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Beresewicz-Haller M. Hippocampal region-specific endogenous neuroprotection as an approach in the search for new neuroprotective strategies in ischemic stroke. Fiction or fact? Neurochem Int 2023; 162:105455. [PMID: 36410452 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuint.2022.105455] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2022] [Revised: 11/03/2022] [Accepted: 11/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Ischemic stroke is the leading cause of death and long-term disability worldwide, and, while considerable progress has been made in understanding its pathophysiology, the lack of effective treatments remains a major concern. In that context, receiving more and more consideration as a promising therapeutic method is the activation of natural adaptive mechanisms (endogenous neuroprotection) - an approach that seeks to enhance and/or stimulate the endogenous processes of plasticity and protection of the neuronal system that trigger the brain's intrinsic capacity for self-defence. Ischemic preconditioning is a classic example of endogenous neuroprotection, being the process by which one or more brief, non-damaging episodes of ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) induce tissue resistance to subsequent prolonged, damaging ischemia. Another less-known example is resistance to an I/R episode mounted by the hippocampal region consisting of CA2, CA3, CA4 and the dentate gyrus (here abbreviated to CA2-4, DG). This can be contrasted with the ischemia-vulnerable CA1 region. There is not yet a good understanding of these different sensitivities of the hippocampal regions, and hence of the endogenous neuroprotection characteristic of CA2-4, DG. However, this region is widely reported to have properties distinct from CA1, and capable of generating resistance to an I/R episode. These include activation of neurotrophic and neuroprotective factors, greater activation of anti-excitotoxic and anti-oxidant mechanisms, increased plasticity potential, a greater energy reserve and improved mitochondrial function. This review seeks to summarize properties of CA2-4, DG in the context of endogenous neuroprotection, and then to assess the potential utility of these properties to therapeutic approaches. In so doing, it appears to represent the first such addressing of the issue of ischemia resistance attributable to CA2-4, DG.
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Role of a Heat Shock Transcription Factor and the Major Heat Shock Protein Hsp70 in Memory Formation and Neuroprotection. Cells 2021; 10:cells10071638. [PMID: 34210082 PMCID: PMC8305005 DOI: 10.3390/cells10071638] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2021] [Revised: 06/18/2021] [Accepted: 06/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Heat shock proteins (Hsps) represent the most evolutionarily ancient, conserved, and universal system for protecting cells and the whole body from various types of stress. Among Hsps, the group of proteins with a molecular weight of 70 kDa (Hsp70) plays a particularly important role. These proteins are molecular chaperones that restore the native conformation of partially denatured proteins after exposure to proteotoxic forms of stress and are critical for the folding and intracellular trafficking of de novo synthesized proteins under normal conditions. Hsp70s are expressed at high levels in the central nervous system (CNS) of various animals and protect neurons from various types of stress, including heat shock, hypoxia, and toxins. Numerous molecular and behavioral studies have indicated that Hsp70s expressed in the CNS are important for memory formation. These proteins contribute to the folding and transport of synaptic proteins, modulate signaling cascades associated with synaptic activation, and participate in mechanisms of neurotransmitter release. In addition, HSF1, a transcription factor that is activated under stress conditions and mediates Hsps transcription, is also involved in the transcription of genes encoding many synaptic proteins, whose levels are increased in neurons under stress and during memory formation. Thus, stress activates the molecular mechanisms of memory formation, thereby allowing animals to better remember and later avoid potentially dangerous stimuli. Finally, Hsp70 has significant protective potential in neurodegenerative diseases. Increasing the level of endogenous Hsp70 synthesis or injecting exogenous Hsp70 reduces neurodegeneration, stimulates neurogenesis, and restores memory in animal models of ischemia and Alzheimer’s disease. These findings allow us to consider recombinant Hsp70 and/or Hsp70 pharmacological inducers as potential drugs for use in the treatment of ischemic injury and neurodegenerative disorders.
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Song D, Chen Y, Chen C, Chen L, Cheng O. GABA B receptor antagonist promotes hippocampal neurogenesis and facilitates cognitive function recovery following acute cerebral ischemia in mice. Stem Cell Res Ther 2021; 12:22. [PMID: 33413637 PMCID: PMC7792056 DOI: 10.1186/s13287-020-02059-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2020] [Accepted: 11/27/2020] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE AND BACKGROUND Previous studies have suggested that promoting endogenous neurogenesis has great significance for the recovery of cognitive dysfunction caused by cerebral ischemia (CI). Pharmacological inhibition of GABAB receptor can enhance neurogenesis in adult healthy and depressed mice. In the study, we intended to investigate the effects of GABAB receptor antagonists on cognitive function and hippocampal neurogenesis in mice following CI. METHODS Adult mice were subjected to bilateral common carotid artery occlusion (BCCAO) for 20 min to induce CI and treated with CGP52432 (antagonist of GABAB receptor, CGP, 10 mg/kg intraperitoneal injection) starting 24 h after CI. The Morris water maze test was performed to test spatial learning and memory at day 28. Immunofluorescence was applied to detect neurogenesis in the DG region at day 14 and 28. In in vitro experiments, cell proliferation was detected by CCK8 and immunofluorescence, and the expression of cAMP/CREB signaling pathway-related proteins was detected by ELISA assay and Western blot. RESULTS CGP significantly improved spatial learning and memory disorders caused by CI, and it enhanced the proliferation of neural stem cells (NSCs), the number of immature neurons, and the differentiation from newborn cells to neurons. In vitro experiments further confirmed that CGP dose-dependently enhanced the cell viability of NSCs, and immunofluorescence staining showed that CGP promoted the proliferation of NSCs. In addition, treatment with CGP increased the expression of cAMP, PKA, and pCREB in cultured NSCs. CONCLUSION Inhibition of GABAB receptor can effectively promote hippocampal neurogenesis and improve spatial learning and memory in adult mice following CI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dan Song
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 400016, China.,Laboratory Research Center, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 400016, China
| | - Yaohua Chen
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 400016, China.,Laboratory Research Center, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 400016, China
| | - Cheng Chen
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 400016, China.,Laboratory Research Center, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 400016, China
| | - Lili Chen
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 400016, China.,Laboratory Research Center, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 400016, China
| | - Oumei Cheng
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 400016, China.
