Predictors of cardiac and noncardiac mortality among 14,697 patients with coronary heart disease

Higher docosahexaenoic acid levels lower the protective impact of eicosapentaenoic acid on long-term major cardiovascular events

Introduction

Long-chain omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (OM3 PUFA) are commonly used for cardiovascular disease prevention. High-dose eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) is reported to reduce major adverse cardiovascular events (MACE); however, a combined EPA and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) supplementation has not been proven to do so. This study aimed to evaluate the potential interaction between EPA and DHA levels on long-term MACE.

Methods

We studied a cohort of 987 randomly selected subjects enrolled in the INSPIRE biobank registry who underwent coronary angiography. We used rapid throughput liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry to quantify the EPA and DHA plasma levels and examined their impact unadjusted, adjusted for one another, and fully adjusted for comorbidities, EPA + DHA, and the EPA/DHA ratio on long-term (10-year) MACE (all-cause death, myocardial infarction, stroke, heart failure hospitalization).

Results

The average subject age was 61.5 ± 12.2 years, 57% were male, 41% were obese, 42% had severe coronary artery disease (CAD), and 311 (31.5%) had a MACE. The 10-year MACE unadjusted hazard ratio (HR) for the highest (fourth) vs. lowest (first) quartile (Q) of EPA was HR = 0.48 (95% CI: 0.35, 0.67). The adjustment for DHA changed the HR to 0.30 (CI: 0.19, 0.49), and an additional adjustment for baseline differences changed the HR to 0.36 (CI: 0.22, 0.58). Conversely, unadjusted DHA did not significantly predict MACE, but adjustment for EPA resulted in a 1.81-fold higher risk of MACE (CI: 1.14, 2.90) for Q4 vs. Q1. However, after the adjustment for baseline differences, the risk of MACE was not significant for DHA (HR = 1.37; CI: 0.85, 2.20). An EPA/DHA ratio ≥1 resulted in a lower rate of 10-year MACE outcomes (27% vs. 37%, adjusted p-value = 0.013).

Conclusions

Higher levels of EPA, but not DHA, are associated with a lower risk of MACE. When combined with EPA, higher DHA blunts the benefit of EPA and is associated with a higher risk of MACE in the presence of low EPA. These findings can help explain the discrepant results of EPA-only and EPA/DHA mixed clinical supplementation trials.

A highly predictive cardiac positron emission tomography (PET) risk score for 90-day and one-year major adverse cardiac events and revascularization

BACKGROUND

With the increase in cardiac PET/CT availability and utilization, the development of a PET/CT-based major adverse cardiovascular events, including death, myocardial infarction (MI), and revascularization (MACE-Revasc) risk assessment score is needed. Here we develop a highly predictive PET/CT-based risk score for 90-day and one-year MACE-Revasc.

METHODS AND RESULTS

11,552 patients had a PET/CT from 2015 to 2017 and were studied for the training and development set. PET/CT from 2018 was used to validate the derived scores (n = 5049). Patients were on average 65 years old, half were male, and a quarter had a prior MI or revascularization. Baseline characteristics and PET/CT results were used to derive the MACE-Revasc risk models, resulting in models with 5 and 8 weighted factors. The PET/CT 90-day MACE-Revasc risk score trended toward outperforming ischemic burden alone [P = .07 with an area under the curve (AUC) 0.85 vs 0.83]. The PET/CT one-year MACE-Revasc score was better than the use of ischemic burden alone (P < .0001, AUC 0.80 vs 0.76). Both PET/CT MACE-Revasc risk scores outperformed risk prediction by cardiologists.

CONCLUSION

The derived PET/CT 90-day and one-year MACE-Revasc risk scores were highly predictive and outperformed ischemic burden and cardiologist assessment. These scores are easy to calculate, lending to straightforward clinical implementation and should be further tested for clinical usefulness.

Qi-Regulating and Blood Circulation-Promoting Therapy Improves Health Status of Stable Angina Pectoris Patients with Depressive Symptoms

