Rate of phosphate release after photoliberation of adenosine 5'-triphosphate in slow and fast skeletal muscle fibers

A chemical kinetic model for Ca2+ induced spontaneous oscillatory contraction of myocardium

The Ca²⁺ induced Spontaneous Oscillatory Contraction (Ca-SPOC) of cardiac myofibrils oscillate with a period similar to resting heartbeat of several animal species, and its auto-oscillatory properties set the basic rhythm of cardiac contraction. To explain the dynamics of Ca-SPOC, the present paper constructs a novel chemical kinetical model based upon the cooperative behavior between the two heads of myosin II dimer, also considering the reaction-diffusion effect of ATP inside myocardial fibers. The simulation results show that the concentration of ATP inside myocardial fibers oscillates over time under some special conditions, together with the proportions of myosin II dimers in different states periodically changing with time, which contributes to produce the sustained oscillations of contractive tension. These results indicate that the SPOC of muscles may be partly due to chemical oscillation involved in the actomyosin ATPase cycle, which has been ignored by the previous theoretical studies.

In vivo epicardial force and strain characterisation in normal and MLP-knockout murine hearts

The study's objective is to quantify in vivo epicardial force and strain in the normal and transgenic myocardium using microsensors.Male mice (n = 39), including C57BL/6 (n = 26), 129/Sv (n = 5), wild-type (WT) C57  ×  129Sv (n = 5), and muscle LIM protein (MLP) knock-out (n = 3), were studied under 1.5% isoflurane anaesthesia. Microsurgery allowed the placement of two piezoelectric crystals at longitudinal epicardial loci at the basal, middle, and apical LV regions, and the independent (and/or concurrent) placement of a cantilever force sensor. The findings demonstrate longitudinal contractile and relaxation strains that ranged between 4.8-9.3% in the basal, middle, and apical regions of C57BL/6 mice, and in the mid-ventricular regions of 129/Sv, WT, and MLP mice. Measured forces ranged between 3.1-8.9 mN. The technique's feasibility is also demonstrated in normal mice following afterload, occlusion-reperfusion challenges.Furthermore, the total mid-ventricular forces developed in MLP mice were significantly reduced compared to the WT controls (5.9  ±  0.4 versus 8.9  ±  0.2 mN, p < 0.0001), possibly owing to the fibrotic and stiffer myocardium. No significant strain differences were noted between WT and MLP mice.The possibility of quantifying in vivo force and strain from the normal murine heart is demonstrated with a potential usefulness in the characterisation of transgenic and diseased mice, where regional myocardial function may be significantly altered.

Power output of skinned skeletal muscle fibres from the cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus)

Muscle samples were taken from the gluteus, semitendinosus and longissimus muscles of a captive cheetah immediately after euthanasia. Fibres were 'skinned' to remove all membranes, leaving the contractile filament array intact and functional. Segments of skinned fibres from these cheetah muscles and from rabbit psoas muscle were activated at 20°C by a temperature-jump protocol. Step and ramp length changes were imposed after active stress had developed. The stiffness of the non-contractile ends of the fibres (series elastic component) was measured at two different stress values in each fibre; stiffness was strongly dependent on stress. Using these stiffness values, the speed of shortening of the contractile component was evaluated, and hence the power it was producing. Fibres were analysed for myosin heavy chain content using gel electrophoresis, and identified as either slow (type I) or fast (type II). The power output of cheetah type II fibre segments was 92.5±4.3 W kg(-1) (mean ± s.e., 14 fibres) during shortening at relative stress 0.15 (the stress during shortening/isometric stress). For rabbit psoas fibre segments (presumably type IIX) the corresponding value was significantly higher (P<0.001), 119.7±6.2 W kg(-1) (mean ± s.e., 7 fibres). These values are our best estimates of the maximum power output under the conditions used here. Thus, the contractile filament power from cheetah was less than that of rabbit when maximally activated at 20°C, and does not account for the superior locomotor performance of the cheetah.