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León-Moreno LC, Castañeda-Arellano R, Rivas-Carrillo JD, Dueñas-Jiménez SH. Challenges and Improvements of Developing an Ischemia Mouse Model Through Bilateral Common Carotid Artery Occlusion. J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis 2020; 29:104773. [PMID: 32199775 DOI: 10.1016/j.jstrokecerebrovasdis.2020.104773] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2019] [Revised: 01/10/2020] [Accepted: 02/17/2020] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Brain ischemia is one of the principal causes of death and disability worldwide in which prevention or an effective treatment does not exist. In order to develop successful treatments, an adequate and useful ischemia model is essential. Transient global cerebral ischemia is one of the most interesting pathological conditions in stroke studies because of the observed degeneration of forebrain and delayed neuronal cell death in selective vulnerable regions such as hippocampus. Transient occlusion of both common carotid arteries is the most convenient model to induce tGCI. Although there are effective rat and gerbil models using this method, the induction of a reproducible and reliable injury after global ischemia in mouse has presented higher variations, mainly because of its size and the necessary monitoring skills in order to accomplish homogeneous and reproducible results. Further, great variability among cerebral vasculature and susceptibility of the different strains and sub-strains is observed. In recent years, some modifications have been made to the model in order to normalize the heterogenic effects. Analysis of posterior communicating artery patency has been proposed as an exclusion parameter due to the direct relationship reported with the reduction of cerebral blood flow. Another method used to significantly reduce blood flow is the induction of hypotension with isoflurane. Each protocol produces distinct injury outcomes. Further improvements are needed to attain a general, simpler, reproducible and globally accepted model that allows comparisons between research groups, progress in understanding ischemia and the consequent development of therapeutic alternatives for ischemic injury.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Rolando Castañeda-Arellano
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University Center of Tonala, University de Guadalajara, Jalisco Mexico
| | - Jorge David Rivas-Carrillo
- Department of Physiology, Laboratory of Tissue Engineering and Transplant and cGMP Cell Processing Facility, Health Sciences Center, University de Guadalajara, Jalisco, Mexico
| | - Sergio Horacio Dueñas-Jiménez
- Department of Neuroscience, Laboratory of Neurophysiology, Health Sciences Center, University of Guadalajara, Guadalajara, C.P. 44340 Jalisco, México.
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Models of poststroke depression and assessments of core depressive symptoms in rodents: How to choose? Exp Neurol 2019; 322:113060. [DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2019.113060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2019] [Revised: 08/09/2019] [Accepted: 09/05/2019] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
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Bee Venom Ameliorates Cognitive Dysfunction Caused by Neuroinflammation in an Animal Model of Vascular Dementia. Mol Neurobiol 2016; 54:5952-5960. [DOI: 10.1007/s12035-016-0130-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2016] [Accepted: 09/12/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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In Situ Pluripotency Factor Expression Promotes Functional Recovery From Cerebral Ischemia. Mol Ther 2016; 24:1538-49. [PMID: 27455881 PMCID: PMC5113101 DOI: 10.1038/mt.2016.124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2016] [Accepted: 06/11/2016] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Recovery from ischemic tissue injury can be promoted by cell proliferation and neovascularization. Transient expression of four pluripotency factors (Pou5f1, Sox2, Myc, and Klf4) has been used to convert cell types but never been tested as a means to promote functional recovery from ischemic injury. Here we aimed to determine whether transient in situ pluripotency factor expression can improve neurobehavioral function. Cerebral ischemia was induced by transient bilateral common carotid artery occlusion, after which the four pluripotency factors were expressed through either doxycycline administration into the lateral ventricle in transgenic mice in which the four factors are expressed in a doxycycline-inducible manner. Histologic evaluation showed that this transient expression induced the proliferative generation of astrocytes and/or neural progenitors, but not neurons or glial scar, and increased neovascularization with upregulation of angiogenic factors. Furthermore, in vivo pluripotency factor expression caused neuroprotective effects such as increased numbers of mature neurons and levels of synaptic markers in the striatum. Dysplasia or tumor development was not observed. Importantly, neurobehavioral evaluations such as rotarod and ladder walking tests showed that the expression of the four factors dramatically promoted functional restoration from ischemic injury. These results provide a basis for novel therapeutic modality development for cerebral ischemia.
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Yang EJ, Cai M, Lee JH. Neuroprotective Effects of Electroacupuncture on an Animal Model of Bilateral Common Carotid Artery Occlusion. Mol Neurobiol 2015; 53:7228-7236. [PMID: 26687230 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-015-9610-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2015] [Accepted: 12/03/2015] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Mild cognitive impairment (MCI) is considered as an intermediate zone between normal aging and dementia. The most prominent feature of MCI is an isolated mild decline in memory, whereas other cognitive functions remain intact. The symptoms of vascular cognitive impairment (VCI) range from MCI to dementia, and an animal model of VCI has been established in a gerbil by transient bilateral common carotid artery occlusion (BCCAO). In the current study, we set out to investigate whether electroacupuncture (EA) could improve memory in gerbils with BCCAO-induced MCI. Animals were randomly divided into two groups: sham-operated group (n = 17) and a model group that was subdivided into BCCAO, n = 17, and EA-treated BCCAO, n = 28. Gerbils were treated with EA at KI3 or GV20 four times every other day using a set of electrical stimulus pulses (1 mA, 2 Hz) that were applied for 20 min. For investigation of cognitive function, we performed a Y-maze test and Western blotting to identify the expression of neuroinflammatory proteins. EA treatment at KI3 ("Taegye" acupoint) improved cognitive function and reduced the expression of neuroinflammatory proteins including ionized calcium-binding adaptor molecule 1, toll-like receptor 4, tumor necrosis factor alpha, and phospho-extracellular signal-regulated kinase in the hippocampus of gerbils that had undergone BCCAO. Furthermore, using micro-positron emission tomography/computed tomography, we demonstrated that EA treatment increased glucose metabolism in the hippocampus of these animals. The present study highlights the neuroprotective effect of EA treatment against BCCAO-induced memory dysfunction, neuroinflammation, and glucose metabolism. Our findings suggest that EA, which has previously been used in complementary and alternative medicine, might also be considered as a therapy that can improve memory and reduce neuroinflammation associated with dementia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eun Jin Yang
- Clinical Research Division, Korea Institute of Oriental Medicine, 1672 Yuseongdae-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon, 305-811, Republic of Korea
| | - MuDan Cai
- Clinical Research Division, Korea Institute of Oriental Medicine, 1672 Yuseongdae-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon, 305-811, Republic of Korea
| | - Jun-Hwan Lee
- Clinical Research Division, Korea Institute of Oriental Medicine, 1672 Yuseongdae-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon, 305-811, Republic of Korea.
