Growth hormone, but not insulin, activates STAT5 proteins in adipocytes in vitro and in vivo

Growth hormone inhibits adipogenic differentiation and induces browning in bovine subcutaneous adipocytes

OBJECTIVE

It is well established that growth hormone (GH) has the ability to stimulate lipolysis. The effects of GH on adipocyte differentiation and browning have not been clearly described. Therefore, the present study aimed to elucidate the role of GH in the differentiation and browning of bovine subcutaneous adipocytes as well as its underlying molecular mechanisms.

METHODS

We first treated bovine subcutaneous preadipocytes with different concentrations (0, 10, 100, and 500 ng/mL) of GH for 8 days and measured lipid accumulation and gene expression. Afterward, we treated preadipocytes and mature adipocytes with 500 ng/mL GH and determined differentiation and browning-related indicators. Finally, we investigated the expression of STAT5B in both preadipocytes and mature adipocytes after GH treatment.

RESULTS

We demonstrated that GH inhibited lipid accumulation and decreased the expression levels of adipogenic key genes (SCD1, SREBP1, PPARγ, and CEBPα) during adipocyte differentiation. Moreover, we observed that the inhibitory effect of GH on the early stage of adipocyte differentiation (0-2 days) was stronger than that on the later stage of adipocyte differentiation (2-8 days). We also found that GH promoted the expression levels of browning-related genes such as uncoupling protein 1 (UCP1) in mature adipocytes. Concurrently, GH promoted mitochondrial biogenesis and increased the expression levels of mitochondrial biogenesis-related genes. In addition, GH promoted phosphorylation of signal transducers and activator of transcription 5 b (STAT5B) and contributed to translocation of STAT5B to nucleus. After blocking the expression of STAT5B protein, GH weakened the inhibition of adipogenic key genes and reduced the promotion of browning-related genes in bovine subcutaneous adipocytes.

CONCLUSIONS

GH can inhibit adipocyte differentiation and promote adipocyte browning by regulating STAT5B in bovine subcutaneous adipocytes.

Dynamic Regulation of GH-IGF1 Signaling in Injury and Recovery in Hyperoxia-Induced Neonatal Lung Injury

Prematurely born infants often require supplemental oxygen that impairs lung growth and results in arrest of alveolarization and bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD). The growth hormone (GH)- and insulin-like growth factor (IGF)1 systems regulate cell homeostasis and organ development. Since IGF1 is decreased in preterm infants, we investigated the GH- and IGF1 signaling (1) in newborn mice with acute and prolonged exposure to hyperoxia as well as after recovery in room air; and (2) in cultured murine lung epithelial cells (MLE-12) and primary neonatal lung fibroblasts (pLFs) after treatment with GH, IGF1, and IGF1-receptor (IGF1-R) inhibitor or silencing of GH-receptor (Ghr) and Igf1r using the siRNA technique. We found that (1) early postnatal hyperoxia caused an arrest of alveolarization that persisted until adulthood. Both short-term and prolonged hyperoxia reduced GH-receptor expression and STAT5 signaling, whereas Igf1 mRNA and pAKT signaling were increased. These findings were related to a loss of epithelial cell markers (SFTPC, AQP5) and proliferation of myofibroblasts (αSMA+ cells). After recovery, GH-R-expression and STAT5 signaling were activated, Igf1r mRNA reduced, and SFTPC protein significantly increased. Cell culture studies showed that IGF1 induced expression of mesenchymal (e.g., Col1a1, Col4a4) and alveolar epithelial cell type I (Hopx, Igfbp2) markers, whereas inhibition of IGF1 increased SFTPC and reduced AQP5 in MLE-12. GH increased Il6 mRNA and reduced proliferation of pLFs, whereas IGF1 exhibited the opposite effect. In summary, our data demonstrate an opposite regulation of GH- and IGF1- signaling during short-term/prolonged hyperoxia-induced lung injury and recovery, affecting alveolar epithelial cell differentiation, inflammatory activation of fibroblasts, and a possible uncoupling of the GH-IGF1 axis in lungs after hyperoxia.