Depressive symptoms have been found to be highly prevalent among patients with coronary heart disease (CHD) and seriously affect the patients' quality of life. However, most psychotropic drugs have warnings about potential side effects. Accordingly, safer effective alternatives are urgently demanded. Angina pectoris of CHD is considered as “chest stuffiness and heartache syndrome” in traditional Chinese medicine, with the major syndrome type named Qi stagnation and blood stasis. Qi-regulating and blood circulation-promoting therapy has increasingly shown unique advantages in CHD patients. This study investigated the efficacy of Xuefu Zhuyu decoction, a representative prescription of Qi-regulating and blood circulation-promoting therapy, on angina pectoris patients with depressive symptoms. Depressive symptoms were stratified at baseline in 30 patients with stable angina pectoris who participated in both baseline and 12-week follow-up studies. After performing a stratified analysis, the angina pectoris-specific health status and traditional Chinese medicine “chest stuffiness and heartache syndrome” were evaluated by self-reports using the associated questionnaire scales, respectively. We measured serum concentrations of serotonin, brain-derived neurotrophic factor, and ATP, which are associated with the development of depression. We found that the Xuefu Zhuyu granule significantly improved the angina pectoris-specific health status in patients after 12 weeks of treatment; specifically, it had a better curative effect on patients with depressive symptoms. Xuefu Zhuyu granule also significantly improved the chest stuffiness and heartache syndrome in patients with depressive symptoms (efficacy index is 61.24%, P < 0.05 versus baseline). Interestingly, Xuefu Zhuyu granule has been found to be more susceptible to improving ATP levels in patients with depressive symptoms, indicating that the improvement in serum ATP levels might account for the better efficacy of Xuefu Zhuyu granule in patients with depressive symptoms. Our data provide prospective evidence that Xuefu Zhuyu granule improves angina pectoris-specific health status through regulating Qi and promoting blood circulation. This trial is registered with ChiCTR-IOR-15006989.

Validation of the Intermountain Risk Score and Get with the Guidelines-Heart Failure Score in predicting mortality

Objective

The Intermountain Risk Score (IMRS) was evaluated for validation as a mortality predictor and compared with the American Heart Association’s Get With The Guidelines—Heart Failure (GWTG-HF) risk score in a rural heart failure (HF) population.

Background

IMRS predicts mortality in general populations using common, inexpensive laboratory tests, patient age and sex, but requires validation in patients with HF.

Methods

Individuals were selected from the GWTG-HF registry at Essentia Health. This included consecutive HF inpatients age ≥18 years admitted July 2017–June 2019. IMRS was calculated using sex-specific weightings of the complete blood count, basic metabolic profile, and age.

Results

A total of 703 individuals (mean age: 74.12, 44.38% female) were studied. The 30-day IMRS predicted 30-day mortality for both sexes (females n=312: OR=1.19 (95% CI 1.08 to 1.32) per +1, p<0.001; males n=391: OR=1.23 (CI 1.12 to 1.36) per +1, p<0.001). The GWTG-HF risk score (only available in n=300, 42.7%) was independent of IMRS for 30-day mortality (OR=1.11 (CI 1.06 to 1.16) per +1, p<0.001). Using thresholds in bivariate modelling, IMRS (high vs low risk, OR=8.25 (CI 2.19 to 31.09), p=0.002) and the GWTG-HF score (tertile 3 vs 1: OR=2.18 (CI 0.84 to 5.68), p=0.11) independently predicted mortality. In multivariable analyses including covariables, IMRS (high vs low risk: OR=6.69 (CI 1.75 to 25.60), p=0.005) and the GWTG-HF score (tertile 3 vs 1: OR=2.62 (CI 0.96 to 7.12), p=0.06) remained predictors of mortality. Results were similar for 1-year mortality.

Conclusions

The IMRS and GWTG-HF scores predicted mortality of patients with HF in a large rural healthcare system. Future study of these scores as initial clinical risk estimators for evaluating their utility in improving patient health outcomes and increasing cost effectiveness is warranted.

Causes and Predictors of Death in Patients With Coronary Heart Disease (from the Heart and Soul Study)

Although the prevalence of coronary heart disease (CHD) in the United States has increased during the past 25 years, cardiovascular mortality has decreased due to advances in CHD therapy and prevention. We sought to determine the proportion of patients with CHD who die from cardiovascular versus noncardiovascular causes and the causes and predictors of death, in a cohort of patients with CHD. The Heart and Soul Study enrolled 1,024 participants with stable CHD from 2000 to 2002 and followed them for 10 years. Causes of mortality were assigned based on detailed review of medical records, death certificates, and coroner reports by blinded adjudicators. During 7,680 person-years of follow-up, 401 participants died. Of these deaths, 42.4% were cardiovascular and 54.4% were noncardiovascular. Myocardial infarction, stroke, and sudden death accounted for 72% of cardiovascular deaths. Cancer, pneumonia, and sepsis accounted for 67% of noncardiovascular deaths. Independent predictors of cardiac mortality were older age, inducible ischemia on stress echocardiography, higher heart rate at rest, smoking, lower hemoglobin, and higher N-terminal pro-brain natriuretic peptide (all p values <0.05); independent predictors of noncardiac mortality included older age, inducible ischemia, higher heart rate, lower exercise capacity, and nonuse of statins (all p values <0.05). In conclusion, mortality in this cohort was more frequently due to noncardiovascular causes, and predictors of noncardiovascular mortality included factors traditionally associated with cardiovascular mortality.

