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Henriques S. The genome sequence of the Black Lace-weaver spider, Amaurobius ferox (Walckenaer, 1830). Wellcome Open Res 2024; 9:105. [PMID: 39015616 PMCID: PMC11249506 DOI: 10.12688/wellcomeopenres.21080.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/19/2024] [Indexed: 07/18/2024] Open
Abstract
We present a genome assembly from an individual female Amaurobius ferox (the Black Lace-weaver; Arthropoda; Arachnida; Araneae; Amaurobiidae). The genome sequence is 3,564.8 megabases in span. Most of the assembly is scaffolded into 23 chromosomal pseudomolecules, including the X 1, X 2 and X 3 sex chromosomes. The mitochondrial genome has also been assembled and is 14.24 kilobases in length.
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2
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Kreuz J, Michalik P, Wolff JO. Comparative anatomy of the spinneret musculature in cribellate and ecribellate spiders (Araneae). J Morphol 2024; 285:e21670. [PMID: 38361256 DOI: 10.1002/jmor.21670] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2023] [Revised: 12/07/2023] [Accepted: 12/11/2023] [Indexed: 02/17/2024]
Abstract
Silk production is a prominent characteristic of spiders. The silk is extruded through spigots located on the spinnerets, which are single- to multimembered paired appendages at the end of the abdomen. Most extant spiders have three pairs of spinnerets, and in between either a cribellum (spinning plate) or a colulus (defunct vestigial organ), dividing these spiders into cribellate and ecribellate species. Previous research has shown that cribellate and ecribellate spiders differ not only in the composition of their spinning apparatus but also in the movements of their spinnerets during silk spinning. The objective of this study was to determine whether the differences in spinneret movements are solely due to variations in spinneret shape or whether they are based on differences in muscular anatomy. This was accomplished by analyzing microcomputed tomography scans of the posterior abdomen of each three cribellate and ecribellate species. It was found that the number of muscles did not generally differ between cribellate and ecribellate species, but varied considerably between the species within each of these two groups. Muscle thickness, particularly of the posterior median spinneret, varied slightly between groups, with cribellate spiders exhibiting more robust muscles, possibly to aid in the combing process during cribellar thread production. Interestingly, the vestigial colulus still possesses muscles, that can be homologized with those of the cribellum. This exploration into spinneret anatomy using microcomputed tomography data reveals that despite being small appendages, the spider spinnerets are equipped with a complex musculature that enables them to perform fine-scaled maneuvers to construct different fiber-based materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Josefine Kreuz
- Evolutionary Biomechanics, Zoological Institute and Museum, University of Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Peter Michalik
- Zoological Museum, Zoological Institute and Museum, University of Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Jonas O Wolff
- Evolutionary Biomechanics, Zoological Institute and Museum, University of Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
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3
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Kulkarni S, Wood HM, Hormiga G. Advances in the reconstruction of the spider tree of life: A roadmap for spider systematics and comparative studies. Cladistics 2023; 39:479-532. [PMID: 37787157 DOI: 10.1111/cla.12557] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2022] [Revised: 07/27/2023] [Accepted: 08/17/2023] [Indexed: 10/04/2023] Open
Abstract
In the last decade and a half, advances in genetic sequencing technologies have revolutionized systematics, transforming the field from studying morphological characters or a few genetic markers, to genomic datasets in the phylogenomic era. A plethora of molecular phylogenetic studies on many taxonomic groups have come about, converging on, or refuting prevailing morphology or legacy-marker-based hypotheses about evolutionary affinities. Spider systematics has been no exception to this transformation and the inter-relationships of several groups have now been studied using genomic data. About 51 500 extant spider species have been described, all with a conservative body plan, but innumerable morphological and behavioural peculiarities. Inferring the spider tree of life using morphological data has been a challenging task. Molecular data have corroborated many hypotheses of higher-level relationships, but also resulted in new groups that refute previous hypotheses. In this review, we discuss recent advances in the reconstruction of the spider tree of life and highlight areas where additional effort is needed with potential solutions. We base this review on the most comprehensive spider phylogeny to date, representing 131 of the 132 spider families. To achieve this sampling, we combined six Sanger-based markers with newly generated and publicly available genome-scale datasets. We find that some inferred relationships between major lineages of spiders (such as Austrochiloidea, Palpimanoidea and Synspermiata) are robust across different classes of data. However, several new hypotheses have emerged with different classes of molecular data. We identify and discuss the robust and controversial hypotheses and compile this blueprint to design future studies targeting systematic revisions of these problematic groups. We offer an evolutionary framework to explore comparative questions such as evolution of venoms, silk, webs, morphological traits and reproductive strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Siddharth Kulkarni
- Department of Biological Sciences, The George Washington University, 2029 G St. NW, Washington, DC, 20052, USA
- Department of Entomology, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, 1000 Constitution Avenue NW, Washington, DC, 20560, USA
| | - Hannah M Wood
- Department of Entomology, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, 1000 Constitution Avenue NW, Washington, DC, 20560, USA
| | - Gustavo Hormiga
- Department of Biological Sciences, The George Washington University, 2029 G St. NW, Washington, DC, 20052, USA
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4
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Li B, Zhao Z, Li S. Three new species of the genus Vappolotes Zhao & Li, 2019 (Araneae, Agelenidae) from southwest China. Zootaxa 2023; 5270:325-336. [PMID: 37518162 DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.5270.2.8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2023] [Indexed: 08/01/2023]
Abstract
Three new species of Vappolotes Zhao & Li, 2019 (Araneae: Agelenidae) are described from Hunan and Sichuan provinces, China: V. longshan sp. n. (♀♂), V. tianjiayu sp. n. (♀), and V. hei sp. n. (♀♂). The diagnostic characters of this genus are amended based on the newly obtained data. Photographs of habitus and copulatory organs, as well as their distributions, are provided for all new Vappolotes species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bing Li
- College of Life Science; Langfang Normal University; Langfang 065000; China.
| | - Zhe Zhao
- Institute of Zoology; Chinese Academy of Sciences; Beijing 100101; China.
| | - Shuqiang Li
- Institute of Zoology; Chinese Academy of Sciences; Beijing 100101; China.
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5
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Zhang J, Li Z, Lai J, Zhang Z, Zhang F. A novel probe set for the phylogenomics and evolution of RTA spiders. Cladistics 2023; 39:116-128. [PMID: 36719825 DOI: 10.1111/cla.12523] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2022] [Revised: 12/10/2022] [Accepted: 12/21/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Spiders are important models for evolutionary studies of web building, sexual selection and adaptive radiation. The recent development of probes for UCE (ultra-conserved element)-based phylogenomic studies has shed light on the phylogeny and evolution of spiders. However, the two available UCE probe sets for spider phylogenomics (Spider and Arachnida probe sets) have relatively low capture efficiency within spiders, and are not optimized for the retrolateral tibial apophysis (RTA) clade, a hyperdiverse lineage that is key to understanding the evolution and diversification of spiders. In this study, we sequenced 15 genomes of species in the RTA clade, and using eight reference genomes, we developed a new UCE probe set (41 845 probes targeting 3802 loci, labelled as the RTA probe set). The performance of the RTA probes in resolving the phylogeny of the RTA clade was compared with the Spider and Arachnida probes through an in-silico test on 19 genomes. We also tested the new probe set empirically on 28 spider species of major spider lineages. The results showed that the RTA probes recovered twice and four times as many loci as the other two probe sets, and the phylogeny from the RTA UCEs provided higher support for certain relationships. This newly developed UCE probe set shows higher capture efficiency empirically and is particularly advantageous for phylogenomic and evolutionary studies of RTA clade and jumping spiders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junxia Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Zoological Systematics and Application of Hebei Province, Institute of Life Science and Green Development, College of Life Sciences, Hebei University, Baoding, Hebei, 071002, China
| | - Zhaoyi Li
- Key Laboratory of Zoological Systematics and Application of Hebei Province, Institute of Life Science and Green Development, College of Life Sciences, Hebei University, Baoding, Hebei, 071002, China
| | - Jiaxing Lai
- Key Laboratory of Zoological Systematics and Application of Hebei Province, Institute of Life Science and Green Development, College of Life Sciences, Hebei University, Baoding, Hebei, 071002, China
| | - Zhisheng Zhang
- School of Life Sciences, Southwest University, Chongqing, 400700, China
| | - Feng Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Zoological Systematics and Application of Hebei Province, Institute of Life Science and Green Development, College of Life Sciences, Hebei University, Baoding, Hebei, 071002, China
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6
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A Study in Scarlet: Integrative Taxonomy of the Spider Genus Loureedia (Araneae: Eresidae). DIVERSITY 2023. [DOI: 10.3390/d15020238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/11/2023]
Abstract
The eresid spider genus Loureedia (Miller et al., 2012) was described a decade ago, despite its type species being described in the mid-19th century, which illuminates the difficulties in obtaining specimens. The genus was initially described as monotypic. Ever since, four other species have been assigned to Loureedia, including three newly discovered ones. Primarily due to the extravagant appearance of the males, stories about the discovery of species of Loureedia have been the subject of relatively wide media coverage over the years, leading to numerous new populations and putative undescribed species being documented by naturalists and citizen scientists. These species, although bearing distinct differences in their coloration patterns, typically vary only slightly in the structure of their copulatory organs, the primary traits used in spider systematics. This highlights an important taxonomic problem: while it is easy to diagnose the genus or recognize the species that belong to it, it is challenging to differentiate the species from one another, particularly when using only a single line of evidence. In this paper, we have tackled this issue using an integrative approach, i.e., a combination of molecular markers (the mitochondrial COI) and traditional morphological characters. The effects of different observational angles on the perceived shape of the conductor are discussed. Except for one species, we obtained DNA data of all members of the genus. Based on these data, the first phylogeny for Loureedia is presented, and two North African species, Loureedia maroccana (Gál et al., 2017) and Loureedia jerbae (El-Hennawy, 2005), are revalidated from synonymy. The distribution records of all described species are mapped.