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Rolova T, Dhungana H, Korhonen P, Valonen P, Kolosowska N, Konttinen H, Kanninen K, Tanila H, Malm T, Koistinaho J. Deletion of Nuclear Factor kappa B p50 Subunit Decreases Inflammatory Response and Mildly Protects Neurons from Transient Forebrain Ischemia-induced Damage. Aging Dis 2015; 7:450-65. [PMID: 27493832 DOI: 10.14336/ad.2015.1123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2015] [Accepted: 11/23/2015] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Transient forebrain ischemia induces delayed death of the hippocampal pyramidal neurons, particularly in the CA2 and medial CA1 area. Early pharmacological inhibition of inflammatory response can ameliorate neuronal death, but it also inhibits processes leading to tissue regeneration. Therefore, research efforts are now directed to modulation of post-ischemic inflammation, with the aim to promote beneficial effects of inflammation and limit adverse effects. Transcription factor NF-κB plays a key role in the inflammation and cell survival/apoptosis pathways. In the brain, NF-κB is predominantly found in the form of a heterodimer of p65 (RelA) and p50 subunit, where p65 has a transactivation domain while p50 is chiefly involved in DNA binding. In this study, we subjected middle-aged Nfkb1 knockout mice (lacking p50 subunit) and wild-type controls of both sexs to 17 min of transient forebrain ischemia and assessed mouse performance in a panel of behavioral tests after two weeks of post-operative recovery. We found that ischemia failed to induce clear memory and motor deficits, but affected spontaneous locomotion in genotype- and sex-specific way. We also show that both the lack of the NF-κB p50 subunit and female sex independently protected CA2 hippocampal neurons from ischemia-induced cell death. Additionally, the NF-κB p50 subunit deficiency significantly reduced ischemia-induced microgliosis, astrogliosis, and neurogenesis. Lower levels of hippocampal microgliosis significantly correlated with faster spatial learning. We conclude that NF-κB regulates the outcome of transient forebrain ischemia in middle-aged subjects in a sex-specific way, having an impact not only on neuronal death but also specific inflammatory responses and neurogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taisia Rolova
- 1Department of Neurobiology, A.I. Virtanen Institute, University of Eastern Finland
| | - Hiramani Dhungana
- 1Department of Neurobiology, A.I. Virtanen Institute, University of Eastern Finland
| | - Paula Korhonen
- 1Department of Neurobiology, A.I. Virtanen Institute, University of Eastern Finland
| | - Piia Valonen
- 1Department of Neurobiology, A.I. Virtanen Institute, University of Eastern Finland
| | - Natalia Kolosowska
- 1Department of Neurobiology, A.I. Virtanen Institute, University of Eastern Finland
| | - Henna Konttinen
- 1Department of Neurobiology, A.I. Virtanen Institute, University of Eastern Finland
| | - Katja Kanninen
- 1Department of Neurobiology, A.I. Virtanen Institute, University of Eastern Finland
| | - Heikki Tanila
- 1Department of Neurobiology, A.I. Virtanen Institute, University of Eastern Finland; 2Department of Neurology, Kuopio University Hospital, Kuopio, Finland
| | - Tarja Malm
- 1Department of Neurobiology, A.I. Virtanen Institute, University of Eastern Finland
| | - Jari Koistinaho
- 1Department of Neurobiology, A.I. Virtanen Institute, University of Eastern Finland
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Heikkinen R, Malm T, Heikkilä J, Muona A, Tanila H, Koistinaho M, Koistinaho J. Susceptibility to focal and global brain ischemia of Alzheimer mice displaying aβ deposits: effect of immunoglobulin. Aging Dis 2014; 5:76-87. [PMID: 24729933 DOI: 10.14336/ad.2014.050076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2013] [Revised: 02/25/2014] [Accepted: 02/25/2014] [Indexed: 11/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Cerebral ischemia is a risk factor for Alzheimer's disease (AD). Moreover, recent evidence indicates that it is a two-way street as the incidence rate of stroke is significantly higher in AD patients than those without the disease. Here we investigated the interaction of ischemic brain insults and AD in 9-month-old ApdE9 mice, which show full-blown accumulation of Aβ deposits and microgliosis in the brain. Permanent occlusion of the middle cerebral artery (pMCAo) resulted in 36% larger infarct in ApdE9 mice compared to their wild-type (wt) controls. This was not due to differences in endothelium-dependent vascular reactivity. Treatment with human intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG) reduced the infarct volumes and abolished the increased vulnerability of ApdE9 mice to pMCAo induced brain ischemia. When the mice were exposed to global brain ischemia (GI), an insult of hippocampal cells, ApdE9 mice showed increased neuronal loss in CA2 and CA3 subregions compared to their wt controls. GI was associated with increased microgliosis, astrogliosis, infiltration of blood-derived monocytic cells, and neurogenesis without clear differences between the genotypes. IVIG treatment prevented the GI-induced neuron loss in hippocampal CA1 and CA3 regions in ApdE9 mice. IVIG treatment increased microgliosis in wt but not in ApdE9 mice. Finally, GI induced 60% reduction in the hippocampal Aβ burden in ApdE9 mice, which was not affected by IVIG treatment. The results indicate that the AD pathology with Aβ deposits and microgliosis increases ischemic vulnerability in various brain areas. Moreover, IVIG treatment may be beneficial especially in patients suffering from both acute ischemic insult and AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Riikka Heikkinen
- A.I.Virtanen Institute for Molecular Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, FI-70211 Kuopio, Finland
| | - Tarja Malm
- A.I.Virtanen Institute for Molecular Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, FI-70211 Kuopio, Finland
| | - Janne Heikkilä
- Kuopio University Hospital, PL100, 70029 KYS, Kuopio, Finland
| | - Anu Muona
- Medeia Therapeutics Ltd, FI-70211 Kuopio, Finland
| | - Heikki Tanila
- A.I.Virtanen Institute for Molecular Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, FI-70211 Kuopio, Finland ; Department of Neurology, Kuopio University Hospital, FI-70211 Kuopio, Finland
| | | | - Jari Koistinaho
- A.I.Virtanen Institute for Molecular Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, FI-70211 Kuopio, Finland
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Canazza A, Minati L, Boffano C, Parati E, Binks S. Experimental models of brain ischemia: a review of techniques, magnetic resonance imaging, and investigational cell-based therapies. Front Neurol 2014; 5:19. [PMID: 24600434 PMCID: PMC3928567 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2014.00019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2013] [Accepted: 02/06/2014] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Stroke continues to be a significant cause of death and disability worldwide. Although major advances have been made in the past decades in prevention, treatment, and rehabilitation, enormous challenges remain in the way of translating new therapeutic approaches from bench to bedside. Thrombolysis, while routinely used for ischemic stroke, is only a viable option within a narrow time window. Recently, progress in stem cell biology has opened up avenues to therapeutic strategies aimed at supporting and replacing neural cells in infarcted areas. Realistic experimental animal models are crucial to understand the mechanisms of neuronal survival following ischemic brain injury and to develop therapeutic interventions. Current studies on experimental stroke therapies evaluate the efficiency of neuroprotective agents and cell-based approaches using primarily rodent models of permanent or transient focal cerebral ischemia. In parallel, advancements in imaging techniques permit better mapping of the spatial-temporal evolution of the lesioned cortex and its functional responses. This review provides a condensed conceptual review of the state of the art of this field, from models and magnetic resonance imaging techniques through to stem cell therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandra Canazza
- Cerebrovascular Diseases Unit, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Neurologico "Carlo Besta" , Milan , Italy