Usefulness of HATCH score in the prediction of new-onset atrial fibrillation for Asians

The HATCH score (hypertension <1 point>, age >75 years <1 point>, stroke or transient ischemic attack <2 points>, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease <1 point>, and heart failure <2 points>) was reported to be useful for predicting the progression of atrial fibrillation (AF) from paroxysmal to persistent or permanent AF for patients who participated in the Euro Heart Survey. The goal of the current study was to investigate whether the HATCH score was a useful scheme in predicting new-onset AF. Furthermore, we aimed to use the HATCH scoring system to estimate the individual risk in developing AF for patients with different comorbidities. We used the "Taiwan National Health Insurance Research Database." From January 1, 2000, to December 31, 2001, a total of 670,804 patients older than 20 years old and who had no history of cardiac arrhythmias were enrolled. According to the calculation rule of the HATCH score, 599,780 (score 0), 46,661 (score 1), 12,892 (score 2), 7456 (score 3), 2944 (score 4), 802 (score 5), 202 (score 6), and 67 (score 7) patients were studied and followed for the new onset of AF. During a follow-up of 9.0 ± 2.2 years, there were 9174 (1.4%) patients experiencing new-onset AF. The incidence of AF was 1.5 per 1000 patient-years. The incidence increased from 0.8 per 1000 patient-years for patients with a HATCH score of 0 to 57.3 per 1000 patient-years for those with a HATCH score of 7. After an adjustment for the gender and comorbidities, the hazard ratio (95% confidence interval) of each increment of the HATCH score in predicting AF was 2.059 (2.027-2.093; P < 0.001). The HATCH score was useful in risk estimation and stratification of new-onset AF.

[Risk factors for mortality in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease]

OBJECTIVE

To identify risk factors of mortality in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD).

DESIGN

A retrospective cohort study.

LOCATION

Primary care setting in Lleida, Spain.

PARTICIPANTS

2.501 patients older than 40 years with at least a spirometry in the 24 months prior to the beginning of the study were followed for 3 years.

MAIN MEASUREMENTS

The dependent variable was the overall mortality in the period 11/01/2010-10/31/2013; and the independents: spirometric parameters, severity (GOLD) and clinical variables. Their association with mortality was analyzed by calculating the adjusted odds ratio using a non-conditional logistic regression model.

RESULTS

The average age of 2.501 patients at the beginning of the study was 68.4 years (SD=11.6). 75.0% were males. 50.8% had a mild severity COPD, followed by moderate (35.3%), severe (9.4%) and very severe (4.4%). Mortality rate for the all period was 12.55%. The variables of the predictive model were: age, male sex, previous exacerbations, number of visits to primary care, comorbidity, smoking, severity of COPD (GOLD) and not receiving influenza vaccination, with an area under the ROC curve of 0.76.

CONCLUSIONS

This model, easy and quick to apply, would identify those patients at increased risk of mortality and who could benefit from preventive strategies to improve their survival.

Clinical characteristics and prognostic significance of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in patients with atrial fibrillation: results from a multicenter atrial fibrillation registry study

OBJECTIVES

Atrial fibrillation (AF) and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) are 2 common morbidities and often coexist. Studies have shown that COPD is a risk factor for cardiovascular disease, but the characteristics in patients with COPD and AF, as well as the impact of COPD on the outcomes of AF were lacking. The aim of present study was to analyze the clinical characteristics and to evaluate the association of COPD with 1-year outcomes in patients with AF.

DESIGN

Longitudinal observational study.

PARTICIPANTS

A total of 1975 consecutive patients with AF were registered. Patients were divided into COPD group and non-COPD group according to whether AF coexisted with COPD.

MEASUREMENTS

Outcome measures included all-cause mortality, stroke, and major adverse events (MAE) during 1-year follow-up.

RESULTS

A group of 227 (11.5%) patients had concomitant COPD. Compared with non-COPD patients, patients with COPD were older and tended to have other coexisting cardiovascular morbidities, and had a significantly higher percentage of smoking history. Anticoagulation with warfarin was adopted by only a few patients both with and without COPD. During 1-year follow-up, the all-cause mortality and major adverse event rate in the COPD group were significantly higher than that of non-COPD group (26.9% vs 12.3%, P < .001 and 25.6% vs 19.1%, P = .027, respectively), whereas the incidence of stroke in the 2 groups was comparable (7.9% vs 7.4%, P = .788). Moreover, the cause-specific mortality between the 2 groups was comparable. After multivariate adjustments, COPD was still an independent risk factor for both 1-year all-cause mortality [hazard rate (HR) = 1.491, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.110-2.002, P = .008] and cardiovascular mortality (HR = 1.595, 95% CI 1.071-2.376, P = .022), but not a risk factor for stroke (HR = 0.879, 95% CI 0.527-1.464, P = .620).

CONCLUSIONS

Anticoagulation treatment is inadequate in patients with AF and COPD. The presence of COPD in patients with AF is an independent risk factor for 1-year all-cause mortality and cardiovascular mortality but not a risk factor for stroke.