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7
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Lopardo L, Michalik P, Hormiga G. Take a deep breath… The evolution of the respiratory system of symphytognathoid spiders (Araneae, Araneoidea). ORG DIVERS EVOL 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s13127-021-00524-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
AbstractSpiders are unique in having a dual respiratory system with book lungs and tracheae, and most araneomorph spiders breathe simultaneously via book lungs and tracheae, or tracheae alone. The respiratory organs of spiders are diverse but relatively conserved within families. The small araneoid spiders of the symphytognathoid clade exhibit a remarkably high diversity of respiratory organs and arrangements, unparalleled by any other group of ecribellate orb weavers. In the present study, we explore and review the diversity of symphytognathoid respiratory organs. Using a phylogenetic comparative approach, we reconstruct the evolution of the respiratory system of symphytognathoids based on the most comprehensive phylogenetic frameworks to date. There are no less than 22 different respiratory system configurations in symphytognathoids. The phylogenetic reconstructions suggest that the anterior tracheal system evolved from fully developed book lungs and, conversely, reduced book lungs have originated independently at least twice from its homologous tracheal conformation. Our hypothesis suggests that structurally similar book lungs might have originated through different processes of tracheal transformation in different families. In symphytognathoids, the posterior tracheal system has either evolved into a highly branched and complex system or it is completely lost. No evident morphological or behavioral features satisfactorily explains the exceptional variation of the symphytognathoid respiratory organs.
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8
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Xu H, Zhang X, Yao Z, Ali A, Li S. Thirty-five new species of the spider genus Pimoa (Araneae, Pimoidae) from Pan-Himalaya. Zookeys 2021; 1029:1-92. [PMID: 33935549 PMCID: PMC8050015 DOI: 10.3897/zookeys.1029.64080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2021] [Accepted: 03/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Thirty-five new species of the Pimoa Chamberlin & Ivie, 1943 are described from Pan-Himalaya: P.anning Zhang & Li, sp. nov. (♂♀), P.bomi Zhang & Li, sp. nov. (♂♀), P.cawarong Zhang & Li, sp. nov. (♀), P.daman Zhang & Li, sp. nov. (♀), P.danba Zhang & Li, sp. nov. (♀), P.deqen Zhang & Li, sp. nov. (♀), P.dongjiu Zhang & Li, sp. nov. (♂♀), P.guiqing Zhang & Li, sp. nov. (♀), P.gyaca Zhang & Li, sp. nov. (♀), P.gyara Zhang & Li, sp. nov. (♂♀), P.gyirong Zhang & Li, sp. nov. (♂♀), P.heishui Zhang & Li, sp. nov. (♂♀), P.jinchuan Zhang & Li, sp. nov. (♂♀), P.khaptad Zhang & Li, sp. nov. (♀), P.koshi Zhang & Li, sp. nov. (♀), P.lhatog Zhang & Li, sp. nov. (♀), P.mechi Zhang & Li, sp. nov. (♂♀), P.miandam Zhang & Li, sp. nov. (♂♀), P.miero Zhang & Li, sp. nov. (♂♀), P.mude Zhang & Li, sp. nov. (♀), P.muli Zhang & Li, sp. nov. (♂♀), P.naran Zhang & Li, sp. nov. (♀), P.ninglang Zhang & Li, sp. nov. (♀), P.nyalam Zhang & Li, sp. nov. (♂♀), P.phaplu Zhang & Li, sp. nov. (♂♀), P.putou Zhang & Li, sp. nov. (♀), P.rara Zhang & Li, sp. nov. (♀), P.sangri Zhang & Li, sp. nov. (♂♀), P.shigatse Zhang & Li, sp. nov. (♀), P.tengchong Zhang & Li, sp. nov. (♂♀), P.xiahe Zhang & Li, sp. nov. (♂♀), P.yejiei Zhang & Li, sp. nov. (♀), P.yele Zhang & Li, sp. nov. (♂♀), P.zayu Zhang & Li, sp. nov. (♂♀), P.zhigangi Zhang & Li, sp. nov. (♀). The DNA barcodes of the thirty-five new species are provided.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hao Xu
- College of Life Science, Shenyang Normal University, Shenyang 110034, Liaoning, China Shenyang Normal University Shenyang China
| | - Xiaoqing Zhang
- Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences Beijing China
| | - Zhiyuan Yao
- College of Life Science, Shenyang Normal University, Shenyang 110034, Liaoning, China Shenyang Normal University Shenyang China
| | - Abid Ali
- Department of Entomology, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad-38040, Punjab, Pakistan University of Agriculture Faisalabad Pakistan.,College of Life Science, Shenyang Normal University, Shenyang 110034, Liaoning, China Shenyang Normal University Shenyang China
| | - Shuqiang Li
- Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences Beijing China
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9
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Liu JH, Xiao YH, Zhang MZ, Xu X, Liu KK. Four new coelotine species (Araneae, Agelenidae, Coelotinae) from South China, with the first description of the male of Coelotes septus Wang, Yin, Peng & Xie, 1990. Zookeys 2021; 1029:93-112. [PMID: 33935550 PMCID: PMC8050011 DOI: 10.3897/zookeys.1029.63060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2021] [Accepted: 03/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Four new species are described from Jinggang Mountain National Nature Reserve, Jiangxi Province of southern China: Draconarius lingdang sp. nov. (♂♀), D. substrophadatus sp. nov. (♀), Orumcekia cipingensis sp. nov. (♀) and Tonsilla shuikouensis sp. nov. (♀). Additionally, Coelotes septus Wang, Yin, Peng & Xie, 1990 is redescribed and its male is described for the first time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ji-He Liu
- College of Life Science, Hunan Normal University, Changsha 410081, Hunan, China Hunan Normal University Changsha China.,College of Life Science, Jinggangshan University, Ji'an 343009, Jiangxi, China Jinggangshan University Ji'an China
| | - Yong-Hong Xiao
- College of Life Science, Jinggangshan University, Ji'an 343009, Jiangxi, China Jinggangshan University Ji'an China
| | - Meng-Zhen Zhang
- College of Life Science, Jinggangshan University, Ji'an 343009, Jiangxi, China Jinggangshan University Ji'an China
| | - Xiang Xu
- College of Life Science, Hunan Normal University, Changsha 410081, Hunan, China Hunan Normal University Changsha China
| | - Ke-Ke Liu
- College of Life Science, Jinggangshan University, Ji'an 343009, Jiangxi, China Jinggangshan University Ji'an China
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10
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Wolff JO, Michalik P, Ravelo AM, Herberstein ME, Ramírez MJ. Evolution of silk anchor structure as the joint effect of spinning behavior and spinneret morphology. Integr Comp Biol 2021; 61:1411-1431. [PMID: 33616646 DOI: 10.1093/icb/icab003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Spider web anchors are attachment structures composed of the bi-phasic glue-fiber secretion from the piriform silk glands. The mechanical performance of the anchors strongly correlates with the structural assembly of the silk lines, which makes spider silk anchors an ideal system to study the biomechanical function of extended phenotypes and its evolution. It was proposed that silk anchor function guided the evolution of spider web architectures, but its fine-structural variation and whether its evolution was rather determined by changes of the shape of the spinneret tip or in the innate spinning choreography remained unresolved. Here, we comparatively studied the micro-structure of silk anchors across the spider tree of life, and set it in relation to spinneret morphology, spinning behavior and the ecology of the spider. We identified a number of apomorphies in the structure of silk anchors that may positively affect anchor function: 1. bundled dragline, 2. dragline envelope, and 3. dragline suspension ('bridge'). All these characters were apomorphic and evolved repeatedly in multiple lineages, supporting the notion that they are adaptive. The occurrence of these structural features can be explained with changes in the shape and mobility of the spinneret tip, the spinning behavior or both. Spinneret shapes generally varied less than their fine-tuned movements, indicating that changes in construction behavior play a more important role in the evolution of silk anchor assembly. However, the morphology of the spinning apparatus is also a major constraint to the evolution of the spinning choreography. These results highlight changes in behavior as the proximate and in morphology as the ultimate causes of extended phenotype evolution. Further, this research provides a roadmap for future bioprospecting research to design high-performance instant line anchors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonas O Wolff
- Department of Biological Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW 2109, Australia
| | - Peter Michalik
- Zoologisches Institut und Museum, Ernst-Moritz-Arndt-Universität, Loitzer Str. 26, Greifswald, 17489, Germany
| | - Alexandra M Ravelo
- Museo Argentino de Ciencias Naturales "Bernardino Rivadavia", Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Av. Ángel Gallardo 470, Buenos Aires, C1405DJR, Argentina
| | | | - Martín J Ramírez
- Museo Argentino de Ciencias Naturales "Bernardino Rivadavia", Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Av. Ángel Gallardo 470, Buenos Aires, C1405DJR, Argentina
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11
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Campuzano EF, Padilla-Ramírez JR. Spatial and seasonal patterns of ground-dwelling spider assemblages belonging to the retrolateral tibial apophysis clade (Araneae: Araneomorphae) in two remnants of pine-oak forest from Mexico. STUDIES ON NEOTROPICAL FAUNA AND ENVIRONMENT 2020. [DOI: 10.1080/01650521.2020.1806008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Emmanuel F. Campuzano
- CONACYT-CINVESTAV,Unidad Saltillo, Group of Sustainability of Natural Resources and Energy, Ramos Arizpe, Mexico
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12
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Zhang X, Lan T, Nie L, Li S. Eight new species of the spider genus Pimoa (Araneae, Pimoidae) from Tibet, China. Zookeys 2020; 940:79-104. [PMID: 32581632 PMCID: PMC7303224 DOI: 10.3897/zookeys.940.49793] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2020] [Accepted: 04/27/2020] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Eight new species of the spider genus Pimoa Chamberlin & Ivie, 1943 are described from Tibet, China: P.cona Zhang & Li, sp. nov. (♂♀), P.duiba Zhang & Li, sp. nov. (♂♀), P.lemenba Zhang & Li, sp. nov. (♀), P.mainling Zhang & Li, sp. nov. (♂♀), P.nyingchi Zhang & Li, sp. nov. (♂♀), P.rongxar Zhang & Li, sp. nov. (♂♀), P.samyai Zhang & Li, sp. nov. (♂♀), and P.yadong Zhang & Li, sp. nov. (♂♀). The DNA barcodes of the eight new species are documented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoqing Zhang
- Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences Beijing China
| | - Tianqi Lan
- College of Life Science, Shenyang Normal University, Shenyang 110034, Liaoning, China Shenyang Normal University Liaoning China
| | - Lei Nie
- College of Life Science, Hebei University, Baoding, Hebei 071002, China Hebei University Baoding China
| | - Shuqiang Li
- Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences Beijing China
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13
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Šťáhlavský F, Forman M, Just P, Denič F, Haddad CR, Opatova V. Cytogenetics of entelegyne spiders (Arachnida, Araneae) from southern Africa. COMPARATIVE CYTOGENETICS 2020; 14:107-138. [PMID: 32194919 PMCID: PMC7066264 DOI: 10.3897/compcytogen.v14i1.48667] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2019] [Accepted: 01/17/2020] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Spiders represent one of the most studied arachnid orders. They are particularly intriguing from a cytogenetic point of view, due to their complex and dynamic sex chromosome determination systems. Despite intensive research on this group, cytogenetic data from African spiders are still mostly lacking. In this study, we describe the karyotypes of 38 species of spiders belonging to 16 entelegyne families from South Africa and Namibia. In the majority of analysed families, the observed chromosome numbers and morphology (mainly acrocentric) did not deviate from the family-level cytogenetic characteristics based on material from other continents: Tetragnathidae (2n♂ = 24), Ctenidae and Oxyopidae (2n♂ = 28), Sparassidae (2n♂ = 42), Gnaphosidae, Trachelidae and Trochanteriidae (2n♂ = 22), and Salticidae (2n♂ = 28). On the other hand, we identified interspecific variability within Hersiliidae (2n♂ = 33 and 35), Oecobiidae (2n♂ = 19 and 25), Selenopidae (2n♂ = 26 and 29) and Theridiidae (2n♂ = 21 and 22). We examined the karyotypes of Ammoxenidae and Gallieniellidae for the first time. Their diploid counts (2n♂ = 22) correspond to the superfamily Gnaphosoidea and support their placement in this lineage. On the other hand, the karyotypes of Prodidominae (2n♂ = 28 and 29) contrast with all other Gnaphosoidea. Similarly, the unusually high diploid number in Borboropactus sp. (2n♂ = 28) within the otherwise cytogenetically uniform family Thomisidae (mainly 2n♂ = 21-24) supports molecular data suggesting a basal position of the genus in the family. The implementation of FISH methods for visualisation of rDNA clusters facilitated the detection of complex dynamics of numbers of these loci. We identified up to five loci of the 18S rDNA clusters in our samples. Three different sex chromosome systems (X0, X1X20 and X1X2X30) were also detected among the studied taxa.