Millisecond-scale biochemical response to change in strain

Muscle fiber contraction involves the cyclical interaction of myosin cross-bridges with actin filaments, linked to hydrolysis of ATP that provides the required energy. We show here the relationship between cross-bridge states, force generation, and Pi release during ramp stretches of active mammalian skeletal muscle fibers at 20°C. The results show that force and Pi release respond quickly to the application of stretch: force rises rapidly, whereas the rate of Pi release decreases abruptly and remains low for the duration of the stretch. These measurements show that biochemical change on the millisecond timescale accompanies the mechanical and structural responses in active muscle fibers. A cross-bridge model is used to simulate the effect of stretch on the distribution of actomyosin cross-bridges, force, and Pi release, with explicit inclusion of ATP, ADP, and Pi in the biochemical states and length-dependence of transitions. In the simulation, stretch causes rapid detachment and reattachment of cross-bridges without release of Pi or ATP hydrolysis.

Time course and strain dependence of ADP release during contraction of permeabilized skeletal muscle fibers

A phosphorylated, single cysteine mutant of nucleoside diphosphate kinase, labeled with N-[2-(iodoacetamido)ethyl]-7-diethylaminocoumarin-3-carboxamide (P approximately NDPK-IDCC), was used as a fluorescence probe for time-resolved measurement of changes in [MgADP] during contraction of single permeabilized rabbit psoas fibers. The dephosphorylation of the phosphorylated protein by MgADP occurs within the lattice environment of permeabilized fibers with a second-order rate constant at 12 degrees C of 10(5) M(-1) s(-1). This dephosphorylation is accompanied by a change in coumarin fluorescence. We report the time course of P approximately NDPK-IDCC dephosphorylation during the period of active isometric force redevelopment after quick release of fiber strain at pCa(2+) of 4.5. After a rapid length decrease of 0.5% was applied to the fiber, the extra NDPK-IDCC produced during force recovery, above the value during the approximately steady state of isometric contraction, was 2.7 +/- 0.6 microM and 4.7 +/- 1.5 microM at 12 and 20 degrees C, respectively. The rates of P approximately NDPK-IDCC dephosphorylation during force recovery were 28 and 50 s(-1) at 12 and 20 degrees C, respectively. The time courses of isometric force and P approximately NDPK-IDCC dephosphorylation were simulated using a seven-state reaction scheme. Relative isometric force was modeled by changes in the occupancy of strongly bound A.M.ADP.P(i) and A.M.ADP states. A strain-sensitive A.M.ADP isomerization step was rate-limiting (3-6 s(-1)) in the cross-bridge turnover during isometric contraction. At 12 degrees C, the A.M.ADP.P(i) and the pre- and postisomerization A.M.ADP states comprised 56%, 38%, and 7% of the isometric force-bearing AM states, respectively. At 20 degrees C, the force-bearing A.M.ADP.P(i) state was a lower proportion of the total force-bearing states (37%), whereas the proportion of postisomerization A.M.ADP states was higher (19%). The simulations suggested that release of cross-bridge strain caused rapid depopulation of the preisomerization A.M.ADP state and transient accumulation of MgADP in the postisomerization A.M.ADP state. Hence, the strain-sensitive isomerization of A.M.ADP seems to explain the rate of change of P approximately NDPK-IDCC dephosphorylation during force recovery. The temperature-dependent isometric distribution of myosin states is consistent with the previous observation of a small decrease in amplitude of the P(i) transient during force recovery at 20 degrees C and the current observation of an increase in amplitude of the ADP-sensitive NDPK-IDCC transient.

Caged protein prenyltransferase substrates: tools for understanding protein prenylation

Originally designed to block the prenylation of oncogenic Ras, inhibitors of protein farnesyltransferase currently in preclinical and clinical trials are showing efficacy in cancers with normal Ras. Blocking protein prenylation has also shown promise in the treatment of malaria, Chagas disease and progeria syndrome. A better understanding of the mechanism, targets and in vivo consequences of protein prenylation are needed to elucidate the mode of action of current PFTase (Protein Farnesyltransferase) inhibitors and to create more potent and selective compounds. Caged enzyme substrates are useful tools for understanding enzyme mechanism and biological function. Reported here is the synthesis and characterization of caged substrates of PFTase. The caged isoprenoid diphosphates are poor substrates prior to photolysis. The caged CAAX peptide is a true catalytically caged substrate of PFTase in that it is to not a substrate, yet is able to bind to the enzyme as established by inhibition studies and X-ray crystallography. Irradiation of the caged molecules with 350 nm light readily releases their cognate substrate and their photolysis products are benign. These properties highlight the utility of those analogs towards a variety of in vitro and in vivo applications.