WITHDRAWN: Smoking cessation for the secondary prevention of coronary heart disease

BACKGROUND

Although the importance of smoking as a risk factor for coronary heart disease is beyond doubt, the speed and magnitude of risk reduction when a smoker with coronary heart disease quits are still subjects of debate.

OBJECTIVES

To estimate the magnitude of risk reduction when a patient with CHD stops smoking.

SEARCH METHODS

We searched the Cochrane Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL) , MEDLINE, EMBASE, Science Citation Index, CINAHL, PsychLit, Dissertation Abstracts, BIDS ISI Index to Scientific and Technical Proceedings, UK National Research Register from the start of each database. Sixty-one large international cohort studies of cardiovascular disease were identified, and contact made with authors to search for any unpublished results. The search was supplemented by cross-checking references and contact with various experts. Date of last search was April 2003.

SELECTION CRITERIA

Any prospective cohort studies of patients with a diagnosis of CHD, which include all-cause mortality as an outcome measure. Smoking status must be measured on at least two occasions to ascertain which smokers have quit, and followed-up for at least two years.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Eligibility and trial quality were assessed independently by two reviewers.

MAIN RESULTS

Twenty studies were included. There was a 36% reduction in crude relative risk (RR) of mortality for those who quit smoking compared with those who continued to smoke (RR 0.64, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.58 to 0.71). There was also a reduction in non-fatal myocardial infarctions (crude RR 0.68, 95% CI 0.57 to 0.82). Many studies did not adequately address quality issues, such as control of confounding, and misclassification of smoking status. However, there was little difference in the results for the six 'higher quality' studies, and little heterogeneity between these studies. This review was not able to assess how quickly the risk of mortality was reduced.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

Quitting smoking is associated with a substantial reduction in risk of all-cause mortality among patients with CHD. The pooled crude RR was 0.64 (95% CI 0.58 to 0.71). This 36% risk reduction appears substantial compared with other secondary preventive therapies such as cholesterol lowering which have received greater attention in recent years. The risk reduction associated with quitting smoking seems consistent regardless of differences between the studies in terms of index cardiac events, age, sex, country, and time period. However, relatively few studies have included large numbers of older people, women, or people of non-European descent, and most were carried out in Western countries.

Late-life dementia predicts mortality beyond established midlife risk factors

OBJECTIVES

to compare the mortality rates of elderly demented and nondemented subjects and the differential association of midlife risk factors with mortality according to dementia status.

DESIGN

: Prospective historical study.

SETTINGS

community based.

PARTICIPANTS

from the 10,059 male Jewish civil servants who participated in the Israel Ischemic Heart Disease study in the 1960s, the 1,713 who were evaluated for dementia in 1999/2000 and who were unequivocally classified as demented or nondemented.

MEASUREMENTS

: Midlife sociodemographic and cardiovascular risk factors, late-life dementia, and mortality.

RESULTS

over a period of 6 years, 718 (42%) subjects died. Of the 307 demented subjects, 71.8% died and of the 1,407 nondemented subjects, 35.4% died. Multivariate survival analyses showed that compared with subjects without dementia, demented subjects had a hazard ratio [HR] for mortality of 2.27 (95% confidence interval [CI] 1.92-2.68). Other risk factors associated with mortality were socioeconomic status (HR 0.94 [0.88-1.00]), higher systolic (HR 1.16 per 20 mm Hg [1.06-1.28 mm Hg]) and diastolic blood pressure (HR 1.15 per 10 mm Hg [1.06-1.25 mm Hg]), and ever smoking (HR 1.38 [1.18-1.61]). Midlife total cholesterol was not associated with mortality (1.01 per 40 mg/dL [0.93-1.10 mg/dL]). None of the interactions of the risk factors with dementia was significant.

CONCLUSIONS

dementia was associated with more than double the risk of mortality, but this increased risk did not reflect exacerbation by midlife sociodemographic and cardiovascular risk factors. Our findings suggest that the dementing process itself or its consequences may go beyond well-established midlife risk factors for mortality.

Diet and airway obstruction: a cross sectional study from the second Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey

BACKGROUND/AIMS

Several dietary factors, such as antioxidant vitamins, have potential roles in the development of obstructive lung diseases. However, the results of studies on the relationships between dietary factors and obstructive lung diseases are inconsistent. The aim of this study was to determine which nutrients are related to airway obstruction (AO) in the Korean population.

METHODS

We used data obtained as part of the Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES II) in 2001. Analysis was restricted to 1,005 adults who were 18 years of age and older, who had two or more acceptable spirometry curves, and who had participated in the nutrition examination survey. AO was defined as the ratio of forced expiratory volume in one second (FEV1) to forced vital capacity (FVC) of less than 0.7.