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Affiliation(s)
- František Šťáhlavský
- Department of Zoology, Charles University, Faculty of Science, Viničná 7, CZ-12844 Praha, Czech Republic
| | - Martin Forman
- Department of Genetics and Microbiology, Charles University, Faculty of Science, Viničná 5, CZ-12844 Praha, Czech Republic
| | - Pavel Just
- Department of Zoology, Charles University, Faculty of Science, Viničná 7, CZ-12844 Praha, Czech Republic
| | - Filip Denič
- Department of Genetics and Microbiology, Charles University, Faculty of Science, Viničná 5, CZ-12844 Praha, Czech Republic
| | - Charles R. Haddad
- Department of Zoology and Entomology, University of the Free State, P.O. Box 339, Bloemfontein 9300, South Africa
| | - Vera Opatova
- Department of Zoology, Charles University, Faculty of Science, Viničná 7, CZ-12844 Praha, Czech Republic
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14
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Crews SC, Garcia EL, Spagna JC, Van Dam MH, Esposito LA. The life aquatic with spiders (Araneae): repeated evolution of aquatic habitat association in Dictynidae and allied taxa. Zool J Linn Soc 2019. [DOI: 10.1093/zoolinnean/zlz139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Despite the dominance of terrestriality in spiders, species across a diverse array of families are associated with aquatic habitats. Many species in the spider family Dictynidae are associated with water, either living near it or, in the case of Argyroneta aquatica, in it. Previous studies have indicated that this association arose once within the family. Here we test the hypothesis of a single origin via the broadest phylogeny of dictynids and related ‘marronoids’ to date, using several taxa that were not previously sampled in molecular analyses to provide the first quantitative test of the hypothesis put forth by Wheeler et al. (2016). We sampled 281 terminal taxa from 14 families, assembling a matrix with 4380 total base pairs of data from most taxa. We also assembled an atlas of morphological traits with potential significance for both ecology and taxonomy. Our resulting trees indicate that an aquatic habitat association has arisen multiple times within dictynids. Dictynidae and the genus Dictyna are polyphyletic and the genera Lathys and Cicurina remain unplaced. A review of aquatic habitat associations in spiders indicates that it occurs in members of at least 21 families. With our morphological atlas, we explore characters that have been implicated in aiding an aquatic lifestyle, which in the past may have caused confusion regarding taxon placement. Our results indicate that not all spiders with traits thought to be useful for aquatic habitat associations occupy such habitats, and that some spider taxa lacking these traits are nonetheless associated with water.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah C Crews
- California Academy of Sciences, Department of Entomology, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Erika L Garcia
- California Academy of Sciences, Department of Entomology, San Francisco, CA, USA
- San Francisco State University, San Francisco, CA
- Denver Museum of Nature & Science, Department of Zoology, Denver, CO, USA
| | - Joseph C Spagna
- Department of Biology, William Paterson University, Wayne, NJ, USA
| | - Matthew H Van Dam
- California Academy of Sciences, Department of Entomology, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Lauren A Esposito
- California Academy of Sciences, Department of Entomology, San Francisco, CA, USA
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15
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Wolff JO, Paterno GB, Liprandi D, Ramírez MJ, Bosia F, Meijden A, Michalik P, Smith HM, Jones BR, Ravelo AM, Pugno N, Herberstein ME. Evolution of aerial spider webs coincided with repeated structural optimization of silk anchorages. Evolution 2019; 73:2122-2134. [DOI: 10.1111/evo.13834] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2019] [Revised: 07/11/2019] [Accepted: 07/25/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Jonas O. Wolff
- Department of Biological SciencesMacquarie University Sydney New South Wales 2109 Australia
| | - Gustavo B. Paterno
- Departamento de Ecologia, Centro de BiociênciasUniversidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte (UFRN) Lagoa Nova 59072–970 Natal Rio Grande do Norte Brazil
- Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Programa de Pós‐Graduação em EcologiaUniversidade Federal de Juiz de Fora Rua José Lourenço Kelmer 36036–900 Juiz de Fora Minas Gerais Brazil
| | - Daniele Liprandi
- Laboratory of Bio‐Inspired and Graphene Nanomechanics, Department of CivilEnvironmental and Mechanical EngineeringUniversity of Trento Via Masiano 77 I‐38123 Trento Italy
| | - Martín J. Ramírez
- Museo Argentino de Ciencias Naturales “Bernardino Rivadavia”Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET) Av. Ángel Gallardo 470 C1405DJR Buenos Aires Argentina
| | - Federico Bosia
- Department of Physics and Nanostructured Interfaces and Surfaces Interdepartmental CentreUniversità di Torino Via P. Giuria 1 10125 Torino Italy
| | - Arie Meijden
- CIBIO Research Centre in Biodiversity and Genetic Resources, InBIOUniversidade do Porto Campus Agrário de Vairão, Rua Padre Armando Quintas, Vairão, Vila do Conde Porto 4485–661 Portugal
| | - Peter Michalik
- Zoologisches Institut und MuseumUniversität Greifswald Loitzer Str. 26 17489 Greifswald Germany
| | - Helen M. Smith
- Australian Museum 1 William St Sydney New South Wales 2010 Australia
| | - Braxton R. Jones
- Department of Biological SciencesMacquarie University Sydney New South Wales 2109 Australia
| | - Alexandra M. Ravelo
- Museo Argentino de Ciencias Naturales “Bernardino Rivadavia”Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET) Av. Ángel Gallardo 470 C1405DJR Buenos Aires Argentina
| | - Nicola Pugno
- Laboratory of Bio‐Inspired and Graphene Nanomechanics, Department of CivilEnvironmental and Mechanical EngineeringUniversity of Trento Via Masiano 77 I‐38123 Trento Italy
- School of Engineering and Materials ScienceQueen Mary University Mile End Rd London E1 4NS UK
- KET Labs, Edoardo Amaldi Foundation Via del Politecnico snc 00133 Rome Italy
| | - Marie E. Herberstein
- Department of Biological SciencesMacquarie University Sydney New South Wales 2109 Australia
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16
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Zhang X, Li S. On three species of the spider genus Pimoa (Araneae, Pimoidae) from China. Zookeys 2019; 855:1-13. [PMID: 31244538 PMCID: PMC6586717 DOI: 10.3897/zookeys.855.33501] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2019] [Accepted: 05/13/2019] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Two new species of the spider genus Pimoa Chamberlin & Ivie, 1943 are described from Hunan and Yunnan Provinces, China: P.binchuanensissp. nov. (♂♀) and P.xinjianensissp. nov. (♂♀). In addition, the male of P.lata Xu & Li, 2009 is described for the first time. The DNA barcodes of the two new species are documented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoqing Zhang
- Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences Beijing China
| | - Shuqiang Li
- Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences Beijing China
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17
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Coddington JA, Agnarsson I, Hamilton CA, Bond JE. Spiders did not repeatedly gain, but repeatedly lost, foraging webs. PeerJ 2019; 7:e6703. [PMID: 30976470 PMCID: PMC6451839 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.6703] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2018] [Accepted: 02/21/2019] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Much genomic-scale, especially transcriptomic, data on spider phylogeny has accumulated in the last few years. These data have recently been used to investigate the diverse architectures and the origin of spider webs, concluding that the ancestral spider spun no foraging web, that spider webs evolved de novo 10-14 times, and that the orb web evolved at least three times. These findings in fact result from a particular phylogenetic character coding strategy, specifically coding the absence of webs as logically equivalent, and homologous to, 10 other observable (i.e., not absent) web architectures. "Absence" of webs should be regarded as inapplicable data. To be analyzed properly by character optimization algorithms, it should be coded as "?" because these codes-or their equivalent-are handled differently by such algorithms. Additional problems include critical misspellings of taxon names from one analysis to the next (misspellings cause some optimization algorithms to drop terminals, which affects taxon sampling and results), and mistakes in spider natural history. In sum, the method causes character optimization algorithms to produce counter-intuitive results, and does not distinguish absence from secondary loss. Proper treatment of missing entries and corrected data instead imply that foraging webs are primitive for spiders and that webs have been lost ∼5-7 times, not gained 10-14 times. The orb web, specifically, may be homologous (originated only once) although lost 2-6 times.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan A. Coddington
- Department of Entomology, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C., USA
| | - Ingi Agnarsson
- Department of Entomology, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C., USA
- Department of Biology, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT, United States of America
| | - Chris A. Hamilton
- Department of Entomology, Plant Pathology, & Nematology, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID, United States of America
| | - Jason E. Bond
- Department of Entomology and Nematology, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, United States of America
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18
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Takasuka K, Fritzén NR, Tanaka Y, Matsumoto R, Maeto K, Shaw MR. The changing use of the ovipositor in host shifts by ichneumonid ectoparasitoids of spiders (Hymenoptera, Ichneumonidae, Pimplinae). ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2018; 25:17. [PMID: 29589827 PMCID: PMC5873220 DOI: 10.1051/parasite/2018011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2017] [Accepted: 02/15/2018] [Indexed: 11/14/2022]
Abstract