Physiological properties of human diaphragm muscle fibres and the effect of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

The contractile and actomyosin ATPase properties of single fibres were examined in human diaphragm muscle obtained from patients with and without chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Costal diaphragm biopsies were taken from five patients without evidence of COPD and from 11 age-matched individuals with varying degrees of the disease. Our aim was to establish whether changes in contractile properties of COPD diaphragm could be fully explained by the previously documented shift towards a greater proportion of type I myosin heavy chain isoform in COPD. The relative proportion of type I diaphragm fibres from non-COPD and COPD patients was measured by gel electrophoresis, and was negatively correlated with FEV(1) over the full range of values investigated. There was also significant atrophy of the type I fibre population in COPD diaphragms. Isometric tension was similar among the fibre types and between the COPD and non-COPD patients. The intrinsic energetic properties of diaphragm fibres were examined by monitoring the time-resolved actomyosin ATPase activity in COPD and non-COPD fibres that produced similar isometric forces. The isometric ATPase rate in COPD fibres was reduced to 50% of the rate in non-COPD fibres; hence, the cost of isometric contraction in type I and type IIA COPD fibres was reduced to between one-third and one-half of the tension cost calculated for non-COPD fibres. The rate of force development in type I COPD fibres was reduced to 50% of the rate seen in non-COPD type-I fibres. No difference in the rate of ATP consumption between COPD and non-COPD fibres was evident during isovelocity shortening. These data extend previous findings showing that aspects of breathing mechanics during progressive COPD are associated with remodelling of the diaphragm fibre-type distribution; on top of the increase in type I fibres there are fibre-specific reductions in force development rate (type I fibres) and ATPase rate that are consistent with the impairment of cross-bridge cycling kinetics.

Effect of strain on actomyosin kinetics in isometric muscle fibers

Investigations were conducted into the biochemical and mechanical states of cross-bridges during isometric muscle contraction. Rapid length steps (3 or 6 nm hs(-1)) were applied to rabbit psoas fibers, permeabilized and isometric, at either 12 degrees C or 20 degrees C. Fibers were activated by photolysis of P(3)-1-(2-nitrophenyl)-ethyl ester of ATP infused into rigor fibers at saturating Ca(2+). Sarcomere length, tension, and phosphate release were recorded-the latter using the MDCC-PBP fluorescent probe. A reduction in strain, induced by a rapid release step, produced a short-lived acceleration of phosphate release. Rates of the phosphate transient and that of phases 3 and 4 of tension recovery were unaffected by step size but were elevated at higher temperatures. In contrast the amplitude of the phosphate transient was smaller at 20 degrees C than 12 degrees C. The presence of 0.5 or 1.0 mM added ADP during a release step reduced both the rate of tension recovery and the poststep isometric tension. A kinetic scheme is presented to simulate the observed data and to precisely determine the rate constants for the elementary steps of the ATPase cycle.

Does phosphate release limit the ATPases of soleus myofibrils? Evidence that (A)M. ADP.Pi states predominate on the cross-bridge cycle

The ATPases (+/-Ca2+) of myofibrils from rabbit soleus (a slow muscle) and psoas (a fast muscle) have different Ea: -Ca2+, 78 and 60 kJ/mol and +Ca2+, 155 and 71 kJ/mol, respectively. At physiological temperatures, the two types of myofibrillar ATPase are very similar and yet the mechanical properties of the muscles are different (Candau et al. (2003) Biophys J 85: 3132-3141). Muscle contraction relies on specific interactions of the different chemical states on the myosin head ATPase pathway with the thin filament. An explanation for the Ea data is that different states populate the pathways of the two types of myofibril because the rate limiting steps are different. Here, we put this to the test by a comparison of the transient kinetics of the initial steps of the ATPases of the two types of myofibril at 4 degrees C. We used two methods: rapid flow quench ('cold ATP chase': titration of active sites, ATP binding kinetics, k(cat); 'Pi burst': ATP cleavage kinetics) and fluorescence stopped-flow (MDCC-phosphate binding protein for free Pi; myofibrillar tryptophan fluorescence for myosin head-thin filament detachment and ATP cleavage kinetics). We find that, as with psoas myofibrils, the most populated state on the cross-bridge cycle of soleus myofibrils, whether relaxed or activated, is (A)M.ADP.Pi. We propose a reaction pathway that includes several (A)M.ADP.Pi sub-states that are either 'weak' or 'strong', depending on the mechanical condition.