RESULTS

Of the 1,005 study subjects, 78 (7.8%) had AO. Statistically significant factors associated with AO were 55 years of age or older (p = 0.032), central obesity (p = 0.047), hypertension (p < 0.001), smoking of 20 pack-years or more (p < 0.001), low income (p < 0.001), and low dietary protein intake expressed as a ratio of protein to recommended dietary allowance for Koreans (p = 0.037). Multiple logistic regression analyses revealed four factors that were independently associated with AO: smoking of 20 pack-years or more (odds ratio [OR], 5.801; p < 0.001), hypertension (OR, 3.905; p < 0.001), low protein intake (OR, 0.992; p = 0.004), and low income (OR, 1.962; p = 0.018).

CONCLUSIONS

In the Korean NHANES, smoking, hypertension, and low income were related to AO. Among dietary factors, only low protein intake was associated with AO.

[Precipitating factors of mortality in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease patients with frequent exacerbations]

OBJECTIVE

To identify the main characteristics in patients with COPD exacerbation, capables to predict the short-term COPD mortality.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This is a case-control retrospective study of admitted patients with COPD to identify risk factors of mortality. The control group was constituted by alive patients after 6 months. The variables studied were clinical antecedents, comorbility, health and nutritional status, basal dyspnea, dependency, exacerbations, physical examination, pulmonary function, radiology, ECG, microbiology and treatment. Both groups were compared with the Chi-square and the T tests. The predictive capacity was analyzed with logistic regression for which the dependent variable was mortality.

RESULTS

125 patients were enrolled (44 exitus and 81 alive) (10 females and 115 males) with mean age of 74+10 years. No significant differences were found between groups in age, sex and disease severity. On the other hand, we found statistically significant differences in basal dyspnea (p<0,01), RCP levels (p<0,007), Hb (p<0,037) and platelets (p<0,041), physic activity (p<0,036), accessory muscles use (p<0,007), positive microbiological culture (p<0,013) and treatment with anticholinergic agents (p<0,029) and digoxin (p<0,039). However, none of these variables was able to predict mortality in the logistic regression analysis.

CONCLUSIONS

The usual data managed in the follow-up of COPD patients are not useful to identify short-term mortality predictors (6 months) during a hospital admittance. Only some variables that would represent a higher chronic inflammation and a lower exercise tolerance showed a statistical tendence in the dead patients group in a exacerbation of COPD.

COPD predicts mortality in HF: the Norwegian Heart Failure Registry

BACKGROUND

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and chronic heart failure (HF) are common clinical conditions that share tobacco as a risk factor. Our aim was to evaluate the prognostic impact of COPD on HF patients.

METHODS AND RESULTS

The Norwegian Heart Failure Registry was used. The study included 4132 HF patients (COPD, n = 699) from 22 hospitals (mean follow-up, 13.3 months). COPD patients were older, more often smokers and diabetics, less often on beta-blockers and had a higher heart rate. They were more often in New York Heart Association (NYHA) Class III or IV (COPD, 63%; no COPD, 51%), although left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) distribution was similar. COPD independently predicted death (adjusted hazard ratio [HR], 1.188; 95% CI: 1.015 to 1.391; P = 0.03) along with age, creatinine, NYHA Class III/IV (HR, 1.464; 95% CI: 1.286 to 1.667) and diabetes. beta-blockers at baseline were associated with improved survival in patients with LVEF < or =40% independently of COPD.

CONCLUSION

COPD is associated with a poorer survival in HF patients. COPD patients are overrated in terms of NYHA class in comparison with patients with similar LVEF. Nonetheless, NYHA class remains the strongest predictor of death in these patients.

Is Airway Inflammation in Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) a Risk Factor for Cardiovascular Events?

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is a very common cause of death in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Smoking is a well-described risk factor for both COPD and CVD, but CVD in patients with COPD is likely to be due to other factors in addition to smoking. Inflammation may be an important common etiological link between COPD and CVD, being well described in both diseases. It is hypothesized that in COPD a "spill-over" of local airway inflammation into the systemic circulation could contribute to increased CVD in these patients. Inhaled corticosteroids (ICS) have well-documented anti-inflammatory effects and are commonly used for the treatment of COPD, but their effects on cardiovascular endpoints and all-cause mortality have only just started to be examined. A recent meta-analysis has suggested that ICS may reduce all-cause mortality in COPD by around 25%. A case-controlled study specifically examined the effects of ICS on myocardial infarction and suggested that ICS may decrease the incidence of MI by as much as 32%. A large multicenter prospective randomized trial (Towards a Revolution in COPD Health [TORCH]) is now ongoing and will examine the effect of fluticasone propionate in combination with salmeterol on all-cause mortality.

Exceptional mortality prediction by risk scores from common laboratory tests

BACKGROUND

Some components of the complete blood count and basic metabolic profile are commonly used risk predictors. Many of their components are not commonly used, but they might contain independent risk information. This study tested the ability of a risk score combining all components to predict all-cause mortality.

