both women and men, but differently: At lower levels of stress, higher average testosterone corresponded to higher average solitary desire for men, but lower solitary desire on average for women. Similarly, for partnered desire, higher perceived stress predicted lower desire for women, but higher desire for men. We conclude by discussing the ways that these results both counter presumptions about testosterone and desire but fit with the existing literature and theory, and highlight the empirical importance of stress and gender norms.

Dehydroepiandrosterone and Dehydroepiandrosterone-Sulfate and Emotional Processing

Steroid hormones are important regulators of brain development, physiological function, and behavior. Among them, dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) and dehydroepiandrosterone-sulfate (DHEAS) also do modulate emotional processing and may have mood enhancement effects. This chapter reviews the studies that bear relation to DHEA and DHEAS [DHEA(S)] and brain emotional processing and behavior. A brief introduction to the mechanisms of action and variations of DHEA(S) levels throughout life has also been forward in this chapter. Higher DHEA(S) levels may reduce activity in brain regions involved in the generation of negative emotions and modulate activity in regions involved in regulatory processes. At the electrophysiological level, higher DHEA-to-cortisol and DHEAS-to-DHEA ratios were related to shorter P300 latencies and shorter P300 amplitudes during the processing of negative stimuli, suggesting less interference of negative stimuli with the task and less processing of the negative information, which in turn may suggest a protective mechanism against negative information overload. Present knowledge indicates that DHEA(S) may play a role in cortical development and plasticity, protecting against negative affect and depression, and at the same time enhancing attention and overall working memory, possibly at the cost of a reduction in emotional processing, emotional memory, and social understanding.

The Physiology of Female Sexual Function and the Pathophysiology of Female Sexual Dysfunction (Committee 13A)

INTRODUCTION

The article consists of six sections written by separate authors that review female genital anatomy, the physiology of female sexual function, and the pathophysiology of female sexual dysfunction but excluding hormonal aspects.

AIM

To review the physiology of female sexual function and the pathophysiology of female sexual dysfunction especially since 2010 and to make specific recommendations according to the Oxford Centre for evidence based medicine (2009) "levels of evidence" wherever relevant.

CONCLUSION

Recommendations were made for particular studies to be undertaken especially in controversial aspects in all six sections of the reviewed topics. Despite numerous laboratory assessments of female sexual function, genital assessments alone appear insufficient to characterise fully the complete sexual response.

Hair Measurements of Cortisol, DHEA, and DHEA to Cortisol Ratio as Biomarkers of Chronic Stress among People Living with HIV in China: Known-Group Validation

Background

Existing literature suggests that endocrine measures, including the steroid hormones of cortisol and Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), as well as the DHEA to cortisol ratio in the human hair can be used as promising biomarkers of chronic stress among humans. However, data are limited regarding the validity of these measures as biomarkers of chronic stress among people living with HIV (PLWH), whose endocrine system or hypothalamic pituitary adrenal (HPA) axis may be affected by HIV infection and/or antiretroviral therapy (ART) medications.

Method

Using hair sample data and self-reported survey from 60 PLWH in China, we examined the validity of three endocrine measures among Chinese PLWH using a known-groups validation strategy. High-stress group (n = 30) and low-stress group (n = 30) of PLWH were recruited through individual assessment interviews by a local licensed psychologist. The endocrine measures in hair were extracted and assessed by LC-APCI-MS/MS method. Both bivariate and multivariate analyses were conducted to examine the associations between the endocrine measures and the stress level, and to investigate if the associations differ by ART status.

Results

The levels of endocrine measures among Chinese PLWH were consistent with existing studies among PLWH. Generally, this pilot study confirmed the association between endocrine measures and chronic stress. The high stress group showed higher level hair cortisol and lower DHEA to cortisol ratio. The higher stress group also reported higher scores of stressful life events, perceived stress, anxiety and depression. Hair cortisol level was positively related to anxiety; DHEA was negatively associated with stressful life events; and the DHEA to cortisol ratio was positively related to stressful life events and perceived stress. ART did not affect the associations between the endocrine measures and stress level.

Conclusions

Our findings suggest that hair cortisol and DHEA to cortisol ratio can be used as promising biomarkers of chronic stress among PLWH. Clarifying the role of steroid hormones in the psychoimmunology of PLWH may yield important implications for clinical practice and psychological intervention.