At physiological temperatures the ATPase rates of shortening soleus and psoas myofibrils are similar

We obtained the temperature dependences of the adenosine triphosphatase (ATPase) activities (calcium-activated and relaxed) of myofibrils from a slow muscle, which we compared with those from a fast muscle. We chose rabbit soleus and psoas because their myosin heavy chains are almost pure: isoforms I and IIX, respectively. The Arrhenius plots of the ATPases are linear (4-35 degrees C) with energies of activation for soleus myofibrils 155 kJ mol(-1) (activated) and 78 kJ mol(-1) (relaxed). With psoas myofibrils, the energies of activation were 71 kJ mol(-1) (activated) and 60 kJ mol(-1) (relaxed). When extrapolated to 42 degrees C the ATPase rates of the two types of myofibril were identical: 50 s(-1) (activated) and 0.23 s(-1) (relaxed). Whereas with psoas myofibrils the K(m) for adenosine triphosphate (activated ATPase) is relatively insensitive to temperature, that for soleus myofibrils increased from 0.3 microM at 4 degrees C to 66.5 microM at 35 degrees C. Our results illustrate the importance of temperature when comparing the mechanochemical coupling in different types of muscle. We discuss the problem of how to reconcile the similarity of the myofibrillar ATPase rates at physiological temperatures with their different mechanical properties.

Actomyosin energy turnover declines while force remains constant during isometric muscle contraction

Energy turnover was measured during isometric contractions of intact and Triton-permeabilized white fibres from dogfish (Scyliorhinus canicula) at 12 degrees C. Heat + work from actomyosin in intact fibres was determined from the dependence of heat + work output on filament overlap. Inorganic phosphate (Pi) release by permeabilized fibres was recorded using the fluorescent protein MDCC-PBP, N-(2-[1-maleimidyl]ethyl)-7-diethylamino-coumarin-3 carboxamide phosphate binding protein. The steady-state ADP release rate was measured using a linked enzyme assay. The rates decreased five-fold during contraction in both intact and permeabilized fibres. In intact fibres the rate of heat + work output by actomyosin decreased from 134 +/-s.e.m. 28 microW mg(-1) (n = 17) at 0.055 s to 42% of this value at 0.25 s, and to 20% at 3.5 s. The force remained constant between 0.25 and 3.5 s. Similarly in permeabilized fibres the Pi release rate decreased from 5.00 +/- 0.39 mmol l(-1) s(-1) at 0.055 s to 39% of this value at 0.25 s and to 19% at 0.5 s. The steady-state ADP release rate at 15 s was 21% of the Pi rate at 0.055 s. Using a single set of rate constants, the time courses of force, heat + work and Pi release were described by an actomyosin model that took account of the transition from the initial state (rest or rigor) to the contracting state, shortening and the consequent work against series elasticity, and reaction heats. The model suggests that increasing Pi concentration slows the cycle in intact fibres, and that changes in ATP and ADP slow the cycle in permeabilized fibres.

Mitochondrial respiration and Ca2+ waves are linked during fertilization and meiosis completion

Fertilization increases both cytosolic Ca(2+) concentration and oxygen consumption in the egg but the relationship between these two phenomena remains largely obscure. We have measured mitochondrial oxygen consumption and the mitochondrial NADH concentration on single ascidian eggs and found that they increase in phase with each series of meiotic Ca(2+) waves emitted by two pacemakers (PM1 and PM2). Oxygen consumption also increases in response to Ins(1,4,5)P(3)-induced Ca(2+) transients. Using mitochondrial inhibitors we show that active mitochondria sequester cytosolic Ca(2+) during sperm-triggered Ca(2+) waves and that they are strictly necessary for triggering and sustaining the activity of the meiotic Ca(2+) wave pacemaker PM2. Strikingly, the activity of the Ca(2+) wave pacemaker PM2 can be restored or stimulated by flash photolysis of caged ATP. Taken together our observations provide the first evidence that, in addition to buffering cytosolic Ca(2+), the egg's mitochondria are stimulated by Ins(1,4,5)P(3)-mediated Ca(2+) signals. In turn, mitochondrial ATP production is required to sustain the activity of the meiotic Ca(2+) wave pacemaker PM2.