METHODS

Patients with baseline complete blood count and basic metabolic profile measurements were randomly assigned (60%/40%) to independent training (N = 71,921) and test (N = 47,458) populations. A third population (N = 16,372) from the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey and a fourth population of patients who underwent coronary angiography (N = 2558) were used as additional validation groups. Risk scores were computed in the training population for 30-day, 1-year, and 5-year mortality using age- and sex-adjusted weights from multivariable modeling of all complete blood count and basic metabolic profile components.

RESULTS

Area under the curve c-statistics were exceptional in the training population for death at 30 days (c = 0.90 for women, 0.87 for men), 1 year (c = 0.87, 0.83), and 5-years (c = 0.90, 0.85) and in the test population for death at 30 days (c = 0.88 for women, 0.85 for men), 1 year (c = 0.86, 0.82), and 5 years (c = 0.89, 0.83). In the test, the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, and the angiography populations, risk scores were highly associated with death (P <.001), and thresholds of risk significantly stratified all 3 populations.

CONCLUSION

In large patient and general populations, risk scores combining complete blood count and basic metabolic profile components were highly predictive of death. Easily computed in a clinical laboratory at negligible incremental cost, these risk scores aggregate baseline risk information from both the popular and the underused components of ubiquitous laboratory tests.

Factors affecting chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)-related costs: a multivariate analysis of a Swedish COPD cohort

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is an increasing public health problem, generating considerable costs. The objective of this study was to identify factors affecting COPD-related costs. A cohort of 179 subjects with COPD was interviewed over the telephone on four occasions about their annual use of COPD-related resources. The data set and explanatory variables were analysed by means of multivariate regression techniques for six different types of cost: societal (or total), direct (health care) and indirect (productivity), and three subcomponents of direct costs-hospitalisation, outpatient and medication. Poor lung function, dyspnoea and asthma were independently associated with higher costs. Poor lung function (severity of COPD) significantly increased all six examined cost types. Dyspnoea (breathing problems) also increased costs, though to a varying extent. The presence of reported asthma increased total, direct, outpatient and medication costs. Poor lung function and, to a lesser extent, extent of dyspnoea and concomitant asthma, were all strongly associated with higher COPD-related costs. Strong efforts should be made to prevent the progression of COPD and its symptoms.

Antiarrhythmic Therapy in Elderly Persons: A Device‐Based Approach

The management of ventricular arrhythmias in elderly persons has undergone a dramatic evolution over the past 10 years. Although life-threatening arrhythmias in elderly persons have been traditionally managed with a variety of pharmacologic agents, this population presents special challenges from pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic perspectives. Drug absorption, distribution, metabolism, and efficacy are often altered in elderly patients, resulting in a substantially narrowed therapeutic window. Nonpharmacologic therapy for ventricular arrhythmias has the advantage of not being subject to changes in metabolism, and due to recent technological advances in transvenous lead design as well as improved programming flexibility and reduction in device size, device-based therapy for malignant ventricular arrhythmias has become more attractive for use in elderly patients. Several recent studies have suggested that device-based therapy provides superior protection from malignant arrhythmias for both primary and secondary prevention indications. The majority of these studies suggest that the benefits of device-based therapy are conferred to patients independent of age. In addition, the complication rate of such therapy appears to be independent of age.

COPD and incident cardiovascular disease hospitalizations and mortality: Kaiser Permanente Medical Care Program

STUDY OBJECTIVES

To determine the relationship between diagnosed and treated COPD and the incidence of cardiovascular disease (CVD) hospitalization and mortality.

DESIGN

Retrospective matched cohort study.

SETTING

Northern California Kaiser Permanente Medical Care Program (KPNC), a comprehensive prepaid integrated health-care system.

PATIENTS OR PARTICIPANTS

Case patients (n = 45,966) were all KPNC members with COPD who were identified during a 4-year period from January 1996 through December 1999. An equal number of control subjects without COPD were selected from KPNC membership and were matched for gender, year of birth, and length of KPNC membership.

MEASUREMENTS AND RESULTS

Follow-up conducted for hospitalization and mortality from CVD end points through December 31, 2000. CVD study end points included cardiac arrhythmias, angina pectoris, acute myocardial infarction, congestive heart failure (CHF), stroke, pulmonary embolism, all of the aforementioned study end points combined, other CVD, and all CVD end points. The mean follow-up time was 2.75 years for case patients and 2.99 years for control subjects. The risk of hospitalization was higher in COPD case patients than in control subjects for all CVD hospitalization and mortality end points. The relative risk (RR) for hospitalization for the composite measure of all study end points was 2.09 (95% confidence interval [CI], 1.99 to 2.20) after adjustment for gender, preexisting CVD study end points, hypertension, hyperlipidemia, and diabetes, and ranged from 1.33 (stroke) to 3.75 (CHF). The adjusted RR for mortality for the composite measure of all study end points was 1.68 (95% CI, 1.50 to 1.88), ranging from 1.25 (stroke) to 3.53 (CHF). Younger patients (ie, age < 65 years) and female patients had higher risks than older and male participants.