Sex and Eating: Relationships Based on Wanting and Liking

Sex and eating may have behavioral and psychological relationships and have cortical regions in common. This research investigated the general relationship between sex and eating from a reward perspective among the general population. Two-hundred and sixty-one Chinese participants were recruited via the internet (136 males, 125 females, mean age 30.46 years) to fill in questionnaires about wanting and liking for sex and eating. The results revealed that first, there was a positive correlation between wanting for sex and wanting to eat only for males. Second, the relationship between liking for sex and eating was also positive for males and not significant in females. Third, the correlation between sociosexual orientation and wanting to eat was significant only in females, and there was no significant correlation between sociosexual orientation and liking for eating. Fourth, emotional sex cravings (or emotional sexual activity) was positively correlated with emotional food cravings (or emotional eating behavior), with a higher magnitude correlation in males than females. Finally, analysis of wanting (liking) models of sex and eating for males and females revealed three models for wanting among females: high wanting, low wanting for eating, and low wanting for sex; and two models for wanting among males: high wanting and low wanting. Liking for sex and eating among females consisted of two types of model: high liking and low liking; whereas three type models existed for males: high liking for sex, high liking for eating, and low liking. In general, our research revealed that, as with other natural reward, sex and eating have considerable commonality and are related in numerous ways.

Disgust versus Lust: Exploring the Interactions of Disgust and Fear with Sexual Arousal in Women

Sexual arousal is a motivational state that moves humans toward situations that inherently pose a risk of disease transmission. Disgust is an emotion that adaptively moves humans away from such situations. Incongruent is the fact that sexual activity is elementary to human fitness yet involves strong disgust elicitors. Using an experimental paradigm, we investigated how these two states interact. Women (final N=76) were assigned to one of four conditions: rate disgust stimuli then watch a pornographic clip; watch a pornographic clip then rate disgust stimuli; rate fear stimuli then watch a pornographic clip; or watch a pornographic clip then rate fear stimuli. Women's genital sexual arousal was measured with vaginal photoplethysmography and their disgust and fear reactions were measured via self-report. We did not find that baseline disgust propensity predicted sexual arousal in women who were exposed to neutral stimuli before erotic content. In the Erotic-before-Disgust condition we did not find that sexual arousal straightforwardly predicted decreased image disgust ratings. However, we did find some evidence that sexual arousal increased self-reported disgust in women with high trait disgust and sexual arousal decreased self-reported disgust in women with low trait disgust. Women who were exposed to disgusting images before erotic content showed significantly less sexual arousal than women in the control condition or women exposed to fear-inducing images before erotic content. In the Disgust-before-Erotic condition the degree of self-reported disgust was negatively correlated with genital sexual arousal. Hence, in the conflict between the ultimate goals of reproduction and disease avoidance, cues of the presence of pathogens significantly reduce the motivation to engage in mating behaviors that, by their nature, entail a risk of pathogen transmission.

Measurement of testosterone in human sexuality research: methodological considerations

Testosterone (T) and other androgens are incorporated into an increasingly wide array of human sexuality research, but there are a number of issues that can affect or confound research outcomes. This review addresses various methodological issues relevant to research design in human studies with T; unaddressed, these issues may introduce unwanted noise, error, or conceptual barriers to interpreting results. Topics covered are (1) social and demographic factors (gender and sex; sexual orientations and sexual diversity; social/familial connections and processes; social location variables), (2) biological rhythms (diurnal variation; seasonality; menstrual cycles; aging and menopause), (3) sample collection, handling, and storage (saliva vs. blood; sialogogues, saliva, and tubes; sampling frequency, timing, and context; shipping samples), (4) health, medical issues, and the body (hormonal contraceptives; medications and nicotine; health conditions and stress; body composition, weight, and exercise), and (5) incorporating multiple hormones. Detailing a comprehensive set of important issues and relevant empirical evidence, this review provides a starting point for best practices in human sexuality research with T and other androgens that may be especially useful for those new to hormone research.

Physiological stress responses predict sexual functioning and satisfaction differently in women who have and have not been sexually abused in childhood

Physiological responses to sexual stimuli may contribute to the increased rate of sexual problems seen in women with childhood sexual abuse (CSA) histories. We compared two physiological stress responses as predictors of sexual function and satisfaction, sympathetic nervous system (SNS) activation and cortisol in women with (CSA, N = 136) and without CSA histories (NSA, N = 102). In CSA survivors, cortisol response to sexual stimuli did not significantly predict sexual functioning; however, in NSA women, cortisol increases were associated with poorer sexual functioning, and decreases with higher functioning. For women with CSA histories, lower SNS activity was associated with poorer sexual functioning. For CSA survivors with low lifetime trauma, lower SNS activity was associated with higher sexual satisfaction; for women with high lifetime trauma, the reverse was true. Decreased SNS activity during sexual stimuli predicted higher sexual functioning in NSA women with low lifetime exposure to traumatic events, but lower sexual functioning in those with high exposure. Differences between women with and without CSA histories in the association between cortisol and SNS response and sexual functioning and satisfaction suggests that CSA causes disruptions in both short and long-term stress responses to sexual stimuli that perpetuate into adulthood.