Activation of striated muscle: nearest-neighbor regulatory-unit and cross-bridge influence on myofilament kinetics

We have formulated a three-compartment model of muscle activation that includes both strong cross-bridge (XB) and Ca(2+)-activated regulatory-unit (RU) mediated nearest-neighbor cooperative influences. The model is based on the tight coupling premise--that XB retain activating Ca(2+) on the thin filament. Using global non-linear least-squares, the model produced excellent fits to experimental steady-state force-pCa and ATPase-pCa data from skinned rat soleus fibers. In terms of the model, nearest-neighbor influences over the range of Ca(2+) required for activation cause the Ca(2+) dissociation rate from regulatory-units (k(off)) to decrease and the cross-bridge association rate (f) to increase each more than ten-fold. Moreover, the rate variations occur in separate Ca(2+) regimes. The energy of activation governing f is strongly influenced by both neighboring RU and XB. In contrast, the energy of activation governing k(off) is less affected by neighboring XB than by neighboring RU. Nearest-neighbor cooperative influences provide both an overall sensitization to Ca(2+) and the well-known steep response of force to free Ca(2+). The apparent sensitivity for Ca(2+)-activation of force and ATPase is a function of cross-bridge kinetic rates. The model and derived parameter set produce simulated behavior in qualitative agreement with steady-state experiments reported in the literature for partial TnC replacement, increased [P(i)], increased [ADP], and MalNEt-S1 addition. The model is an initial attempt to construct a general theory of striated muscle activation-one that can be consistently used to interpret data from various types of muscle manipulation experiments.

Characterization of the cross-bridge force-generating step using inorganic phosphate and BDM in myofibrils from rabbit skeletal muscles

The inhibitory effects of inorganic phosphate (P(i)) on isometric force in striated muscle suggest that in the ATPase reaction P(i) release is coupled to force generation. Whether P(i) release and the power stroke are synchronous events or force is generated by an isomerization of the quaternary complex of actomyosin and ATPase products (AM.ADP.P(i)) prior to the following release of P(i) is still controversial. Examination of the dependence of isometric force on [P(i)] in rabbit fast (psoas; 5-15 degrees C) and slow (soleus; 15-20 degrees C) myofibrils was used to test the two-step hypothesis of force generation and P(i) release. Hyperbolic fits of force-[P(i)] relations obtained in fast and slow myofibrils at 15 degrees C produced an apparent asymptote as [P(i)]-->infinity of 0.07 and 0.44 maximal isometric force (i.e. force in the absence of P(i)) in psoas and soleus myofibrils, respectively, with an apparent K(d) of 4.3 mM in both. In each muscle type, the force-[P(i)] relation was independent of temperature. However, 2,3-butanedione 2-monoxime (BDM) decreased the apparent asymptote of force in both muscle types, as expected from its inhibition of the force-generating isomerization. These data lend strong support to models of cross-bridge action in which force is produced by an isomerization of the AM.ADP.P(i) complex immediately preceding the P(i) release step.

Myosin motors: missing structures and hidden springs

High-resolution structures of the motor domain of myosin II and lower resolution actin-myosin structures have led to the "swinging lever arm" model for myosin force generation. The available kinetic data are not all easily reconciled with this model and understanding the final details of the myosin motor mechanism must await actin-myosin co-crystals. The observation that myosin can populate multiple states in the absence of actin has nonetheless led to significant insights. The currently known myosin structures correspond to defined kinetic states that bind weakly (K(d)>microM) to actin. It is possible that the myosin lever arm could complete its swing before strong binding to actin and force generation--a process that would correspond, in the absence of load, to a Brownian ratchet. We further suggest that, under load, internal springs within the myosin head could decouple force generation and lever arm movement.

Effects of sarcomere length and temperature on the rate of ATP utilisation by rabbit psoas muscle fibres

