Links between mTOR and the immunoproteasome: Therapeutic targets for cardiac hypertrophy?

Inflamed brain: Targeting immune changes and inflammation for treatment of depression

Although there are a number of clinically effective treatments for depression, many patients exhibit treatment resistance. Recent clinical and preclinical studies reveal that peripheral and brain immune changes and inflammation are involved in the pathophysiology of depression. This 'Inflamed Brain' research provides critical clues for understanding of disease pathophysiology and many candidate molecules that are potentially useful for identifying novel drug targets for the treatment of depression. In this review, we will present clinical evidence on the role of inflammation in the pathophysiology of depression. We will also summarize current clinical trials which test drugs targeting inflammation for the treatment of patients with depression. Furthermore, we will briefly provide preclinical evidence demonstrating altered immune system function and inflammation in stress-induced animal models and will discuss the future potential of inflammation-related drug targets. Collectively, inflammatory signatures identified in clinical and preclinical studies may allow us to stratify depressive patients based on biotypes, contributing to the development of novel mechanism-based interventions that target specific patient populations.

mTOR, cardiomyocytes and inflammation in cardiac hypertrophy

Mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) is an evolutionary conserved kinase that senses the nutrient and energy status of cells, the availability of growth factors, stress stimuli and other cellular and environmental cues. It responds by regulating a range of cellular processes related to metabolism and growth in accordance with the available resources and intracellular needs. mTOR has distinct functions depending on its assembly in the structurally distinct multiprotein complexes mTORC1 or mTORC2. Active mTORC1 enhances processes including glycolysis, protein, lipid and nucleotide biosynthesis, and it inhibits autophagy. Reported functions for mTORC2 after growth factor stimulation are very diverse, are tissue and cell-type specific, and include insulin-stimulated glucose transport and enhanced glycogen synthesis. In accordance with its cellular functions, mTOR has been demonstrated to regulate cardiac growth in response to pressure overload and is also known to regulate cells of the immune system. The present manuscript presents recently obtained insights into mechanisms whereby mTOR may change anabolic, catabolic and stress response pathways in cardiomocytes and discusses how mTOR may affect inflammatory cells in the heart during hemodynamic stress. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Cardiomyocyte Biology: Integration of Developmental and Environmental Cues in the Heart edited by Marcus Schaub and Hughes Abriel.