CONCLUSIONS

COPD was a predictor of CVD hospitalization and mortality over an average follow-up time of nearly 3 years. The finding of a stronger relationship of COPD to CVD outcomes in patients < 65 years of age suggests that CVD risk should be monitored and treated with particular care in younger adults with COPD.

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease as a predictor of mortality in patients undergoing percutaneous coronary intervention

Previous studies have shown that patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) who undergo surgical revascularization have higher in-hospital mortality rates. Limited data are available on the outcomes of patients with COPD undergoing percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI). Our study evaluated the association between COPD and in-hospital and long-term mortality in patients undergoing PCI. We studied 10,994 patients who underwent PCI from 1997 to 2003 at our institution (1,117 with and 9,877 without COPD). A patient was considered to have COPD if it was listed as a co-morbid condition in our database. The primary end point was all-cause mortality. Cox logistic regression models were used to determine whether COPD was an independent predictor of all-cause mortality after PCI. The mean age of the study population was 64 years, and 70.2% were men. Significantly more patients with COPD died in hospital (2.9% vs 1.2%, p <0.0001). The median follow-up was 33 months; 89.6% of patients without COPD versus 75.6% of patients with COPD (log-rank 280, degree of freedom 1, p <0.0001) were alive at the end of the follow-up. After adjusting for other variables known to increase mortality, COPD was a significant independent predictor of in-hospital death (odds ratio 2.51, 95% confidence interval 1.45 to 4.35, p = 0.001) and long-term mortality (hazard ratio 2.16, 95% confidence interval 1.81 to 2.56, p <0.0001) after PCI. In conclusion, patients with a history of COPD have higher in-hospital and long-term mortality rates than those without COPD after PCI.

Intensive lifestyle modification: impact on cardiovascular disease risk factors in subjects with and without clinical cardiovascular disease

Intensive lifestyle modification programs are intended to stabilize or promote regression of coronary artery disease; however, clinical response is often nonuniform, complicating appropriate utilization of resources and prediction of outcome. This study assessed physiological and psychological benefits to 72 persons participating in a prospective, nonrandomized, four-component lifestyle change program and compared response between patients with clinical cardiovascular disease (CVD) and patients with elevated risk factors for CVD but without clinical manifestations of disease. Subjects entering the program due to elevated risk factor levels alone demonstrated equal or greater benefit, in terms of improvement in primary CVD risk factors and reduction in measures of coronary disease risk developed in the Framingham Heart Study, than those with clinical CVD. These findings suggest that intensive lifestyle change programs may be important for primary prevention in individuals at increased risk of CVD.

Chest pain in patients with cardiac and noncardiac disease

OBJECTIVE

To describe factors influencing chest pain expression in patients with cardiac or noncardiac disease.

METHODS

The authors conducted a case presentation and review of literature.

RESULTS

Causes of chest pain are diverse. Psychologic factors influence chest pain expression commonly in patients with or without cardiac disease.

CONCLUSIONS

Physicians and other therapists must be aware of psychologic influences on chest pain expression to provide optimal treatment to their patients.

Losing harmonic stability of arterial pulse in terminally ill patients

OBJECTIVE

To measure the coefficient of variation of the harmonic magnitude (HCV) of the radial arterial pulse before death of cancer patients.

METHODS

We non-invasively recorded the radical arterial pulse of 21 end-stage cancer patients, 31 healthy subjects, and 47 outpatient department (OPD) patients. During the 2-week study, eight cancer patients expired.

RESULTS

There were no considerable differences in diastolic or systolic blood pressure between cancer patients and other subjects; however, all six HCVs were significantly higher in the cancer patients (P<0.05). Within the cancer patient group, the first and second HCV were notably higher in the patients that expired (P<0.05), and the first to fourth HCVs were significantly increased on their last day (P<0.05). In the control healthy subjects and the OPD group, the HCVs were below 5 and 8%, respectively. In the cancer patients, the third to sixth HCVs were higher than 15%. On the last day of the cancer patients that expired, even the first and second HCVs were higher than 15%.

CONCLUSIONS

During the dying process, the traditional diastolic and systolic blood pressure did not show significant changes; however, all the harmonic components gradually lost their stability. The HCVs, which increased first for the high-frequency components and then the low-frequency components, could quantitatively reflect the severity of different stages of illness.