Bromodomain and Extraterminal Inhibition by JQ1 Produces Divergent Transcriptional Regulation of Suppressors of Cytokine Signaling Genes in Adipocytes

The Janus kinase-signal transducer and activator of transcription (JAK-STAT) signaling pathway has cell-specific functions. Suppressors of cytokine signaling (SOCS) proteins are negative-feedback regulators of JAK-STAT signaling. STAT5 plays a significant role in adipocyte development and function, and bromodomain and extraterminal (BET) proteins may be involved in STAT5 transcriptional activity. We treated 3T3-L1 adipocytes with the BET inhibitor JQ1 and observed that growth hormone (GH)-induced expression of 2 STAT5 target genes from the SOCS family, Socs3 and Cish, were inversely regulated (increased and decreased, respectively) by BET inhibition. Chromatin immunoprecipitation analyses revealed that changes in STAT5 binding did not correlate with gene expression changes. GH promoted the recruitment of the BET protein BRD2 to the Cish, but not Socs3, promoter. JQ1 treatment ablated this effect as well as the GH-induced binding of ribonucleic acid polymerase II (RNA Pol II) to the Cish transcription start site. BRD2 knockdown also suppressed GH induction of Cish, further supporting the role of BRD2 in Cish transcriptional activation. In contrast, JQ1 increased the binding of activated Pol II to the Socs3 coding region, suggesting enhanced messenger RNA (mRNA) elongation. Our finding that JQ1 transiently reduced the interaction between the positive transcription elongation factor (P-TEFb) and its inhibitor hexamethylene bis-acetamide inducible 1 (HEXIM1) is consistent with a previously described off-target effect of JQ1, whereby P-TEFb becomes more available to be recruited by genes that do not depend on BET proteins for activating transcription. These results demonstrate substantially different transcriptional regulation of Socs3 and Cish and suggest distinct roles in adipocytes for these 2 closely related proteins.

Loss of DBC1 (CCAR2) affects TNFα-induced lipolysis and Glut4 gene expression in murine adipocytes

STAT5A (signal transducer and activator of transcription 5A) is a transcription factor that plays a role in adipocyte development and function. In this study, we report DBC1 (deleted in breast cancer 1; also known as CCAR2) as a novel STAT5A-interacting protein. DBC1 has been primarily studied in tumor cells, but there is evidence that loss of this protein may promote metabolic health in mice. Currently, the functions of DBC1 in mature adipocytes are largely unknown. Using immunoprecipitation and immunoblotting techniques, we confirmed that there is an association between endogenous STAT5A and DBC1 proteins under physiological conditions in the adipocyte nucleus that is not dependent upon STAT5A tyrosine phosphorylation. We used siRNA to knockdown DBC1 in 3T3-L1 adipocytes to determine the impact on STAT5A activity, adipocyte gene expression, and TNFα (tumor necrosis factor α)-regulated lipolysis. The loss of DBC1 did not affect the expression of several STAT5A target genes including Socs3, Cish, Bcl6, Socs2, and Igf1 However, we did observe decreased levels of TNFα-induced glycerol and free fatty acids released from adipocytes with reduced DBC1 expression. In addition, DBC1-knockdown adipocytes had increased Glut4 expression. In summary, DBC1 can associate with STAT5A in adipocyte nucleus, but it does not appear to impact regulation of STAT5A target genes. Loss of adipocyte DBC1 modestly increases Glut4 gene expression and reduces TNFα-induced lipolysis. These observations are consistent with in vivo observations that show loss of DBC1 promotes metabolic health in mice.

Identification of STAT target genes in adipocytes

Adipocytes play important roles in lipid storage, energy homeostasis and whole body insulin sensitivity. Studies in the last two decades have identified the hormones and cytokines that activate specific STATs in adipocytes in vitro and in vivo. Five of the seven STAT family members are expressed in adipocyte (STATs 1, 3, 5A, 5B and 6). Many transcription factors, including STATs, have been shown to play an important role in adipose tissue development and function. This review will summarize the importance of adipocytes, indicate the cytokines and hormones that utilize the JAK-STAT signaling pathway in fat cells and focus on the identification of STAT target genes in mature adipocytes. To date, specific target genes have been identified for STATs, 1, 5A and 5B, but not for STATs 3 and 6.