| | - Ludovico Minati
- Scientific Department, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Neurologico "Carlo Besta" , Milan , Italy ; Brighton and Sussex Medical School , Brighton , UK
| | - Carlo Boffano
- Neuroradiology Unit, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Neurologico "Carlo Besta" , Milan , Italy
| | - Eugenio Parati
- Cerebrovascular Diseases Unit, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Neurologico "Carlo Besta" , Milan , Italy
| | - Sophie Binks
- Brighton and Sussex Medical School , Brighton , UK ; Brighton and Sussex University Hospitals NHS Trust , Brighton , UK
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Van Elzen R, Moens L, Dewilde S. Expression profiling of the cerebral ischemic and hypoxic response. Expert Rev Proteomics 2014; 5:263-82. [DOI: 10.1586/14789450.5.2.263] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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Danggui-Jakyak-San ameliorates memory impairment and increase neurogenesis induced by transient forebrain ischemia in mice. BMC COMPLEMENTARY AND ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE 2013; 13:324. [PMID: 24261472 PMCID: PMC3840576 DOI: 10.1186/1472-6882-13-324] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2013] [Accepted: 11/19/2013] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Background Danggui-Jakyak-San (DJS), a traditional herbal prescription, has been used to treat insufficient blood supplies. Recently, regenerative medication for the treatment of cerebral ischemia has drawn the attention of many researchers. Methods In this study, we examined whether DJS exerts a neuronal regenerative effect in the hippocampus of a transient forebrain ischemia mice model. Transient forebrain ischemia was induced by bilateral common carotid artery occlusion (BCCAO). Animals were divided into three groups (sham, BCCAO + vehicle, and BCCAO + DJS). To test the effect of DJS on learning and memory, Morris water maze or passive avoidance test was conducted. To test neuroprotective and neurogenic effect, immunohistochemistry and Western blot analysis were used. Statistical significance was analyzed with Student t-test, one-way or two-way analysis of variance. Results We found that the administration of DJS ameliorated ischemia-induced spatial memory impairment in the Morris water maze task. Moreover, Akt/glycogen synthase kinase-3β (GSK3β)/β-catenin signaling was increased by DJS, which would be one possible mechanism of DJS for neurogenesis in the hippocampal dentate gyrus region. Conclusions These results suggest that DJS is a possible candidate for the treatment of ischemia-induced neuronal degeneration.
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Wang S, Kelly S. Global cerebral ischemia induces increased expression of multiple retrotransposons. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2013; 434:572-6. [PMID: 23583390 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2013.03.116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2013] [Accepted: 03/28/2013] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Retrotransposons (RTs) account for ~45% of the mammalian genome. They are capable of inserting into new genomic locations, which can result in deleterious outcomes. We examined the response of nine RTs to global cerebral ischemia (GCI) and explored the DNA methylation status of the two significantly altered RTs. Seven of the nine RTs were significantly increased at 24h post-insult in ischemic hippocampus. GCI also led to a significant decrease in the DNA methylation status of intracisternal A-particle (IAP) RT, but had no marked effect upon DNA methylation of long interspersed nucleotide element 1 (L1) RT. In summary, GCI produced marked increases in RT RNA expression and had a differential effect on the DNA methylation status of two RTs in vulnerable hippocampal neurons destined to die. These data suggest that RTs may play an active role in ischemic brain pathology and that these endogenous mutagens and their regulatory elements could be targeted as potential therapeutic targets in this devastating condition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shu Wang
- Brain Injury and Repair Laboratory, New Jersey Neuroscience Institute, Edison, NJ 08818, USA
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Successfully Climbing the "STAIRs": Surmounting Failed Translation of Experimental Ischemic Stroke Treatments. Stroke Res Treat 2012; 2012:374098. [PMID: 23326759 PMCID: PMC3544313 DOI: 10.1155/2012/374098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2012] [Revised: 11/07/2012] [Accepted: 12/16/2012] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The Stroke Therapy Academic Industry Roundtable (STAIR) provided initial (in 1999) and updated (in 2009) recommendations with the goal of improving preclinical stroke therapy assessment and to increase the translational potential of experimental stroke treatments. It is important for preclinical stroke researchers to frequently consider and revisit these concepts, especially since promising experimental stroke treatments continue to fail in human clinical trials. Therefore, this paper will focus on considerations for several key aspects of preclinical stroke studies including the selection and execution of the animal stroke model, drug/experimental treatment administration, and outcome measures to improve experimental validity and translation potential. Specific points of interest discussed include the incorporation of human comorbid conditions and drugs, the benefits of defining a proposed mechanism of action, replication of results using multiple methods, using clinically relevant routes of administration and treatment time windows, and performing and reporting good experimental methods to reduce bias such as, as suggested by the updated STAIR recommendations, sample size calculations, randomization, allocation concealment, blinding, and appropriate inclusion/exclusion criteria. It is our hope that reviewing and revisiting these considerations will benefit researchers in their investigations of stroke therapies and increase the likelihood of translational success in the battle against stroke.
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Macrae IM. Preclinical stroke research--advantages and disadvantages of the most common rodent models of focal ischaemia. Br J Pharmacol 2012; 164:1062-78. [PMID: 21457227 DOI: 10.1111/j.1476-5381.2011.01398.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 157] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
This review describes the most commonly used rodent models and outcome measures in preclinical stroke research and discusses their strengths and limitations. Most models involve permanent or transient middle cerebral artery occlusion with therapeutic agents tested for their ability to reduce stroke-induced infarcts and improve neurological deficits. Many drugs have demonstrated preclinical efficacy but, other than thrombolytics, which restore blood flow, none have demonstrated efficacy in clinical trials. This failure to translate efficacy from bench to bedside is discussed alongside achievable steps to improve the ability of preclinical research to predict clinical efficacy: (i) Improvements in study quality and reporting. Study design must include randomization, blinding and predefined inclusion/exclusion criteria, and journal editors have the power to ensure statements on these and mortality data are included in preclinical publications. (ii) Negative and neutral studies must be published to enable preclinical meta-analyses and systematic reviews to more accurately predict drug efficacy in man. (iii) Preclinical groups should work within networks and agree on standardized procedures for assessing final infarct and functional outcome. This will improve research quality, timeliness and translational capacity. (iv) Greater uptake and improvements in non-invasive diagnostic imaging to detect and study potentially salvageable penumbral tissue, the target for acute neuroprotection. Drug effects on penumbra lifespan studied serially, followed by assessment of behavioural outcome and infarct within in the same animal group, will increase the power to detect drug efficacy preclinically. Similar progress in detecting drug efficacy clinically will follow from patient recruitment into acute stroke trials based on evidence of remaining penumbra.