1. The steady state rate of ATP utilisation by single permeabilised fibres from rabbit psoas muscle immersed in silicone oil was measured using a linked enzyme assay that coupled ADP production to the oxidation of NADH.2. At sarcomere length 2.5 microm, at 10 degrees C, the rate of ATP utilisation in relaxing conditions was 6 +/- 1 microM s-1 (mean +/- S.E.M., n = 8 fibres); during isometric contraction it was 310 +/- 10 microM s-1 (mean +/- S.E.M., n = 11). Assuming a myosin active site concentration of 150 microM, these values correspond to rates of ATP utilisation per active site of about 0.04 and 2.1 s-1, respectively. 3. The rate of ATP utilisation in relaxing conditions was independent of sarcomere length in the range 2.5-4.0 microm. The rate of ATP utilisation during isometric contraction had a dependence on resting sarcomere length similar to that of isometric force in the range 2.5-4.0 microm, but was less strongly dependent on sarcomere length than was isometric force in the range 1.5-2.5 microm. 4. The rate of ATP utilisation in relaxing conditions had a Q10 of 2.5 in the temperature range 7-25 degrees C, but this increased to 9.7 in the range 25-35 degrees C, suggesting that some active force may have been generated in relaxing solution at temperatures above 25 degrees C. 5. The rate of ATP utilisation during isometric contraction had a Q10 of 3.6 throughout the temperature range 7-25 degrees C; this was similar to the Q10 for isometric force at low temperature (3.5 at 7-10 degrees C) but much larger than that for isometric force at higher temperature (1.3 at 20-25 degrees C). 6. Application of the NADH-linked assay to single muscle fibres in oil improves the effective sensitivity and time resolution of the method, and allows continuous measurements of the rate of ADP production during active contraction.

Link between the enzymatic kinetics and mechanical behavior in an actomyosin motor

We have attempted to link the solution actomyosin ATPase with the mechanical properties of in vitro actin filament sliding over heavy meromyosin. To accomplish this we perturbed the system by altering the substrate with various NTPs and divalent cations, and by altering ionic strength. A wide variety of enzymatic and mechanical measurements were made under very similar solution conditions. Excellent correlations between the mechanical and enzymatic quantities were revealed. Analysis of these correlations based on a force-balance model led us to two fundamental equations, which can be described approximately as follows: the maximum sliding velocity is proportional to square root of V(max)K(m)(A), where K(m)(A) is the actin concentration at which the substrate turnover rate is half of its maximum (V(max)). The active force generated by a cross-bridge under no external load or under a small external load is proportional to square root of V(max)/K(m)(A). The equations successfully accounted for the correlations observed in the present study and observations in other laboratories.

ATP consumption and efficiency of human single muscle fibers with different myosin isoform composition

Chemomechanical transduction was studied in single fibers isolated from human skeletal muscle containing different myosin isoforms. Permeabilized fibers were activated by laser-pulse photolytic release of 1.5 mM ATP from p(3)-1-(2-nitrophenyl)ethylester of ATP. The ATP hydrolysis rate in the muscle fibers was determined with a fluorescently labeled phosphate-binding protein. The effects of varying load and shortening velocity during contraction were investigated. The myosin isoform composition was determined in each fiber by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. At 12 degrees C large variations (three- to fourfold) were found between slow and fast (2A and 2A-2B) fibers in their maximum shortening velocity, peak power output, velocity at which peak power is produced, isometric ATPase activity, and tension cost. Isometric tension was similar in all fiber groups. The ATP consumption rate increased during shortening in proportion to shortening velocity. At 12 degrees C the maximum efficiency was similar (0.21-0.27) for all fiber types and was reached at a higher speed of shortening for the faster fibers. In all fibers, peak efficiency increased to approximately 0.4 when the temperature was raised from 12 degrees C to 20 degrees C. The results were simulated with a kinetic scheme describing the ATPase cycle, in which the rate constant controlling ADP release is sensitive to the load on the muscle. The main difference between slow and fast fibers was reproduced by increasing the rate constant for the hydrolysis step, which was rate limiting at low loads. Simulation of the effect of increasing temperature required an increase in the force per cross-bridge and an acceleration of the rate constants in the reaction pathway.