Impact of carotid arterial narrowing on outcomes of patients with acute coronary syndromes

The present prospective observational study was conducted in 323 consecutive patients with acute coronary syndrome, 101 (31%) of whom were diagnosed with carotid arterial narrowing by ultrasonography. At follow-up, patients with carotid disease had a greater incidence of cardiovascular events than did those with normal carotid arteries. Outcomes of patients with concomitant carotid disease who underwent cardiac revascularization were similar to those who received conservative treatment.

Smoking cessation for the secondary prevention of coronary heart disease

BACKGROUND

Although the importance of smoking as a risk factor for coronary heart disease is beyond doubt, the speed and magnitude of risk reduction when a smoker with coronary heart disease quits are still subjects of debate.

OBJECTIVES

To estimate the magnitude of risk reduction when a patient with CHD stops smoking.

SEARCH STRATEGY

We searched the Cochrane Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL), MEDLINE, EMBASE, Science Citation Index, CINAHL, PsychLit, Dissertation Abstracts, BIDS ISI Index to Scientific and Technical Proceedings, UK National Research Register from the start of each database. Sixty-one large international cohort studies of cardiovascular disease were identified, and contact made with authors to search for any unpublished results. The search was supplemented by cross-checking references and contact with various experts. Date of last search was April 2003.

SELECTION CRITERIA

Any prospective cohort studies of patients with a diagnosis of CHD, which include all-cause mortality as an outcome measure. Smoking status must be measured on at least two occasions to ascertain which smokers have quit, and followed-up for at least two years.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Eligibility and trial quality were assessed independently by two reviewers.

MAIN RESULTS

Twenty studies were included. There was a 36% reduction in crude relative risk (RR) of mortality for those who quit smoking compared with those who continued to smoke (RR 0.64, 95% confidence interval 0.58 to 0.71). There was also a reduction in non-fatal myocardial infarctions (crude RR 0.68, 95% confidence interval 0.57 to 0.82). Many studies did not adequately address quality issues, such as control of confounding, and misclassification of smoking status. However, there was little difference in the results for the six 'higher quality' studies, and little heterogeneity between these studies. This review was not able to assess how quickly the risk of mortality was reduced.

REVIEWER'S CONCLUSIONS

Quitting smoking is associated with a substantial reduction in risk of all-cause mortality among patients with CHD. The pooled crude RR was 0.64 (95% CI 0.58 to 0.71). This 36% risk reduction appears substantial compared with other secondary preventive therapies such as cholesterol lowering which have received greater attention in recent years. The risk reduction associated with quitting smoking seems consistent regardless of differences between the studies in terms of index cardiac events, age, sex, country, and time period. However, relatively few studies have included large numbers of older people, women, or people of non-European descent, and most were carried out in Western countries.

Smoking cessation for the secondary prevention of coronary heart disease

BACKGROUND

Although the importance of smoking as a risk factor for coronary heart disease is beyond doubt, the speed and magnitude of risk reduction when a smoker with coronary heart disease quits are still subjects of debate.

OBJECTIVES

To estimate the magnitude of risk reduction when a patient with CHD stops smoking.

SEARCH STRATEGY

We searched the Cochrane Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL), MEDLINE, EMBASE, Science Citation Index, CINAHL, PsychLit, Dissertation Abstracts, BIDS ISI Index to Scientific and Technical Proceedings, UK National Research Register from the start of each database. Sixty-one large international cohort studies of cardiovascular disease were identified, and contact made with authors to search for any unpublished results. The search was supplemented by cross-checking references and contact with various experts. Date of last search was April 2003.

SELECTION CRITERIA

Any prospective cohort studies of patients with a diagnosis of CHD, which include all-cause mortality as an outcome measure. Smoking status must be measured on at least two occasions to ascertain which smokers have quit, and followed-up for at least two years.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Eligibility and trial quality were assessed independently by two reviewers.

MAIN RESULTS

Twenty studies were included. There was a 36% reduction in crude relative risk (RR) of mortality for those who quit smoking compared with those who continued to smoke (RR 0.64, 95% confidence interval 0.58 to 0.71). There was also a reduction in non-fatal myocardial infarctions (crude RR 0.68, 95% confidence interval 0.57 to 0.82). Many studies did not adequately address quality issues, such as control of confounding, and misclassification of smoking status. However, there was little difference in the results for the six 'higher quality' studies, and little heterogeneity between these studies. This review was not able to assess how quickly the risk of mortality was reduced.

REVIEWER'S CONCLUSIONS

Quitting smoking is associated with a substantial reduction in risk of all-cause mortality among patients with CHD. The pooled crude RR was 0.64 (95% CI 0.58 to 0.71). This 36% risk reduction appears substantial compared with other secondary preventive therapies such as cholesterol lowering which have received greater attention in recent years. The risk reduction associated with quitting smoking seems consistent regardless of differences between the studies in terms of index cardiac events, age, sex, country, and time period. However, relatively few studies have included large numbers of older people, women, or people of non-European descent, and most were carried out in Western countries.