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Affiliation(s)
- I M Macrae
- Institute of Neuroscience and Psychology, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK.
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17
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James R, Searcy JL, Le Bihan T, Martin SF, Gliddon CM, Povey J, Deighton RF, Kerr LE, McCulloch J, Horsburgh K. Proteomic analysis of mitochondria in APOE transgenic mice and in response to an ischemic challenge. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 2012; 32:164-76. [PMID: 21878944 PMCID: PMC3323298 DOI: 10.1038/jcbfm.2011.120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Apolipoprotein E (APOE)-ɛ4 is associated with a deleterious outcome after ischemic brain injury, which may involve abnormal regulation of mitochondrial function. We have assessed the mitochondrial proteomic response of APOE-ɛ3 and APOE-ɛ4 transgenic mice to transient global ischemic injury in the hippocampus. A genotype-dependent increase in ApoE levels in mitochondria was observed after ischemia, with APOE-ɛ4 mice showing significantly greater increases than APOE-ɛ3 mice. Quantitative analysis of the mitochondria-enriched fractions was performed using liquid-chromatography mass spectrometry coupled to label-free analysis. Of the 1,067 identified proteins, 274 were mitochondria associated. Mitochondrial protein expression was significantly different between genotypes under basal conditions as well as in response to global ischemia. A total of 12 mitochondrial proteins (including respiratory chain proteins NDUFA11, NDUFS3, NDUF5B, ATP5J, as well as ETFA, CYB5B, ATP6V1A, HSPA1B, OXR1, GLUL, IARS2, and PHYHIPL) were significantly altered with respect to genotype, global ischemia, or their interaction (P<0.01). A compelling interactome, created using proteins found to be significantly modulated by global ischemia (P<0.05), involved proteins that regulate energy production and oxidative stress. Thus, APOE genotype has a differential effect on the mitochondrial protein expression in the absence and presence of an injury, which may underlie the differing genotype susceptibility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel James
- Centre for Cognitive Aging and Cognitive Epidemiology, Centre for Cognitive and Neural Systems, School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
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Ihara M, Tomimoto H. Lessons from a mouse model characterizing features of vascular cognitive impairment with white matter changes. J Aging Res 2011; 2011:978761. [PMID: 22132331 PMCID: PMC3216359 DOI: 10.4061/2011/978761] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2011] [Accepted: 07/26/2011] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
With the demographic shift in age in advanced countries inexorably set to progress in the 21st century, dementia will become one of the most important health problems worldwide. Vascular cognitive impairment is the second most common type of dementia after Alzheimer's disease and is frequently responsible for the cognitive decline of the elderly. It is characterized by cerebrovascular white matter changes; thus, in order to investigate the underlying mechanisms involved in white matter changes, a mouse model of chronic cerebral hypoperfusion has been developed, which involves the narrowing of the bilateral common carotid arteries with newly designed microcoils. The purpose of this paper is to provide a comprehensive summary of the achievements made with the model that shows good reproducibility of the white matter changes characterized by blood-brain barrier disruption, glial activation, oxidative stress, and oligodendrocyte loss following chronic cerebral hypoperfusion. Detailed characterization of this model may help to decipher the substrates associated with impaired memory and move toward a more integrated therapy of vascular cognitive impairment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masafumi Ihara
- Department of Neurology, Kyoto University Graduate School of Medicine, 54 Kawahara-cho, Shogoin, Sakyo, Kyoto 606-8507, Japan
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Wang C, Li S, Shang DJ, Wang XL, You ZL, Li HB. Antihyperglycemic and neuroprotective effects of one novel Cu-Zn SOD mimetic. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2011; 21:4320-4. [PMID: 21669524 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2011.05.051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2011] [Revised: 05/05/2011] [Accepted: 05/17/2011] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Increasing evidence supports that OS plays important roles in diabetes mellitus and cerebral ischemia. This suggests that recovering an impaired endogenous superoxide dismutase (SOD) enzyme system induced by OS with a mimetic would be beneficial and protective for these diseases. In present study, one nonpeptidyl small molecular weight compound (D34) was synthesized. Its SOD mimetic activity and the potential therapeutic actions were also evaluated both in vivo and in vitro. The in vitro nitro blue tetrazolium (NBT) assay indicated that D34 presents an SOD mimetic activity. D34 (20μmol/kg) exhibited significant antihyperglycemic activity in alloxan-diabetic mice. D34 could also ameliorate the cerebral neuronal death in hippocampus of global cerebral ischemia mice. Furthermore, the D34 treatment significantly decreased malondialdehyde (MDA) contents and increased SOD activities in brains or livers of diabetes mice or cerebral ischemic mice. In conclusion, these preliminary findings support that D34 exhibits SOD mimetic activity and possesses significant antihyperglycemic and neuroprotective effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Che Wang
- Department of Pharmacy, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Liaoning Normal University, Dalian 116029, China
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20
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Protective effect of desipramine, venlafaxine and trazodone against experimental animal model of transient global ischemia: possible involvement of NO-cGMP pathway. Brain Res 2010; 1353:204-12. [PMID: 20624374 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2010.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2010] [Revised: 06/29/2010] [Accepted: 07/05/2010] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The present study has been designed to explore the nitric oxide mechanism in the protective effect of desipramine, venlafaxine and trazodone against I/R induced oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction in mice. Vitamin E was taken as standard antioxidant. Laca mice (25-30 g) were subjected to twice BCCAO occlusion (5 min) at the interval of 10 min, followed by 96 h reperfusion. The drug treatments were started from the day of surgery and continued for the next four days. After 96 h the animals were sacrificed for biochemical (malondialdehyde, nitrite concentration, superoxidedismutase, catalase, redox ratio and GST) and mitochondrial enzyme complex (NADH dehydrogenase, succinate dehydrogenase, MTT assay and cytochrome c oxidase) estimations. Ischemia caused significant oxidative damage and mitochondrial enzyme dysfunction after 96 h of reperfusion as compared to sham operated animals. Antidepressant (desipramine, venlafaxine and trazodone) treatment significantly attenuated oxidative damage and restored mitochondrial enzyme complex activities as compared to control (I/R) group. Further, protective effects of desipramine (15 mg/kg) and/or venlafaxine (5 mg/kg) were attenuated by l-arginine (100 mg/kg) or sildenafil (5 mg/kg) pretreatment. Further, L-NAME (10 mg/kg) or 7-NI (10 mg/kg) pretreatment with desipramine (15 mg/kg) and/or venlafaxine (5 mg/kg) significantly potentiated their protective effect which was significant as compared to their effect alone. The present study highlights the involvement of nitric oxide mechanism in the protective effects of desipramine and venlafaxine against I/R induced oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction in mice.