The psychophysiology of mixed emotional states

How to conceptualize mixed emotional states is a central issue in the field of affective science. Nondifferentiation, additive, and emergence accounts of mixed emotions make divergent predictions regarding physiological responses in mixed emotions. To test these predictions, 43 women watched film clips that elicited amusement, disgust, or mixed emotions while feeling self-report, facial electromyography, cardiovascular, electrodermal, and respiratory measures were assessed. Simultaneous self-reports of amusement and disgust confirmed elicitation of a mixed emotional state. Physiologically, mixed emotions differed from pure amusement and pure disgust both in intensity and pattern. This suggests a distinct physiological response of the mixed emotional state, as predicted by the emergence account of mixed emotions. Implications for emotion theory and research are discussed.

Sexual thoughts: links to testosterone and cortisol in men

Sexual stimuli increase testosterone (T) or cortisol (C) in males of a variety of species, including humans, and just thinking about sex increases T in women. We investigated whether sexual thoughts change T or C in men and whether hormone measures (baseline, post-activity, and changes) correlate with psychological sexual arousal. We used the Imagined Social Situation Exercise to assess how hormones respond to and correlate with sexual thoughts and arousal relative to three control conditions: neutral, stressful, and positive. A total of 99 men provided a baseline saliva sample, imagined and wrote about a sexual or control situation, and provided a second saliva sample 15 min later. Results indicated that, for participants in the sexual condition, higher baseline and post-activity C corresponded to larger increases in self- reported sexual and autonomic arousal. Although sexual thoughts increased sexual arousal, they did not change T or C compared to control conditions. Our results suggest that sexual thoughts are not sufficient to change T or C in men, but C may facilitate sexual arousal by directing energy towards a sexual situation.

Individual differences in the effects of mood on sexuality: the revised Mood and Sexuality Questionnaire (MSQ-R)

Previous research using the Mood and Sexuality Questionnaire (MSQ) has revealed substantial variability in how negative mood impacts sexual response and behavior. However, the MSQ does not address differences between desire for solo or partnered sexual activity, examine the effects of sexual activity on mood, or assess the effects of positive mood. This article presents the development and factor structure of the Revised Mood and Sexuality Questionnaire (MSQ-R). An exploratory factor analysis in a sample of heterosexual men, homosexual men, and heterosexual women (N = 1,983) produced eight factors. Considerable variability was found in how moods influence sexual desire and arousal, in the effects of mood on sexual behavior, and in the reciprocal effects of sexual activity on mood. Among other findings, heterosexual women were less likely than heterosexual men and homosexual men to experience increased sexual desire and arousal when anxious or stressed, whereas homosexual men and heterosexual women were less likely than heterosexual men to experience increased desire when sad or depressed. Heterosexual men and heterosexual women were more likely than homosexual men to report increased desire when in a positive mood. Intercorrelations and correlations with various sexual behaviors varied by group. Limitations and implications of the findings are discussed.

Women with an avoidant attachment style show attenuated estradiol responses to emotionally intimate stimuli

The current study examined neuroendocrine processes associated with emotional intimacy in humans. Despite the importance of this aspect of close relationships, emotional intimacy has received much less attention in neuroendocrine research compared to other aspects of close relationships. In this study, participants viewed movie clips depicting an emotionally intimate parent-child interaction or other, non-intimate themes, and we assessed whether depictions of emotional intimacy increased levels of estradiol, a steroid hormone associated with attachment and caregiving processes. We also examined whether estradiol responses were moderated by individual differences in attachment avoidance, or people's discomfort with closeness and intimacy. Our findings revealed that, among single participants, estradiol levels increased in response to the emotionally intimate clip, but this effect was not observed among currently partnered participants. Moreover, the effects of emotional intimacy were moderated by gender and attachment avoidance, such that highly avoidant women showed smaller increases in estradiol after watching the emotionally intimate clip. Women's avoidance was unrelated to estradiol responses in the non-intimate control conditions, however, suggesting that the effects of avoidance were specific to intimate contexts. Taken together, the current findings contribute to our understanding of the biological bases of attachment and caregiving processes. They also highlight the potential role of estradiol in avoidant individuals' regulation of closeness and intimacy.

Evidence for a curvilinear relationship between sympathetic nervous system activation and women's physiological sexual arousal

There is increasing evidence that women's physiological sexual arousal is facilitated by moderate sympathetic nervous system (SNS) activation. Literature also suggests that the level of SNS activation may play a role in the degree to which SNS activity affects sexual arousal. We provide the first empirical examination of a possible curvilinear relationship between SNS activity and women's genital arousal using a direct measure of SNS activation in 52 sexually functional women. The relationship between heart rate variability (HRV), a specific and sensitive marker of SNS activation, and vaginal pulse amplitude (VPA), a measure of genital arousal, was analyzed. Moderate increases in SNS activity were associated with higher genital arousal, while very low or very high SNS activation was associated with lower genital arousal. These findings imply that there is an optimal level of SNS activation for women's physiological sexual arousal.