The role of JAK-STAT signaling in adipose tissue function

Adipocytes play important roles in lipid storage, energy homeostasis and whole body insulin sensitivity. The JAK-STAT (Janus Kinase-Signal Transducer and Activator of Transcription) pathway mediates a variety of physiological processes including development, hematopoiesis, and inflammation. Although the JAK-STAT signaling pathway occurs in all cells, this pathway can mediate cell specific responses. Studies in the last two decades have identified hormones and cytokines that activate the JAK-STAT signaling pathway. These cytokines and hormones have profound effects on adipocytes. The content of this review will introduce the types of adipocytes and immune cells that make up adipose tissue, the impact of obesity on adipose cellular composition and function, and the general constituents of the JAK-STAT pathway and how its activators regulate adipose tissue development and physiology. A summary of the identification of STAT target genes in adipocytes reveals how these transcription factors impact various areas of adipocyte metabolism including insulin action, modulation of lipid stores, and glucose homeostasis. Lastly, we will evaluate exciting new data linking the JAK-STAT pathway and brown adipose tissue and consider the future outlook in this area of investigation. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Modulation of Adipose Tissue in Health and Disease.

STAT1, NF-κB and ERKs play a role in the induction of lipocalin-2 expression in adipocytes

Lipocalin-2 (LCN2) is induced in conditions of obesity and Type 2 diabetes (T2DM). IFNγ and TNFα induce LCN2 expression in adipocytes in a manner that is dependent on transcription. The effects of these cytokines are additive. IFNγ induced STAT1 and TNFα induced NF-κB play a role in the induction of LCN2. In the LCN2 promoter, one NF-κB binding site and four STAT1 binding sites were identified by in silico and in vitro approaches. MAPK (ERKs 1 and 2) activation was required for the IFNγ and TNFα induction of LCN2 expression, but did not affect the nuclear translocation or DNA binding activity of STAT1 or NF-κB. The NF-κB binding site and the STAT1 binding sites we identified in vitro were confirmed by in vivo studies. Transfection of a LCN2 promoter/luciferase reporter construct confirmed acute activation by IFNγ and TNFα. Our studies identify mechanisms involved in the actions of cytokines secreted from immune cells in adipose tissue that induce LCN2 expression in conditions of obesity and T2DM.

Effects of insulin and IGF-I on growth hormone- induced STAT5 activation in 3T3-F442A adipocytes

BACKGROUND

Growth hormone (GH) and insulin signaling pathways are known important regulators of adipose homeostasis. The cross-talk between GH and insulin signaling pathways in mature adipocytes is poorly understood.

METHODS

In the present study, the impact of insulin on GH-mediated signaling in differentiated 3T3-F442A adipocytes and primary mice adipocytes was examined.

RESULTS

Insulin alone did not induce STAT5 tyrosine phosphorylation, but enhanced GH-induced STAT5 activation. This effect was more pronounced when insulin was added 20 min prior to GH treatment. The above results were further confirmed by in vivo study, showing that insulin pretreatment potentiated GH- induced STAT5 tyrosine phosphorylation in visceral adipose tissues of C57/BL6 mice. In addition, our in vitro results showed that IGF-I had similar potentiating effect as insulin on GH-induced STAT5 activation. In vitro, insulin and IGF-I had an additive effect on GH- induced MAPK activation.

CONCLUSION

These results indicate that both insulin and IGF-I specifically potentiated GH mediated STAT5 activation in mature adipose cells. These findings suggest that insulin and GH, usually with antagonistic functions, might act synergistically to regulate some specific functions in mature adipocytes.

Emerging roles of JAK-STAT signaling pathways in adipocytes

Twenty years ago, adipocytes were largely considered to be inert energy-storage depots. We now know that fat cells are highly insulin-sensitive with significant endocrine functions. Alterations in adipocyte development or function can contribute to metabolic disease, in particular type 2 diabetes. The current obesity epidemic that plagues many nations provides a strong rationale for understanding basic adipocyte biology. The JAK-STAT signaling pathway mediates the action of a variety of hormones that have profound effects on adipocyte development and function. In addition, adipocytes secrete hormones that utilize this signaling pathway. This review summarizes research on the expression and function of JAKs and STATs in adipocytes and highlights the roles of JAK-STAT-activating cytokines in adipose tissue.

Modulation and lack of cross-talk between signal transducer and activator of transcription 5 and Suppressor of cytokine signaling-3 in insulin and growth hormone signaling in 3T3-L1 adipocytes

OBJECTIVE

To examine the role of signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT) 5 and suppressor of cytokine signaling (SOCS)-3 in the cross-talk between growth hormone and insulin (INS) signaling in fat cells.

RESEARCH METHODS AND PROCEDURES

Fully differentiated 3T3-L1 adipocytes were exposed to INS, growth hormone (GH), or both of these growth factors, and the activation of STAT5 proteins and mitogen-activated protein kinase was examined using phospho-specific antibodies. The induction of SOCS-3 mRNA was assessed by Northern blot analysis. INS-stimulated glucose transport was also measured.