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Aggarwal A, Gaur V, Kumar A. Nitric oxide mechanism in the protective effect of naringin against post-stroke depression (PSD) in mice. Life Sci 2010; 86:928-35. [DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2010.04.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2009] [Revised: 02/18/2010] [Accepted: 04/18/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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Zheng H, Lapointe J, Hekimi S. Lifelong protection from global cerebral ischemia and reperfusion in long-lived Mclk1(+/)(-) mutants. Exp Neurol 2010; 223:557-65. [PMID: 20170652 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2010.02.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2009] [Revised: 02/01/2010] [Accepted: 02/09/2010] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
To achieve a long life span, animals must be resistant to various injuries as well as avoid or delay lethality from age-dependent diseases. Reduced expression of the mitochondrial enzyme CLK-1/MCLK1 (a.k.a. Coq7), a mitochondrial hydroxylase that is necessary for the biosynthesis of ubiquinone (UQ), extends lifespan in Caenorhabditiselegans and in mice. Here, we show that long-lived Mclk1(+/)(-) mutants have enhanced resistance to neurological damage following global cerebral ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) injury induced by transient bilateral common carotid artery occlusion (BCCAO). Both young ( approximately 100days old) and relatively aged ( approximately 450days old) mutants display increased resistance as indicated by a significant decrease in the amount of degenerating cells observed in forebrain cortex and in hippocampal areas after ischemia and reperfusion. Furthermore, less oxidative damage resulting from the procedure was measured in the brain of young Mclk1(+/)(-) animals. The finding that both young and old mutants are protected indicates that this is a basic phenotype of these mutants and not a secondary consequence of their slow rate of aging. Thus, the partial resistance to I/R injury suggests that Mclk1(+/)(-) mutants have an enhanced recovery potential following age-dependant vascular accidents, which correlates well with their longer survival. By relating this neuroprotective effect to previously reported characteristics of the Mclk1(+/)(-) phenotype, including altered mitochondrial metabolism and increased HIF-1alpha expression, this study establishes these mutants as useful models to analyze the mechanisms underlying tolerance to ischemia, particularly those associated with ischemic preconditioning, as well as to clarify the relation between aging and age-dependent diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huaien Zheng
- Department of Biology, McGill University, 1205 Avenue Docteur Penfield, Montréal, Canada H3A 1B1
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Gaur V, Kumar A. Behavioral, biochemical and cellular correlates in the protective effect of sertraline against transient global ischemia induced behavioral despair: possible involvement of nitric oxide-cyclic guanosine monophosphate study pathway. Brain Res Bull 2010; 82:57-64. [PMID: 20123004 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresbull.2010.01.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2009] [Revised: 01/09/2010] [Accepted: 01/14/2010] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Post-stroke depression (PSD) is one of the psychiatric complications after stroke. Present study was conducted to elucidate the protective effect of sertraline and possible involvement of nitric oxide mechanism against transient global ischemia induced behavioral despair. Bilateral common carotid artery occlusion was given twice for 5 min at 10 min interval followed by 96 h reperfusion. Ischemia reperfusion significantly increased immobility period and decreased resistance to lateral push as compared to sham-operated group. Ischemia reperfusion caused significant oxidative damage and mitochondrial enzyme complex (I-III) dysfunction as compared to sham group. Sertraline (5 and 10mg/kg) treatment significantly reduced immobility period, increased resistance to lateral push, attenuated oxidative damage and restored mitochondrial enzyme complex activities as compared to ischemia group. L-Arginine (100mg/kg) or sildenafil (5mg/kg) pretreatment with sertraline (5mg/kg) significantly reversed the protective effect of sertraline. However, L-NAME (10mg/kg) or 7NI (10mg/kg) pretreatment with sertraline (5mg/kg) significantly potentiated their protective effect which were significant as compared to their effect alone. The present study shows that nitric oxide modulation is involved in the protective effect of sertraline.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vaibhav Gaur
- Pharmacology Division, University Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, UGC Centre of Advanced Study, Panjab University, Chandigarh 160014, India
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Kuraoka M, Furuta T, Matsuwaki T, Omatsu T, Ishii Y, Kyuwa S, Yoshikawa Y. Direct experimental occlusion of the distal middle cerebral artery induces high reproducibility of brain ischemia in mice. Exp Anim 2009; 58:19-29. [PMID: 19151508 DOI: 10.1538/expanim.58.19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Several investigators have used murine models to investigate the pathophysiology of brain ischemia. The focal ischemic model is a closer approximation to human stroke which includes a necrotic core, penumbra, and undamaged tissue. Occlusion of a unilateral artery, especially the middle cerebral artery (MCA), is performed in this model, but collateral circulation often induces variation of ischemic lesions both qualitatively and quantitatively. It is likely that the more proximal the artery which is unilaterally occluded is, the more inconsistent the outcomes. The present study was designed to examine the reproducibility of infarct lesion by distal or proximal artery occlusion. Direct occlusion of the distal MCA was performed and compared with unilateral common carotid artery occlusion (CCAO) in C57BL/6 mice. Direct MCA occlusion (MCAO) consistently induced ischemic lesions in cortical areas. All model animals (n=14) survived 24 h after occlusion, and exhibited a maximum infarct volume (20.0 +/- 5.0%). In contrast, permanent and transient unilateral CCAO models had mortality rates of 62.5 and 25.0%, and showed severe to absent lesions with the infarct volumes of 29.0 +/- 20.8 and 33.2 +/- 24.2%, respectively. In conclusion, distal MCAO produces high reproducibility of ischemic insults and survivability compared to unilateral CCAO. Thus, distal MCAO is a useful method for the focal ischemic model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mutsuki Kuraoka
- Department of Biomedical Science, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, University of Tokyo, Japan
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Webster CM, Kelly S, Koike MA, Chock VY, Giffard RG, Yenari MA. Inflammation and NFkappaB activation is decreased by hypothermia following global cerebral ischemia. Neurobiol Dis 2008; 33:301-12. [PMID: 19063968 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2008.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2008] [Revised: 10/03/2008] [Accepted: 11/03/2008] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