Accurate egg placement into or onto a living host is an essential ability for many parasitoids, and changes in associated phenotypes, such as ovipositor morphology and behaviour, correlate with significant host shifts. Here, we report that in the ichneumonid group of koinobiont spider-ectoparasitoids (“polysphinctines”), several putatively ancestral taxa (clade I here), parasitic on ground-dwelling RTA-spiders (a group characterised by retrolateral tibial apophysis on male palpal tibiae), lay their eggs in a specific way. They tightly bend their metasoma above the spider’s cephalothorax, touching the carapace with the dorsal side of the ovipositor apically (“dorsal-press”). The egg slips out from the middle part of the ventral side of the ovipositor and moves towards its apex with the parted lower valves acting as rails. Deposition occurs as the parasitoid draws the ovipositor backwards from under the egg. Oviposition upon the tough carapace of the cephalothorax, presumably less palatable than the abdomen, is conserved in these taxa, and presumed adaptive through avoiding physical damage to the developing parasitoid. This specific way of oviposition is reversed in the putatively derived clade of polysphinctines (clade II here) parasitic on Araneoidea spiders with aerial webs, which is already known. They bend their metasoma along the spider’s abdomen, grasping the abdomen with their fore/mid legs, pressing the ventral tip of the metasoma and the lower valves of the ovipositor against the abdomen (“ventral-press”). The egg is expelled through an expansion of the lower valves, which is developed only in this clade and evident in most species, onto the softer and presumably more nutritious abdomen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keizo Takasuka
- Institute for Advanced Biosciences, Keio University, Yamagata, Japan - Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Kobe University, Hyogo, Japan
| | | | | | | | - Kaoru Maeto
- Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Kobe University, Hyogo, Japan
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19
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Zhao Z, Li S. Extinction vs. Rapid Radiation: The Juxtaposed Evolutionary Histories of Coelotine Spiders Support the Eocene-Oligocene Orogenesis of the Tibetan Plateau. Syst Biol 2018; 66:988-1006. [PMID: 28431105 DOI: 10.1093/sysbio/syx042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2016] [Accepted: 03/24/2017] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Evolutionary biology has long been concerned with how changing environments affect and drive the spatiotemporal development of organisms. Coelotine spiders (Agelenidae: Coelotinae) are common species in the temperate and subtropical areas of the Northern Hemisphere. Their long evolutionary history and the extremely imbalanced distribution of species richness suggest that Eurasian environments, especially since the Cenozoic, are the drivers of their diversification. We use phylogenetics, molecular dating, ancestral area reconstructions, diversity, and ecological niche analyses to investigate the spatiotemporal evolution of 286 coelotine species from throughout the region. Based on eight genes (6.5 kb) and 2323 de novo DNA sequences, analyses suggest an Eocene South China origin for them. Most extant, widespread species belong to the southern (SCG) or northern (NCG) clades. The origin of coelotine spiders appears to associate with either the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum or the hot period in early Eocene. Tibetan uplifting events influenced the current diversity patterns of coelotines. The origin of SCG lies outside of the Tibetan Plateau. Uplifting in the southeastern area of the plateau blocked dispersal since the Late Eocene. Continuous orogenesis appears to have created localized vicariant events, which drove rapid radiation in SCG. North-central Tibet is the likely location of origin for NCG and many lineages likely experienced extinction owing to uplifting since early Oligocene. Their evolutionary histories correspond with recent geological evidence that high-elevation orographical features existed in the Tibetan region as early as 40-35 Ma. Our discoveries may be the first empirical evidence that links the evolution of organisms to the Eocene-Oligocene uplifting of the Tibetan Plateau. [Tibet; biogeography; ecology; molecular clock; diversification.].
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhe Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Zoological Systematics and Evolution, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China.,Southeast Asia Biodiversity Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Yezin, Nay Pyi Taw 05282, Myanmar
| | - Shuqiang Li
- Key Laboratory of Zoological Systematics and Evolution, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
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20
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Wu JL, Luo YF, Li SQ. Nine new species of the spider genus Stedocys (Araneae, Scytodidae) from China and Thailand. Zool Res 2017; 38:215-242. [PMID: 29181898 PMCID: PMC5717424 DOI: 10.24272/j.issn.2095-8137.2017.066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Nine new species of the genus Stedocys Ono, 1995 are described: Stedocys gaolingensis Wu & Li sp. n. (♂♀, Guangxi), S. huangniuensis Wu & Li sp. n. (♀, Guangxi), S. ludiyanensis Wu & Li sp. n. (♂♀, Guangxi), S. matuoensis Wu & Li sp. n. (♀, Guangxi), S. pulianensis Wu & Li sp. n. (♂, Guangxi), S. shilinensis Wu & Li sp. n. (♂♀, Hainan), S. xianrenensis Wu & Li sp. n. (♂♀, Guangxi), S. xiangzhouensis Wu & Li sp. n. (♂♀, Guangxi) from China, and S. zhaoi Wu & Li sp. nov. (♂♀, Kanchanaburi) from Thailand. Diagnoses of nine new species are provided. DNA barcodes for six new species are documented for future use and as proof of molecular differences between these species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiang-Lang Wu
- Southeast Asia Biodiversity Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Yezin Nay Pyi Taw 05282, Myanmar.,Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Yu-Fa Luo
- School of Life and Environment Sciences, Gannan Normal University, Ganzhou Jiangxi 341000, China
| | - Shu-Qiang Li
- Southeast Asia Biodiversity Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Yezin Nay Pyi Taw 05282, Myanmar.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China.
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21
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Zhang X, Zhao Z, Zheng G, Li S. A survey of five Pireneitega species (Agelenidae, Coelotinae) from China. Zookeys 2017:45-64. [PMID: 28769617 PMCID: PMC5523174 DOI: 10.3897/zookeys.663.11356] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2016] [Accepted: 03/08/2017] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Five species of Pireneitega spiders from China are surveyed, of which three are new to science: P.huashanensis Zhao & Li, sp. n. (♂♀), P.lushuiensis Zhao & Li, sp. n. (♂♀), P.xiyankouensis Zhao & Li, sp. n. (♂♀). Two known species are redescribed: P.liansui (Bao & Yin, 2004) and P.triglochinata (Zhu & Wang, 1991). The males of P.liansui and P.triglochinata (Zhu & Wang, 1991) are described for the first time. DNA barcodes for five species are documented for future use and as proof of molecular differences between species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoqing Zhang
- College of Life Science, Shenyang Normal University, Shenyang, Liaoning 110034, China.,Southeast Asia Biodiversity Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Yezin, Nay Pyi Taw 05282, Myanmar
| | - Zhe Zhao
- Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Guo Zheng
- College of Life Science, Shenyang Normal University, Shenyang, Liaoning 110034, China
| | - Shuqiang Li
- Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
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22
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Zhang X, Zhao Z. A new species of Longicoelotes (Araneae, Agelenidae) from China, with the first description of the male of L. kulianganus (Chamberlin, 1924). Zookeys 2017:137-147. [PMID: 29358894 PMCID: PMC5672569 DOI: 10.3897/zookeys.686.11711] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2017] [Accepted: 07/10/2017] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
A new Longicoeletes species is described from Jiangxi Province, China: L.geeisp. n. (♂♀). In addition, the male of L.kulianganus (Chamberlin, 1924) is described for the first time. DNA barcodes of the two species are documented for future use and as proof of molecular differences between these species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoqing Zhang
- Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China.,Southeast Asia Biodiversity Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Yezin, Nay Pyi Taw 05282, Myanmar
| | - Zhe Zhao
- Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
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23
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Labarque FM, Wolff JO, Michalik P, Griswold CE, Ramírez MJ. The evolution and function of spider feet (Araneae: Arachnida): multiple acquisitions of distal articulations. Zool J Linn Soc 2017. [DOI: 10.1093/zoolinnean/zlw030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
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24
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Carlson DE, Hedin M. Comparative transcriptomics of Entelegyne spiders (Araneae, Entelegynae), with emphasis on molecular evolution of orphan genes. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0174102. [PMID: 28379977 PMCID: PMC5381867 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0174102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2016] [Accepted: 03/04/2017] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Next-generation sequencing technology is rapidly transforming the landscape of evolutionary biology, and has become a cost-effective and efficient means of collecting exome information for non-model organisms. Due to their taxonomic diversity, production of interesting venom and silk proteins, and the relative scarcity of existing genomic resources, spiders in particular are excellent targets for next-generation sequencing (NGS) methods. In this study, the transcriptomes of six entelegyne spider species from three genera (Cicurina travisae, C. vibora, Habronattus signatus, H. ustulatus, Nesticus bishopi, and N. cooperi) were sequenced and de novo assembled. Each assembly was assessed for quality and completeness and functionally annotated using gene ontology information. Approximately 100 transcripts with evidence of homology to venom proteins were discovered. After identifying more than 3,000 putatively orthologous genes across all six taxa, we used comparative analyses to identify 24 instances of positively selected genes. In addition, between ~ 550 and 1,100 unique orphan genes were found in each genus. These unique, uncharacterized genes exhibited elevated rates of amino acid substitution, potentially consistent with lineage-specific adaptive evolution. The data generated for this study represent a valuable resource for future phylogenetic and molecular evolutionary research, and our results provide new insight into the forces driving genome evolution in taxa that span the root of entelegyne spider phylogeny.