RESULTS

We observed that GH, not INS, induced STAT5 activation in adipocytes in a manner that was independent of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) activation or new protein synthesis. GH strongly induced SOCS-3 mRNA expression, whereas INS had a much less potent effect on SOCS-3 mRNA expression. Because SOCS-3 has been implicated in the attenuation of GH and INS signaling, we examined the cross-talk between these signaling pathways. GH pretreatment of adipocytes inhibited GH signaling. Similarly, INS pretreatment inhibited INS signaling. However, INS did not block the GH-induced activation of STAT5, and GH did not block the INS induction of ERK activity or of increased glucose uptake. We observed that neither new protein synthesis nor activation of ERKs 1 and 2 were required for the inhibition of GH signaling.

DISCUSSION

These results demonstrate that blocking the induction of the SOCS-3 protein has no effect on the attenuation of GH signaling and support recent studies suggesting that SOCS proteins have additional functions. In addition, these studies demonstrate that GH-induced SOCS-3 expression is insufficient to inhibit INS-induced glucose uptake in adipocytes.

Regulation of development and metabolism of adipose tissue by growth hormone and the insulin-like growth factor system

White adipose tissue plays a key role in the regulation of the energy balance of vertebrates. This tissue is also now recognized to secrete a variety of factors such as leptin, which is thought to be involved in the modulation of adipose mass. Unlike other tissues, adipose tissue mass has considerable capacity to expand. The review deals primarily on the regulation of development and metabolism of adipose tissue by growth hormone (GH) and the insulin-like growth factor (IGF) system, with a special focus on the pig. The anti-insulin effects of GH are well-documented in pigs as in other species. In vitro exposure of adipose precursor cells to GH leads to a decrease in differentiation of those cells in pigs, in contrast to data obtained in murine cell lines. In vivo treatment and prolonged in vitro incubation of adipose tissue or isolated adipocytes with GH result in a decrease in glucose transport and lipogenesis, especially at the level of the fatty acid synthase gene, resulting in a reduction of the lipid content and adipose tissue mass. The mechanism by which GH antagonizes insulin stimulation of lipogenesis is still unresolved, as it is not mediated by protein kinase A, protein kinase C and Janus kinase-2 at the signaling level, or upstream stimulatory factor 1 or sterol regulatory element binding protein-1 at the transcriptional level. GH is apparently the main regulator of IGF-I mRNA expression in adipose tissue, however, the effects of IGF-I on this tissue are rather unclear.

Effects of cardiotrophin on adipocytes

Cardiotrophin (CT-1) is a naturally occurring protein member of the interleukin (IL)-6 cytokine family and signals through the gp130/leukemia inhibitory factor receptor (LIFR) heterodimer. The formation of gp130/LIFR complex triggers the auto/trans-phosphorylation of associated Janus kinases, leading to the activation of Janus kinase/STAT and MAPK (ERK1 and -2) signaling pathways. Since adipocytes express both gp130 and LIFR proteins and are responsive to other IL-6 family cytokines, we examined the effects of CT-1 on 3T3-L1 adipocytes. Our studies have shown that CT-1 administration results in a dose- and time-dependent activation and nuclear translocation of STAT1, -3, -5A, and -5B as well as ERK1 and -2. We also confirmed the ability of CT-1 to induce signaling in fat cells in vivo. Our studies revealed that neither CT-1 nor ciliary neurotrophic factor treatment affected adipocyte differentiation. However, acute CT-1 treatment caused an increase in SOCS-3 mRNA in adipocytes and a transient decrease in peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARgamma) mRNA that was regulated by the binding of STAT1 to the PPARgamma2 promoter. The effects of CT-1 on SOCS-3 and PPARgamma mRNA were independent of MAPK activation. Chronic administration of CT-1 to 3T3-L1 adipocytes resulted in a decrease of both fatty acid synthase and insulin receptor substrate-1 protein expression yet did not effect the expression of a variety of other adipocyte proteins. Moreover, chronic CT-1 treatment resulted in the development of insulin resistance as judged by a decrease in insulin-stimulated glucose uptake. In summary, CT-1 is a potent regulator of signaling in adipocytes in vitro and in vivo, and our current efforts are focused on determining the role of this cardioprotective cytokine on adipocyte physiology.