We previously showed that hypothermia attenuates inflammation in focal cerebral ischemia (FCI) by suppressing activating kinases of nuclear factor-kappa B (NFkappaB). Here we characterize the inflammatory response in global cerebral ischemia (GCI), and the influence of mild hypothermia. Rodents were subjected to GCI by bilateral carotid artery occlusion. The inflammatory response was accompanied by microglial activation, but not neutrophil infiltration, or blood brain barrier disruption. Mild hypothermia reduced CA1 damage, decreased microglial activation and decreased nuclear NFkappaB translocation and activation. Similar anti-inflammatory effects of hypothermia were observed in a model of pure brain inflammation that does not cause brain cell death. Primary microglial cultures subjected to oxygen glucose deprivation (OGD) or stimulated with LPS under hypothermic conditions also experienced less activation and less NFkappaB translocation. However, NFkappaB regulatory proteins were not affected by hypothermia. The inflammatory response following GCI and hypothermia's anti-inflammatory mechanism is different from that observed in FCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carla M Webster
- Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco and the San Francisco Veterans Affairs Medical Center, 4150 Clement Street, San Francisco, CA 94121, USA
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26
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Hossmann KA. Cerebral ischemia: Models, methods and outcomes. Neuropharmacology 2008; 55:257-70. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2007.12.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2007] [Revised: 12/06/2007] [Accepted: 12/10/2007] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
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27
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Lai M, Horsburgh K, Bae SE, Carter RN, Stenvers DJ, Fowler JH, Yau JL, Gomez-Sanchez CE, Holmes MC, Kenyon CJ, Seckl JR, Macleod MR. Forebrain mineralocorticoid receptor overexpression enhances memory, reduces anxiety and attenuates neuronal loss in cerebral ischaemia. Eur J Neurosci 2007; 25:1832-42. [PMID: 17432969 DOI: 10.1111/j.1460-9568.2007.05427.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
The nuclear mineralocorticoid receptor (MR), a high-affinity receptor for glucocorticoids, is highly expressed in the hippocampus where it underpins cognitive, behavioural and neuroendocrine regulation. Increased neuronal MR expression occurs early in the response to cellular injury in vivo and in vitro and is associated with enhanced neuronal survival. To determine whether increased neuronal MR might be causal in protecting against ischaemic damage in vivo we generated a forebrain-specific MR-overexpressing transgenic mouse (MR-Tg) under the control of the CamKII alpha promoter, and subjected mice to transient cerebral global ischaemia induced by bilateral common carotid artery occlusion for 20 min. We also separately assessed the effects of MR overexpression on hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis activity and cognitive and affective functions in noninjured animals. Our results showed that MR-Tg mice had significantly reduced neuronal death following transient cerebral global ischaemia compared to wild-type littermates. This effect was not associated with alterations in basal or poststress HPA axis function or in arterial blood pressure. MR-Tg mice also demonstrated improved spatial memory retention, reduced anxiety and altered behavioural response to novelty. The induction of neuronal MR appears to offer a protective response which has potential therapeutic implications in cerebral ischaemia and cognitive and affective disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maggie Lai
- Endocrinology Unit, Centre for Cardiovascular Science, University of Edinburgh, Queen's Medical Research Institute, Edinburgh, UK.
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Cheng Y, Liu GR, Guan JT, Guo YL, Li YK, Wu RH. Early diffusion weighted imaging and expression of heat shock protein 70 in newborn pigs with hypoxic ischaemic encephalopathy. Postgrad Med J 2006; 81:589-93. [PMID: 16143690 PMCID: PMC1743356 DOI: 10.1136/pgmj.2004.030114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To establish a cerebral hypoxia ischaemic model in piglets and to explore the early diffusion weighted imaging (DWI) as well as the expression of heat shock protein 70 (HSP70) with hypoxic ischaemic encephalopathy (HIE). METHODS Twenty four 3 day old piglets were permanently ligated common carotid arteries bilaterally and ventilated with 3% oxygen for 30 minutes, and their brains were examined at three hours, six hours, and 24 hours after hypoxic ischaemia with T2 weighted images and diffusion weighted images. Apparent diffusion coefficient (ADC) values were measured and HSP70 expression was detected in the central and peripheral regions of lesions. RESULTS Abnormal signal intensity was detected on DWI and ADC maps in three hypoxic ischaemic groups. ADC values in the central lesions rapidly decreased, whereas ADC values in the peripheral regions reduced prominently at 24 hours after hypoxic ischaemia. There were significant differences (p<0.01) between ADC values of the central regions and the peripheral regions of lesions. The number of HSP70 positive cells was low at three hours, raised at the highest peak at six hours, and then rapidly decreased. There was statistical difference between HSP70 positive cells in the central regions and those in peripheral regions (p<0.01). CONCLUSION DWI may identify more early lesions, and improve conspicuity in the acute setting. ADC values can be used as an objective measure for hypoxic ischaemic injury. Tissue reversibility can be further reflected according to the information of ADC values and HSP70 immunohistochemical staining.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Cheng
- Department of Radiology, the Second Affiliated Hospital, Medical College of Shantou University, Shantou 515041, China.
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Wong AM, Hodges H, Horsburgh K. Neural stem cell grafts reduce the extent of neuronal damage in a mouse model of global ischaemia. Brain Res 2005; 1063:140-50. [PMID: 16289485 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2005.09.049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2005] [Revised: 09/13/2005] [Accepted: 09/25/2005] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
The therapeutic potential of neural stem cell transplantation has been well demonstrated in many models of focal brain damage. However, few studies have sought to determine whether neural stem cells are therapeutic in models of diffuse brain injury, such as observed in Alzheimer's disease and global ischaemia. The present study investigated the effects of transplanted MHP36 neural stem cells on the extent of ischaemic damage in a mouse model of global ischaemia and the effects of the immunosuppressive agent cyclosporin A (CsA). C57Bl/6J mice received an intrastriatal graft of MHP36 neural stem cells 3 days after selective neuronal damage had been induced by global ischaemia. The experimental group was subdivided into CsA or saline controls. We discovered that grafts of MHP36 neural stem cells were able to differentiate into neurons and reduce the extent of ischaemic neuronal damage. This reduction was particularly apparent at 4 week post-transplantation and is independent of CsA immunosuppression. MHP36 cells survived robustly in host ischaemic brain and migrated away from the injection tract towards the caudate nucleus and corpus callosum. Although MHP36 grafts were associated with an acute inflammatory response from reactive astrocytes and microglia at 1 week post-transplantation, this decreased markedly by 4 weeks post-transplantation even in the absence of CsA immunosuppression. This is the first study showing a therapeutic benefit of neural stem cells in a highly diffuse brain injury, further highlighting the possibilities of stem cell transplantation for all types of neurodegenerative disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew M Wong
- Centre for Neuroscience Research, University of Edinburgh, 1 George Square, Edinburgh EH8 9LS, UK.