Regulation of contraction in striated muscle

Ca(2+) regulation of contraction in vertebrate striated muscle is exerted primarily through effects on the thin filament, which regulate strong cross-bridge binding to actin. Structural and biochemical studies suggest that the position of tropomyosin (Tm) and troponin (Tn) on the thin filament determines the interaction of myosin with the binding sites on actin. These binding sites can be characterized as blocked (unable to bind to cross bridges), closed (able to weakly bind cross bridges), or open (able to bind cross bridges so that they subsequently isomerize to become strongly bound and release ATP hydrolysis products). Flexibility of the Tm may allow variability in actin (A) affinity for myosin along the thin filament other than through a single 7 actin:1 tropomyosin:1 troponin (A(7)TmTn) regulatory unit. Tm position on the actin filament is regulated by the occupancy of NH-terminal Ca(2+) binding sites on TnC, conformational changes resulting from Ca(2+) binding, and changes in the interactions among Tn, Tm, and actin and as well as by strong S1 binding to actin. Ca(2+) binding to TnC enhances TnC-TnI interaction, weakens TnI attachment to its binding sites on 1-2 actins of the regulatory unit, increases Tm movement over the actin surface, and exposes myosin-binding sites on actin previously blocked by Tm. Adjacent Tm are coupled in their overlap regions where Tm movement is also controlled by interactions with TnT. TnT also interacts with TnC-TnI in a Ca(2+)-dependent manner. All these interactions may vary with the different protein isoforms. The movement of Tm over the actin surface increases the "open" probability of myosin binding sites on actins so that some are in the open configuration available for myosin binding and cross-bridge isomerization to strong binding, force-producing states. In skeletal muscle, strong binding of cycling cross bridges promotes additional Tm movement. This movement effectively stabilizes Tm in the open position and allows cooperative activation of additional actins in that and possibly neighboring A(7)TmTn regulatory units. The structural and biochemical findings support the physiological observations of steady-state and transient mechanical behavior. Physiological studies suggest the following. 1) Ca(2+) binding to Tn/Tm exposes sites on actin to which myosin can bind. 2) Ca(2+) regulates the strong binding of M.ADP.P(i) to actin, which precedes the production of force (and/or shortening) and release of hydrolysis products. 3) The initial rate of force development depends mostly on the extent of Ca(2+) activation of the thin filament and myosin kinetic properties but depends little on the initial force level. 4) A small number of strongly attached cross bridges within an A(7)TmTn regulatory unit can activate the actins in one unit and perhaps those in neighboring units. This results in additional myosin binding and isomerization to strongly bound states and force production. 5) The rates of the product release steps per se (as indicated by the unloaded shortening velocity) early in shortening are largely independent of the extent of thin filament activation ([Ca(2+)]) beyond a given baseline level. However, with a greater extent of shortening, the rates depend on the activation level. 6) The cooperativity between neighboring regulatory units contributes to the activation by strong cross bridges of steady-state force but does not affect the rate of force development. 7) Strongly attached, cycling cross bridges can delay relaxation in skeletal muscle in a cooperative manner. 8) Strongly attached and cycling cross bridges can enhance Ca(2+) binding to cardiac TnC, but influence skeletal TnC to a lesser extent. 9) Different Tn subunit isoforms can modulate the cross-bridge detachment rate as shown by studies with mutant regulatory proteins in myotubes and in in vitro motility assays. (ABSTRACT TRUNCATED)

The efficiency of contraction in rabbit skeletal muscle fibres, determined from the rate of release of inorganic phosphate

1. The relationship between mechanical power output and the rate of ATP hydrolysis was investigated in segments of permeabilized fibres isolated from rabbit psoas muscle. 2. Contractions were elicited at 12 degrees C by photolytic release of ATP from the P3 -1-(2-nitrophenyl) ester of ATP (NPE-caged ATP). Inorganic phosphate (Pi) release was measured by a fluorescence method using a coumarin-labelled phosphate binding protein. Force and sarcomere length were also monitored. 3. ATPase activity was determined from the rate of appearance of Pi during each phase of contraction. The ATPase rate was 10.3 s-1 immediately following release of ATP and 5. 1 s-1 during the isometric phase prior to the applied shortening. It rose hyperbolically with shortening velocity, reaching 18.5 s-1 at a maximal shortening velocity > 1 ML s-1 (muscle lengths s-1). 4. Sarcomeres shortened at 0.09 ML s-1 immediately following the photolytic release of ATP and at 0.04 ML s-1 prior to the period of applied shortening. The high initial ATPase rate may be largely attributed to initial sarcomere shortening. 5. During shortening, maximal power output was 28 W l-1. Assuming the free energy of hydrolysis is 50 kJ mol-1, the efficiency of contraction was calculated from the power output at each shortening velocity. The maximum efficiency was 0.36 at a shortening velocity of 0.27 ML s-1, corresponding to a force level 51 % of that in the isometric state. 6. At the maximal shortening velocity, only 10 % of the myosin heads are attached to the thin filaments at any one time.