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Affiliation(s)
- David E. Carlson
- Department of Biology, San Diego State University, San Diego, California, United States of America
- Department of Ecology & Evolution, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York, United States of America
| | - Marshal Hedin
- Department of Biology, San Diego State University, San Diego, California, United States of America
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25
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Insects, arachnids and centipedes venom: A powerful weapon against bacteria. A literature review. Toxicon 2017; 130:91-103. [PMID: 28242227 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2017.02.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2016] [Revised: 02/17/2017] [Accepted: 02/20/2017] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Currently, new antimicrobial molecules extracted or obtained by natural sources, could be a valide alternative to traditional antibiotics. Most of these molecules are represented by antimicrobial peptides (AMPs), which are essential compounds of insect, arachnids and centipedes venom. AMPs, due to their strong effectiveness, low resistance rates and peculiar mode of action, seem to have all the suitable features to be a powerful weapon against several bacteria, especially considering the increasing antibiotic-resistance phenomena. The present literature review focuses on the antibacterial activity of bee, wasp, ant, scorpion, spider and scolopendra crude venom and of their main biological active compounds. After a brief overview of each animal and venom use in folkloristic medicine, this review reports, in a comprehensive table, the results obtained by the most relevant and recent researches carried out on the antibacterial activity of different venom and their AMPs. For each considered study, the table summarizes data concerning minimal inhibitory concentration values, minimal bactericidal concentration values, the methods employed, scientific name and common names and provenience of animal species from which the crude venom and its respective compounds were obtained.
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26
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Wheeler WC, Coddington JA, Crowley LM, Dimitrov D, Goloboff PA, Griswold CE, Hormiga G, Prendini L, Ramírez MJ, Sierwald P, Almeida‐Silva L, Alvarez‐Padilla F, Arnedo MA, Benavides Silva LR, Benjamin SP, Bond JE, Grismado CJ, Hasan E, Hedin M, Izquierdo MA, Labarque FM, Ledford J, Lopardo L, Maddison WP, Miller JA, Piacentini LN, Platnick NI, Polotow D, Silva‐Dávila D, Scharff N, Szűts T, Ubick D, Vink CJ, Wood HM, Zhang J. The spider tree of life: phylogeny of Araneae based on target‐gene analyses from an extensive taxon sampling. Cladistics 2016; 33:574-616. [DOI: 10.1111/cla.12182] [Citation(s) in RCA: 246] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/24/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Ward C. Wheeler
- Division of Invertebrate Zoology American Museum of Natural History Central Park West at 79th St. New York NY 10024 USA
| | - Jonathan A. Coddington
- Smithsonian Institution National Museum of Natural History 10th and Constitution NW Washington DC 20560‐0105 USA
| | - Louise M. Crowley
- Division of Invertebrate Zoology American Museum of Natural History Central Park West at 79th St. New York NY 10024 USA
| | - Dimitar Dimitrov
- Natural History Museum University of Oslo Oslo Norway
- Department of Biological Sciences The George Washington University 2029 G St. NW Washington DC 20052 USA
| | - Pablo A. Goloboff
- Unidad Ejecutora Lillo FML—CONICET Miguel Lillo 251 4000 SM. de Tucumán Argentina
| | - Charles E. Griswold
- Department of Entomology California Academy of Sciences 55 Music Concourse Drive, Golden State Park San Francisco CA 94118 USA
| | - Gustavo Hormiga
- Department of Biological Sciences The George Washington University 2029 G St. NW Washington DC 20052 USA
| | - Lorenzo Prendini
- Division of Invertebrate Zoology American Museum of Natural History Central Park West at 79th St. New York NY 10024 USA
| | - Martín J. Ramírez
- Museo Argentino de Ciencias Naturales ‘Bernardino Rivadavia’—CONICET Av. Angel Gallardo 470 C1405DJR Buenos Aires Argentina
| | - Petra Sierwald
- The Field Museum of Natural History 1400 S Lake Shore Drive Chicago IL 60605 USA
| | - Lina Almeida‐Silva
- Department of Entomology California Academy of Sciences 55 Music Concourse Drive, Golden State Park San Francisco CA 94118 USA
- Laboratório Especial de Coleções Zoológicas Instituto Butantan Av. Vital Brasil, 1500 05503‐900 São Paulo São Paulo Brazil
| | - Fernando Alvarez‐Padilla
- Department of Biological Sciences The George Washington University 2029 G St. NW Washington DC 20052 USA
- Department of Entomology California Academy of Sciences 55 Music Concourse Drive, Golden State Park San Francisco CA 94118 USA
- Departamento de Biología Comparada Facultad de Ciencias Laboratório de Acarología Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México Distrito Federal Del. Coyoacán CP 04510 México
| | - Miquel A. Arnedo
- Departamento de Biología Animal Facultat de Biología Institut de Recerca de la Bioversitat Universitat de Barcelona Av. Diagonal 643 08028 Barcelona Spain
| | - Ligia R. Benavides Silva
- Department of Biological Sciences The George Washington University 2029 G St. NW Washington DC 20052 USA
| | - Suresh P. Benjamin
- Department of Biological Sciences The George Washington University 2029 G St. NW Washington DC 20052 USA
- National Institute of Fundamental Studies Hantana Road Kandy 20000 Sri Lanka
| | - Jason E. Bond
- Department of Biological Sciences Auburn University Museum of Natural History Auburn University Rouse Life Sciences Building Auburn AL 36849 USA
| | - Cristian J. Grismado
- Museo Argentino de Ciencias Naturales ‘Bernardino Rivadavia’—CONICET Av. Angel Gallardo 470 C1405DJR Buenos Aires Argentina
| | - Emile Hasan
- Department of Biological Sciences The George Washington University 2029 G St. NW Washington DC 20052 USA
| | - Marshal Hedin
- Department of Biology San Diego State University 5500 Campanile Drive San Diego CA 92182 USA
| | - Matías A. Izquierdo
- Museo Argentino de Ciencias Naturales ‘Bernardino Rivadavia’—CONICET Av. Angel Gallardo 470 C1405DJR Buenos Aires Argentina
| | - Facundo M. Labarque
- Department of Entomology California Academy of Sciences 55 Music Concourse Drive, Golden State Park San Francisco CA 94118 USA
- Museo Argentino de Ciencias Naturales ‘Bernardino Rivadavia’—CONICET Av. Angel Gallardo 470 C1405DJR Buenos Aires Argentina
- Laboratório Especial de Coleções Zoológicas Instituto Butantan Av. Vital Brasil, 1500 05503‐900 São Paulo São Paulo Brazil
| | - Joel Ledford
- Department of Entomology California Academy of Sciences 55 Music Concourse Drive, Golden State Park San Francisco CA 94118 USA
- Department of Plant Biology University of California Davis CA 95616 USA
| | - Lara Lopardo
- Department of Biological Sciences The George Washington University 2029 G St. NW Washington DC 20052 USA
| | - Wayne P. Maddison
- Department of Zoology University of British Columbia 6270 University Boulevard Vancouver BC V6T 1Z4 Canada
| | - Jeremy A. Miller
- Department of Entomology California Academy of Sciences 55 Music Concourse Drive, Golden State Park San Francisco CA 94118 USA
- Department of Terrestrial Zoology Netherlands Centre for Biodiversity Naturalis Postbus 9517 2300 RA Leiden The Netherlands
| | - Luis N. Piacentini
- Museo Argentino de Ciencias Naturales ‘Bernardino Rivadavia’—CONICET Av. Angel Gallardo 470 C1405DJR Buenos Aires Argentina
| | - Norman I. Platnick
- Division of Invertebrate Zoology American Museum of Natural History Central Park West at 79th St. New York NY 10024 USA
| | - Daniele Polotow
- Department of Entomology California Academy of Sciences 55 Music Concourse Drive, Golden State Park San Francisco CA 94118 USA
- Laboratório Especial de Coleções Zoológicas Instituto Butantan Av. Vital Brasil, 1500 05503‐900 São Paulo São Paulo Brazil
| | - Diana Silva‐Dávila
- Department of Entomology California Academy of Sciences 55 Music Concourse Drive, Golden State Park San Francisco CA 94118 USA
- Departamento de Entomología Museo de Historia Natural Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos Av. Arenales 1256 Apartado Postal 140434 Lima 14 Peru
| | - Nikolaj Scharff
- Biodiversity Section Center for Macroecology, Evolution and Climate Natural History Museum of Denmark University of Copenhagen Universitetsparken 15 Copenhagen Denmark
| | - Tamás Szűts
- Department of Entomology California Academy of Sciences 55 Music Concourse Drive, Golden State Park San Francisco CA 94118 USA
- Department of Zoology University of West Hungary H9700 Szombathely Hungary
| | - Darrell Ubick
- Department of Entomology California Academy of Sciences 55 Music Concourse Drive, Golden State Park San Francisco CA 94118 USA
| | - Cor J. Vink
- Department of Biology San Diego State University 5500 Campanile Drive San Diego CA 92182 USA
- Canterbury Museum Rolleston Avenue Christchurch 8013 New Zealand
| | - Hannah M. Wood
- Smithsonian Institution National Museum of Natural History 10th and Constitution NW Washington DC 20560‐0105 USA
- Department of Entomology California Academy of Sciences 55 Music Concourse Drive, Golden State Park San Francisco CA 94118 USA
| | - Junxia Zhang
- Department of Zoology University of British Columbia 6270 University Boulevard Vancouver BC V6T 1Z4 Canada
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Zhang X, Marusik YM. A survey of Pireneitega from Tajikistan (Agelenidae, Coelotinae). Zookeys 2016:89-107. [PMID: 27917059 PMCID: PMC5126511 DOI: 10.3897/zookeys.635.10487] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2016] [Accepted: 10/26/2016] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Five new species of Pireneitega species from Tajikistan are described: Pireneitegazonsteinisp. n. (♂♀), Pireneitegamuratovisp. n. (♀), Pireneitegatyuraisp. n. (♀), Pireneitegaramitensissp. n. (♀) and Pireneitegakovblyukisp. n. (♂). Pireneitegamajor (Kroneberg, 1875) is redescribed for the first time based on the lectotype designated here. DNA barcodes for the five new species are documented for future use and as proof of molecular differences between these species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoqing Zhang
- College of Life Science, Shenyang Normal University, Shenyang, Liaoning 110034, China
| | - Yuri M Marusik
- Institute for Biological Problems of the North RAS, Portovaya Str. 18, Magadan 685000, Russia; Department of Zoology & Entomology, University of the Free State, Bloemfontein 9300, South Africa; Zoological Museum, University of Turku, FI-20014 Turku, Finland
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28
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Cao Q, Li S, Żabka M. The jumping spiders from Xishuangbanna, Yunnan, China (Araneae, Salticidae). Zookeys 2016:43-104. [PMID: 27917041 PMCID: PMC5126523 DOI: 10.3897/zookeys.630.8466] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2016] [Accepted: 10/10/2016] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Twenty one jumping spider species from South Yunnan are reported, diagnosed, described and illustrated; 19 of them are described as new: Afraflacillaballarini Cao & Li, sp. n. (♂), Agoriustortilis Cao & Li, sp. n. (♂♀), Baviaexilis Cao & Li, sp. n. (♂), Carrhotuskevinlii Cao & Li, sp. n. (♂♀), Carrhotussarahcrewsae Cao & Li, sp. n. (♂), Chinattuswengnanensis Cao & Li, sp. n. (♂♀), Chinophrysmengyangensis Cao & Li, sp. n. (♂♀), Cocalusmenglaensis Cao & Li, sp. n. (♂♀), Cosmophasisxiaolonghaensis Cao & Li, sp. n. (♂♀), Cytaeayunnanensis Cao & Li, sp. n. (♂), Gedeapinguis Cao & Li, sp. n. (♂), Gelotiazhengi Cao & Li, sp. n. (♂), Iciusbamboo Cao & Li, sp. n. (♂), Nannenusmenghaiensis Cao & Li, sp. n. (♂♀), Pancoriuslatus Cao & Li, sp. n. (♂), Phintellalepidus Cao & Li, sp. n. (♂♀), Phintellasancha Cao & Li, sp. n. (♂), Ptocasiusparaweyersi Cao & Li, sp. n. (♂♀), and Stenaelurillusfuscus Cao & Li, sp. n. (♂). Females of Baviacapistrata (C.L. Koch, 1846) and Phintellasuavisoides Lei & Peng, 2013 are described for the first time. DNA barcodes of 12 species were obtained for future use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qi Cao
- Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China; University of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China; Southeast Asia Biodiversity Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Menglun, Mengla, Yunnan 666303, China
| | - Shuqiang Li
- Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Marek Żabka
- Department of Zoology, University of Natural Sciences and Humanities, 08-110 Siedlce, Poland
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29
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Henrard A, Jocqué R. Morphological and molecular evidence for new genera in the Afrotropical Cteninae (Araneae, Ctenidae) complex. Zool J Linn Soc 2016. [DOI: 10.1111/zoj.12461] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Arnaud Henrard
- Section Invertebrates Non-insects; Royal Museum for Central Africa; Leuvensesteenweg 13 3080 Tervuren Belgium
- Earth and Life Institute; Biodiversity Research Center; Université Catholique de Louvain; Pl. Croix du Sud, 1-4 1348 Louvain la Neuve Belgium
| | - Rudy Jocqué
- Section Invertebrates Non-insects; Royal Museum for Central Africa; Leuvensesteenweg 13 3080 Tervuren Belgium
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30
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Zhang X, Zhao Z, Zheng G, Li S. Nine new species of the spider genus Pireneitega Kishida, 1955 (Agelenidae, Coelotinae) from Xinjiang, China. Zookeys 2016:49-74. [PMID: 27551187 PMCID: PMC4978079 DOI: 10.3897/zookeys.601.7893] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2016] [Accepted: 06/03/2016] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Nine new Pireneitega species collected from Xinjiang, China are described as new to science: Pireneitega burqinensis sp. n. (♂♀), Pireneitega fuyunensis sp. n. (♂♀), Pireneitega gongliuensis sp. n. (♂♀), Pireneitega huochengensis sp. n. (♂♀), Pireneitega lini sp. n. (♀), Pireneitega liui sp. n. (♂♀), Pireneitega wensuensis sp. n. (♂), Pireneitega wui sp. n. (♂) and Pireneitega yaoi sp. n. (♀). DNA barcodes were obtained for all these species for future use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoqing Zhang
- College of Life Sciences, Shenyang Normal University, Shenyang, Liaoning 110034, China
| | - Zhe Zhao
- Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Guo Zheng
- College of Life Sciences, Shenyang Normal University, Shenyang, Liaoning 110034, China
| | - Shuqiang Li
- Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
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31
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Zhang X, Zhao Z, Zheng G, Li S. A further study of the spider genus Notiocoelotes (Araneae, Agelenidae) from Hainan Island, China. Zookeys 2016:75-87. [PMID: 27551188 PMCID: PMC4978080 DOI: 10.3897/zookeys.601.7698] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2016] [Accepted: 06/04/2016] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Two new Notiocoelotes species, Notiocoelotes maoganensis sp. n. (♂♀) and Notiocoelotes qiongzhongensis sp. n. (♂♀) are described from Hainan Island, China. In addition, the female of Notiocoelotes membranaceus Liu & Li, 2010 is described for the first time. DNA barcodes of three species treated in this paper were obtained for future use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoqing Zhang
- College of Life Sciences, Shenyang Normal University, Shenyang, Liaoning 110034, China
| | - Zhe Zhao
- Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Guo Zheng
- College of Life Sciences, Shenyang Normal University, Shenyang, Liaoning 110034, China
| | - Shuqiang Li
- Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
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32
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Dimitrov D, Benavides LR, Arnedo MA, Giribet G, Griswold CE, Scharff N, Hormiga G. Rounding up the usual suspects: a standard target‐gene approach for resolving the interfamilial phylogenetic relationships of ecribellate orb‐weaving spiders with a new family‐rank classification (Araneae, Araneoidea). Cladistics 2016; 33:221-250. [DOI: 10.1111/cla.12165] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/19/2016] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Dimitar Dimitrov
- Natural History Museum University of Oslo P.O. Box 1172 Blindern NO‐0318 Oslo Norway
| | - Ligia R. Benavides
- Department of Biological Sciences The George Washington University Washington DC 20052 USA
- Museum of Comparative Zoology & Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology Harvard University 26 Oxford Street Cambridge MA 02138 USA
| | - Miquel A. Arnedo
- Museum of Comparative Zoology & Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology Harvard University 26 Oxford Street Cambridge MA 02138 USA
- Departament de Biologia Animal and Institut de Recerca de la Biodiversitat (IRBio) Universitat de Barcelona Avinguda Diagonal 643 Barcelona 08071 Catalonia Spain
| | - Gonzalo Giribet
- Museum of Comparative Zoology & Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology Harvard University 26 Oxford Street Cambridge MA 02138 USA
| | - Charles E. Griswold
- Arachnology California Academy of Sciences 55 Music Concourse Drive, Golden Gate Park San Francisco CA 94118 USA
| | - Nikolaj Scharff
- Center for Macroecology, Evolution and Climate Natural History Museum of Denmark University of Copenhagen Universitetsparken 15 Copenhagen DK‐2100 Denmark
| | - Gustavo Hormiga
- Department of Biological Sciences The George Washington University Washington DC 20052 USA
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33
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Zhao Z, Li S. Papiliocoelotes gen. n., a new genus of Coelotinae (Araneae, Agelenidae) spiders from the Wuling Mountains, China. Zookeys 2016:33-50. [PMID: 27199603 PMCID: PMC4857037 DOI: 10.3897/zookeys.585.8007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2016] [Accepted: 04/03/2016] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
One new genus of the spider subfamily Coelotinae, Papiliocoelotesgen. n., with five new species is described for both sexes: Papiliocoelotesguanyinensissp. n., Papiliocoelotesguitangensissp. n., Papiliocoelotesjiepingensissp. n., Papiliocoelotesmeiyuensissp. n., Papiliocoelotesyezhouensissp. n. All new species were collected from caves in the Wuling Mountains of Hubei and Hunan Provinces, China. DNA barcodes were obtained for future use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhe Zhao
- Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China; University of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Shuqiang Li
- Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
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34
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Wu Y, Wang C, Zheng G, Li S. Three new species of the genus Leptonetela from Greece (Araneae, Leptonetidae). Zookeys 2016:23-35. [PMID: 27110148 PMCID: PMC4829677 DOI: 10.3897/zookeys.569.6921] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2015] [Accepted: 01/28/2016] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Three new species of the spider genus Leptonetela collected from caves in Greece are described: Leptonetela arvanitidisi sp. n. (male & female), Leptonetela paragamiani sp. n. (male & female) and Leptonetela penevi sp. n. (male & female). Detailed illustrations of the new species are provided. DNA barcodes were obtained for future use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi Wu
- College of Life Science, Shenyang Normal University, Shenyang 110034, China
| | - Chunxia Wang
- Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Guo Zheng
- College of Life Science, Shenyang Normal University, Shenyang 110034, China
| | - Shuqiang Li
- Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
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35
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Chen L, Zhao Z, Li S. Six new species of the spider genus Spiricoelotes species (Araneae, Agelenidae) from caves in Jiangxi, China. Zookeys 2016:1-19. [PMID: 27006612 PMCID: PMC4768362 DOI: 10.3897/zookeys.561.6965] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2015] [Accepted: 12/21/2015] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Six new species of the spider genus Spiricoelotes Wang, 2002 are described, Spiricoelotesanshiensis Chen & Li, sp. n. (♂♀), Spiricoeloteschufengensis Chen & Li, sp. n. (♂♀), Spiricoelotesnansheensis Chen & Li, sp. n. (♂♀), Spiricoelotestaipingensis Chen & Li, sp. n. (♂♀), Spiricoelotesxianheensis Chen & Li, sp. n. (♂♀) and Spiricoelotesxiongxinensis Chen & Li, sp. n. (♀). All new species were collected from caves in Jiangxi Province, China.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lu Chen
- Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China; College of Life Sciences, Hebei University, Baoding, Hebei 071002, China
| | - Zhe Zhao
- Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Shuqiang Li
- Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
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36
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Abstract
This catalogue lists 1,084 species of spiders (three identified to genus only) in 311 genera from 53 families currently recorded from Texas and is based on the "Bibliography of Texas Spiders" published by Bea Vogel in 1970. The online list of species can be found at http://pecanspiders.tamu.edu/spidersoftexas.htm. Many taxonomic revisions have since been published, particularly in the families Araneidae, Gnaphosidae and Leptonetidae. Many genera in other families have been revised. The Anyphaenidae, Ctenidae, Hahniidae, Nesticidae, Sicariidae and Tetragnathidae were also revised. Several families have been added and others split up. Several genera of Corinnidae were transferred to Phrurolithidae and Trachelidae. Two genera from Miturgidae were transferred to Eutichuridae. Zoridae was synonymized under Miturgidae. A single species formerly in Amaurobiidae is now in the Family Amphinectidae. Some trapdoor spiders in the family Ctenizidae have been transferred to Euctenizidae. Gertsch and Mulaik started a list of Texas spiders in 1940. In a letter from Willis J. Gertsch dated October 20, 1982, he stated "Years ago a first listing of the Texas fauna was published by me based largely on Stanley Mulaik material, but it had to be abandoned because of other tasks." This paper is a compendium of the spiders of Texas with distribution, habitat, collecting method and other data available from revisions and collections. This includes many records and unpublished data (including data from three unpublished studies). One of these studies included 16,000 adult spiders belonging to 177 species in 29 families. All specimens in that study were measured and results are in the appendix. Hidalgo County has 340 species recorded with Brazos County at 323 and Travis County at 314 species. These reflect the amount of collecting in the area.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Allen Dean
- Department of Entomology, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, United States of America
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37
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Garrison NL, Rodriguez J, Agnarsson I, Coddington JA, Griswold CE, Hamilton CA, Hedin M, Kocot KM, Ledford JM, Bond JE. Spider phylogenomics: untangling the Spider Tree of Life. PeerJ 2016; 4:e1719. [PMID: 26925338 PMCID: PMC4768681 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.1719] [Citation(s) in RCA: 173] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2015] [Accepted: 01/31/2016] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Spiders (Order Araneae) are massively abundant generalist arthropod predators that are found in nearly every ecosystem on the planet and have persisted for over 380 million years. Spiders have long served as evolutionary models for studying complex mating and web spinning behaviors, key innovation and adaptive radiation hypotheses, and have been inspiration for important theories like sexual selection by female choice. Unfortunately, past major attempts to reconstruct spider phylogeny typically employing the "usual suspect" genes have been unable to produce a well-supported phylogenetic framework for the entire order. To further resolve spider evolutionary relationships we have assembled a transcriptome-based data set comprising 70 ingroup spider taxa. Using maximum likelihood and shortcut coalescence-based approaches, we analyze eight data sets, the largest of which contains 3,398 gene regions and 696,652 amino acid sites forming the largest phylogenomic analysis of spider relationships produced to date. Contrary to long held beliefs that the orb web is the crowning achievement of spider evolution, ancestral state reconstructions of web type support a phylogenetically ancient origin of the orb web, and diversification analyses show that the mostly ground-dwelling, web-less RTA clade diversified faster than orb weavers. Consistent with molecular dating estimates we report herein, this may reflect a major increase in biomass of non-flying insects during the Cretaceous Terrestrial Revolution 125-90 million years ago favoring diversification of spiders that feed on cursorial rather than flying prey. Our results also have major implications for our understanding of spider systematics. Phylogenomic analyses corroborate several well-accepted high level groupings: Opisthothele, Mygalomorphae, Atypoidina, Avicularoidea, Theraphosoidina, Araneomorphae, Entelegynae, Araneoidea, the RTA clade, Dionycha and the Lycosoidea. Alternatively, our results challenge the monophyly of Eresoidea, Orbiculariae, and Deinopoidea. The composition of the major paleocribellate and neocribellate clades, the basal divisions of Araneomorphae, appear to be falsified. Traditional Haplogynae is in need of revision, as our findings appear to support the newly conceived concept of Synspermiata. The sister pairing of filistatids with hypochilids implies that some peculiar features of each family may in fact be synapomorphic for the pair. Leptonetids now are seen as a possible sister group to the Entelegynae, illustrating possible intermediates in the evolution of the more complex entelegyne genitalic condition, spinning organs and respiratory organs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole L. Garrison
- Department of Biological Sciences and Auburn University Museum of Natural History, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, United States
| | - Juanita Rodriguez
- Department of Biological Sciences and Auburn University Museum of Natural History, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, United States
| | - Ingi Agnarsson
- Department of Biology, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT, United States
| | - Jonathan A. Coddington
- Department of Entomology, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washingtion, DC, United States
| | - Charles E. Griswold
- Arachnology, California Academy of Sciences, San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - Christopher A. Hamilton
- Department of Biological Sciences and Auburn University Museum of Natural History, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, United States
| | - Marshal Hedin
- Department of Biology, San Diego State University, San Diego, CA, United States
| | - Kevin M. Kocot
- Department of Biological Sciences and Alabama Museum of Natural History, University of Alabama—Tuscaloosa, Tuscaloosa, AL, United States
| | - Joel M. Ledford
- Department of Plant Biology, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, United States
| | - Jason E. Bond
- Department of Biological Sciences and Auburn University Museum of Natural History, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, United States
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Morphology and phylogeny of Vannella croatica n. sp. (Amoebozoa, Discosea, Vannellida). Eur J Protistol 2016; 52:65-72. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejop.2015.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2015] [Revised: 10/16/2015] [Accepted: 11/02/2015] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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39
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Chen L, Li S, Zhao Z. A new genus of Coelotinae (Araneae, Agelenidae) from southern China. Zookeys 2015:41-56. [PMID: 26798279 PMCID: PMC4714376 DOI: 10.3897/zookeys.541.6678] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2015] [Accepted: 11/03/2015] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
One new genus of the spider subfamily Coelotinae, Flexicoelotesgen. n., with five new species is described from southern China: Flexicoeloteshuyunensissp. n. (female), Flexicoelotesjiaohanyanensissp. n. (male and female), Flexicoelotesjinlongyanensissp. n. (male and female), Flexicoelotespingzhaiensissp. n. (female), Flexicoelotesxingwangensissp. n. (male and female).
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Affiliation(s)
- Lu Chen
- College of Life Sciences, Hebei University, Baoding, Hebei 071002, China
| | - Shuqiang Li
- Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Zhe Zhao
- Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
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40
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Edgar A, Bates C, Larkin K, Black S. Gastrulation occurs in multiple phases at two distinct sites in Latrodectus and Cheiracanthium spiders. EvoDevo 2015; 6:33. [PMID: 26500757 PMCID: PMC4618530 DOI: 10.1186/s13227-015-0029-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2015] [Accepted: 10/05/2015] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The longstanding canonical model of spider gastrulation posits that cell internalization occurs only at a unitary central blastopore; and that the cumulus (dorsal organizer) arises from within the early deep layer by cell-cell interaction. Recent work has begun to challenge the canonical model by demonstrating cell internalization at extra-blastoporal sites in two species (Parasteatoda tepidariorum and Zygiella x-notata); and showing in Zygiella that the prospective cumulus internalizes first, before other cells are present in the deep layer. The cell behaviors making up spider gastrulation thus appear to show considerable variation, and a wider sampling of taxa is indicated. RESULTS We evaluated the model in three species from two families by direct observation of living embryos. Movements of individual cells were traced from timelapse recordings and the origin and fate of the cumulus determined by CM-DiI labeling. We show that there are two distinct regions of internalization: most cells enter the deep layer via the central blastopore but many additional cells ingress via an extra-blastoporal ring, either at the periphery of the germ disc (Latrodectus spp.) or nearer the central field (Cheiracanthium mildei). In all species, the cumulus cells internalize first; this is shown by tracing cells in timelapse, histology, and by CM-DiI injection into the deep layer. Injection very early in gastrulation labels only cumulus mesenchyme cells whereas injections at later stages label non-cumulus mesoderm and endoderm. CONCLUSIONS We propose a revised model to accommodate the new data. Our working model has the prospective cumulus cells internalizing first, at the central blastopore. The cumulus cells begin migration before other cells enter the deep layer. This is consistent with early specification of the cumulus and suggests that cell-cell interaction with other deep layer cells is not required for its function. As the cumulus migrates, additional mesendoderm internalizes at two distinct locations: through the central blastopore and at an extra-blastoporal ring. Our work thus demonstrates early, cell-autonomous behavior of the cumulus and variation in subsequent location and timing of cell internalization during gastrulation in spiders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Allison Edgar
- />Kleinholtz Biological Laboratories, Department of Biology, Reed College, 3203 S.E. Woodstock Blvd, Portland, OR 97202 USA
- />Department of Biology, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708 USA
| | - Christine Bates
- />Kleinholtz Biological Laboratories, Department of Biology, Reed College, 3203 S.E. Woodstock Blvd, Portland, OR 97202 USA
- />Department of Internal Medicine, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708 USA
| | - Kay Larkin
- />Kleinholtz Biological Laboratories, Department of Biology, Reed College, 3203 S.E. Woodstock Blvd, Portland, OR 97202 USA
| | - Steven Black
- />Kleinholtz Biological Laboratories, Department of Biology, Reed College, 3203 S.E. Woodstock Blvd, Portland, OR 97202 USA
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41
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New species of Himalmartensus Wang & Zhu, 2008 (Araneae: Amaurobiidae) with the first description of a male from the Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve, Western Himalaya, India. JOURNAL OF ASIA-PACIFIC BIODIVERSITY 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.japb.2015.08.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
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42
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Chen L, Li S, Zhao Z. Five new Platocoelotes species (Araneae, Agelenidae) from caves in southern China. Zookeys 2015:1-18. [PMID: 26257557 PMCID: PMC4523751 DOI: 10.3897/zookeys.512.9989] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2015] [Accepted: 06/16/2015] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Five new Platocoelotes species are described based on both sexes collected from caves in southern China. They are: Platocoelotesluoisp. n. from Jiangxi, Platocoelotesqinglinensissp. n. from Yunnan, Platocoelotesshuiensissp. n. from Guizhou, Platocoelotestianyangensissp. n. from Sichuan and Platocoelotesxianwuensissp. n. from Hubei.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lu Chen
- College of Life Sciences, Hebei University, Baoding, Hebei 071002, China
| | - Shuqiang Li
- Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Zhe Zhao
- Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
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Machado DJ. YBYRÁ facilitates comparison of large phylogenetic trees. BMC Bioinformatics 2015; 16:204. [PMID: 26130249 PMCID: PMC4488063 DOI: 10.1186/s12859-015-0642-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2015] [Accepted: 06/06/2015] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The number and size of tree topologies that are being compared by phylogenetic systematists is increasing due to technological advancements in high-throughput DNA sequencing. However, we still lack tools to facilitate comparison among phylogenetic trees with a large number of terminals. RESULTS The "YBYRÁ" project integrates software solutions for data analysis in phylogenetics. It comprises tools for (1) topological distance calculation based on the number of shared splits or clades, (2) sensitivity analysis and automatic generation of sensitivity plots and (3) clade diagnoses based on different categories of synapomorphies. YBYRÁ also provides (4) an original framework to facilitate the search for potential rogue taxa based on how much they affect average matching split distances (using MSdist). CONCLUSIONS YBYRÁ facilitates comparison of large phylogenetic trees and outperforms competing software in terms of usability and time efficiency, specially for large data sets. The programs that comprises this toolkit are written in Python, hence they do not require installation and have minimum dependencies. The entire project is available under an open-source licence at http://www.ib.usp.br/grant/anfibios/researchSoftware.html .
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Affiliation(s)
- Denis Jacob Machado
- Inter-institutional Grad Program on Bioinformatics, University of São Paulo, Rua do Matão, tv. 14, no. 101, sala 137, São Paulo, 05508-090, Brazil.
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Haddad CR, Dippenaar-Schoeman AS. Diversity of non-acarine arachnids of the Ophathe Game Reserve, South Africa: Testing a rapid sampling protocol. KOEDOE: AFRICAN PROTECTED AREA CONSERVATION AND SCIENCE 2015. [DOI: 10.4102/koedoe.v57i1.1255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/01/2022]
Abstract
As part of the second phase of the South African National Survey of Arachnida (SANSA), field surveys were conducted in many degree-square grids throughout the country using a standardised rapid sampling protocol. This study reports on the arachnid diversity of the Ophathe Game Reserve (OGR) in northern KwaZulu-Natal, as found during a preliminary survey in June 2007 (mid winter) and a SANSA field survey in October 2008 (mid spring) in four representative habitats. The SANSA survey included seven sampling methods: pitfalls, beating, sweep-netting, litter sifting, hand collecting, night collecting and Winkler traps. A total of 282 species in six arachnid orders were collected during the two surveys, of which spiders were the most species-rich order (268 species in 47 families). The SANSA survey yielded 966 adult arachnids, representing six orders and 197 species, with a further 67 species represented only by immatures. Although adult arachnid abundance (n) differed considerably between the four habitats (range: 156–321), adult species richness (Sobs) was less variable (range: 65–85). These survey results are comparable with several longer-term surveys in the Savanna biome, and indicate that the SANSA sampling protocol can yield an impressive diversity of arachnids during a relatively short period of sampling, with a high level of coverage (> 0.8 for sites and most sampling methods) and moderate levels of sample completion for adults (> 0.55 for all sites), despite logistical and temporal challenges. Additional repetitions of the SANSA sampling protocol in other seasons will likely increase biodiversity knowledge of arachnids in OGR considerably.Conservation implications: The implementation of rapid sampling protocols in an atlas project is essential to generate a large volume of species-level data. The SANSA protocol is an efficient means for rapidly generating arachnid data, and in future will allow for an assessment of diversity patterns in degree-square grids across South Africa.
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Lopardo L, Hormiga G. Out of the twilight zone: phylogeny and evolutionary morphology of the orb-weaving spider family Mysmenidae, with a focus on spinneret spigot morphology in symphytognathoids (Araneae, Araneoidea). Zool J Linn Soc 2015. [DOI: 10.1111/zoj.12199] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Lara Lopardo
- Department of Biological Sciences; The George Washington University; 2023 G Street NW Washington DC WA 20052 USA
| | - Gustavo Hormiga
- Department of Biological Sciences; The George Washington University; 2023 G Street NW Washington DC WA 20052 USA
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Polotow D, Carmichael A, Griswold CE. Total evidence analysis of the phylogenetic relationships of Lycosoidea spiders (Araneae, Entelegynae). INVERTEBR SYST 2015. [DOI: 10.1071/is14041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Phylogenetic relationships within the superfamily Lycosoidea are investigated through the coding and analysis of character data derived from morphology, behaviour and DNA sequences. In total, 61 terminal taxa were studied, representing most of the major groups of the RTA-clade (i.e. spiders that have a retrolateral tibial apophysis on the male palp). Parsimony and model-based approaches were used, and several support values, partitions and implied weighting schemes were explored to assess clade stability. The morphological–behavioural matrix comprised 96 characters, and four gene fragments were used: 28S (~737 base pairs), actin (~371 base pairs), COI (~630 base pairs) and H3 (~354 base pairs). Major conclusions of the phylogenetic analysis include: the concept of Lycosoidea is restricted to seven families: Lycosidae, Pisauridae, Ctenidae, Psechridae, Thomisidae, Oxyopidae (but Ctenidae and Pisauridae are not monophyletic) and also Trechaleidae (not included in the analysis); the monophyly of the ‘Oval Calamistrum clade’ (OC-clade) appears to be unequivocal, with high support, and encompassing the Lycosoidea plus the relimited Zoropsidae and the proposed new family Udubidae (fam. nov.); Zoropsidae is considered as senior synonym of Tengellidae and Zorocratidae (syn. nov.); Viridasiinae (rank nov.) is raised from subfamily to family rank, excluded from the Ctenidae and placed in Dionycha. Our quantitative phylogenetic analysis confirms the synonymy of Halidae with Pisauridae. The grate-shaped tapetum appears independently at least three times and has a complex evolutionary history, with several reversions.
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Michalik P, Ramírez MJ. Evolutionary morphology of the male reproductive system, spermatozoa and seminal fluid of spiders (Araneae, Arachnida)--current knowledge and future directions. ARTHROPOD STRUCTURE & DEVELOPMENT 2014; 43:291-322. [PMID: 24907603 DOI: 10.1016/j.asd.2014.05.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2014] [Revised: 05/20/2014] [Accepted: 05/21/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
The male reproductive system and spermatozoa of spiders are known for their high structural diversity. Spider spermatozoa are flagellate and males transfer them to females in a coiled and encapsulated state using their modified pedipalps. Here, we provide a detailed overview of the present state of knowledge of the primary male reproductive system, sperm morphology and the structural diversity of seminal fluids with a focus on functional and evolutionary implications. Secondly, we conceptualized characters for the male genital system, spermiogenesis and spermatozoa for the first time based on published and new data. In total, we scored 40 characters for 129 species from 56 families representing all main spider clades. We obtained synapomorphies for several taxa including Opisthothelae, Araneomorphae, Dysderoidea, Scytodoidea, Telemidae, Linyphioidea, Mimetidae, Synotaxidae and the Divided Cribellum Clade. Furthermore, we recovered synspermia as a synapomorphy for ecribellate Haplogynae and thus propose Synspermiata as new name for this clade. We hope that these data will not only contribute to future phylogenetic studies but will also stimulate much needed evolutionary studies of reproductive systems in spiders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Michalik
- Allgemeine und Systematische Zoologie, Zoologisches Institut und Museum, Ernst-Moritz-Arndt-Universität, J.-S.-Bach-Straße 11/12, D-17489 Greifswald, Germany.
| | - Martín J Ramírez
- Museo Argentino de Ciencias Naturales "Bernardino Rivadavia" - CONICET, Av. Angel Gallardo 470, 1405 Buenos Aires, Argentina
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Ramírez MJ. The Morphology And Phylogeny Of Dionychan Spiders (Araneae: Araneomorphae). BULLETIN OF THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY 2014. [DOI: 10.1206/821.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 136] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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The morphology and relationships of the walking mud spiders of the genus Cryptothele (Araneae: Zodariidae). ZOOL ANZ 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jcz.2014.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Molecular phylogeny of the spider family Sparassidae with focus on the genus Eusparassus and notes on the RTA-clade and 'Laterigradae'. Mol Phylogenet Evol 2014; 74:48-65. [PMID: 24508702 DOI: 10.1016/j.ympev.2014.01.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2013] [Revised: 01/13/2014] [Accepted: 01/15/2014] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
The phylogeny of the spider family Sparassidae is comprehensively investigated using four molecular markers (mitochondrial COI and 16S; nuclear H3 and 28S). Sparassidae was recovered as monophyletic and as most basal group within the RTA-clade. The higher-level clade Dionycha was not but monophyly of RTA-clade was supported. No affiliation of Sparassidae to other members of the 'Laterigradae' (Philodromidae, Selenopidae and Thomisidae) was observed, and the crab-like posture of this group assumed a result of convergent evolution. Only Philodromidae and Selenopidae were found members of a supported clade, but together with Salticidae and Corinnidae, while Thomisidae was nested within the higher Lycosoidea. Within Sparassidae monophyly of the subfamilies Heteropodinae sensu stricto, Palystinae and Deleninae was recovered. Sparianthinae was supported as the most basal clade within Sparassidae. Sparassinae and the genus Olios were found each to be polyphyletic. Eusparassinae was not recovered monophyletic, with the two original genera Eusparassus and Pseudomicrommata in separate clades and only the latter clustered with most other assumed Eusparassinae, here termed the "African clade". Further focus was on the monophyletic genus Eusparassus and its proposed species groups, of which the dufouri-, walckenaeri- and doriae-group were confirmed as monophyletic with the two latter groups more closely related. According to molecular clock analyses, the divergence time of Sparassidae and Eusparassus was estimated with 186 and 70 million years ago respectively.
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