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Comi AM, Johnston MV, Wilson MA. Strain variability, injury distribution, and seizure onset in a mouse model of stroke in the immature brain. Dev Neurosci 2005; 27:127-33. [PMID: 16046846 DOI: 10.1159/000085984] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2004] [Accepted: 12/19/2004] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Neonatal stroke is an important cause of neurologic morbidity and cerebral palsy. Recently, we have determined that in postnatal day 12 CD1 mice unilateral carotid ligation alone results in seizures and brain injury. We have shown that, in this model, seizure scores correlate with brain injury scores. We have applied this model to another strain of mice to assess strain-related differences in vulnerability to seizures and brain injury after unilateral carotid ligation. Under isoflurane anesthesia, unilateral right-sided carotid ligation was performed in postnatal day 12 C3HeB/FeJ mice followed by a 4-hour period of observation in a 35 degrees C incubator. Seizure scores and brain jury scores were assigned and compared to scores in mice receiving sham surgery. Timing of seizure onset and regional distribution of brain injury were compared in the CD1 and C3HeB/FeJ mice. Unilateral carotid ligation in postnatal day 12 C3HeB/FeJ mice resulted in seizure behavior and brain injury in some animals, with similar time to seizure onset and regional injury distribution, but affected a significantly smaller percentage of C3HeB/FeJ pups than that observed in postnatal day 12 CD1 mice, indicating strain-related vulnerability in this model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne M Comi
- Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA.
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Magnoni S, Baker A, George SJ, Duncan WC, Kerr LE, McCulloch J, Horsburgh K. Differential alterations in the expression and activity of matrix metalloproteinases 2 and 9 after transient cerebral ischemia in mice. Neurobiol Dis 2004; 17:188-97. [PMID: 15474357 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2004.07.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2004] [Revised: 07/09/2004] [Accepted: 07/13/2004] [Indexed: 10/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Abnormal expression and activity of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) may contribute to the pathophysiology of cerebral disease such as ischemic injury. In this study, we compared the cellular localization, expression, and activity of MMP-2 and -9 in relation to the evolution of neuronal damage 24 and 72 h after transient global ischemia. In response to ischemia, there was a generalized increase in cellular MMP-2 immunoreactivity at 24-h reperfusion (in neurons, glia and vessels) whereas at 72-h reperfusion the increase in MMP-2 was predominantly in glia. These glial alterations contributed to a significant increase in pro MMP-2 levels in ischemic regions (P < 0.01) as measured by zymography. In contrast, MMP-9 was predominantly upregulated in neurons and this was significantly different to shams at 24- and 72-h reperfusion after ischemia (P < 0.05). Notably, a dramatic increase in proteolytic activity in neurons was observed 24 h after ischemia and this response was absent at 72 h post-ischemia. The present data are supportive of a role for MMPs in contributing to neuronal injury after ischemia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra Magnoni
- Division of Neuroscience, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH8 9JZ, UK. smagnoni@
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Tajiri S, Oyadomari S, Yano S, Morioka M, Gotoh T, Hamada JI, Ushio Y, Mori M. Ischemia-induced neuronal cell death is mediated by the endoplasmic reticulum stress pathway involving CHOP. Cell Death Differ 2004; 11:403-15. [PMID: 14752508 DOI: 10.1038/sj.cdd.4401365] [Citation(s) in RCA: 337] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Brain ischemia induces apoptosis in neuronal cells, but the mechanism is not well understood. When wild-type mice were subjected to bilateral common carotid arteries occlusion (BCCAO) for 15 min, apoptosis-associated morphological changes and appearance of TUNEL-positive cells were observed in the striatum and in the hippocampus at 48 h after occlusion. RT-PCR analysis revealed that mRNAs for ER stress-associated proapoptotic factor CHOP and an ER chaperone BiP are markedly induced at 12 h after BCCAO. Immunohistochemical analysis showed that CHOP protein is induced in nuclei of damaged neurons at 24 h after occlusion. In contrast, ischemia-associated apoptotic loss of neurons was decreased in CHOP(-/-) mice. Primary hippocampal neurons from CHOP(-/-) mice were more resistant to hypoxia-reoxygenation-induced apoptosis than those from wild-type animals. These results indicate that ischemia-induced neuronal cell death is mediated by the ER stress pathway involving CHOP induction.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Tajiri
- Department of Molecular Genetics, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto, Japan.
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von Arnim CAF, Verstege E, Riepe MW. Strain dependence of receptor regulation on chemical preconditioning in mice hippocampus. Neurosci Lett 2004; 365:171-5. [PMID: 15246542 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2004.04.081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2004] [Revised: 04/14/2004] [Accepted: 04/28/2004] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
While one current focus for studying mechanisms of disease is investigation of transgenic mice confounding effects of the background strain often are neglected. We investigated mRNA expression of known markers of hypoxic tolerance by a semiquantitative RT-PCR (adenosine receptors (A1 and A3), nitric oxide synthases (eNOS and nNOS), APP production, progesterone receptor, and estrogen receptors alpha and beta) in CD-1, C3H, and B6 mice. We found differences in the baseline mRNA expression of adenosine A3 receptors in C3H mice and neuronal NOS in B6 mice as well as a distinct regulation of adenosine A3 receptors and estrogen receptor beta (no changes in C3H and B6 compared to upregulation in CD-1) on treatment of animals with a low dosage of 3-nitropropionate (20mg/kg body weight, i.p.). We conclude that the choice of background strain may confound interpretation of the effects of specific transgens in the study of the mechanisms of primary and induced hypoxic tolerance.
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MESH Headings
- Amyloid beta-Protein Precursor/biosynthesis
- Amyloid beta-Protein Precursor/genetics
- Animals
- Biomarkers/analysis
- Estrogen Receptor alpha
- Estrogen Receptor beta
- Gene Expression Regulation
- Hippocampus/drug effects
- Hippocampus/metabolism
- Hypoxia/metabolism
- Male
- Mice
- Mice, Transgenic
- Nitric Oxide Synthase/biosynthesis
- Nitric Oxide Synthase/genetics
- Nitric Oxide Synthase Type I
- Nitric Oxide Synthase Type II
- Nitric Oxide Synthase Type III
- Nitro Compounds
- Propionates/pharmacology
- RNA, Messenger/biosynthesis
- Receptor, Adenosine A1/biosynthesis
- Receptor, Adenosine A1/genetics
- Receptor, Adenosine A3/biosynthesis
- Receptor, Adenosine A3/genetics
- Receptors, Estrogen/biosynthesis
- Receptors, Estrogen/genetics
- Receptors, Progesterone/biosynthesis
- Receptors, Progesterone/genetics
- Receptors, Steroid/biosynthesis
- Receptors, Steroid/genetics
- Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction
- Species Specificity
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Affiliation(s)
- C A F von Arnim
- Department of Neurology, University of Ulm, Steinhövelstrasse 1, 89075 Ulm, Germany
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McColl BW, Carswell HV, McCulloch J, Horsburgh K. Extension of cerebral hypoperfusion and ischaemic pathology beyond MCA territory after intraluminal filament occlusion in C57Bl/6J mice. Brain Res 2004; 997:15-23. [PMID: 14715145 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2003.10.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Rodent models of focal cerebral ischaemia are critical for understanding pathophysiological concepts in human stroke. The availability of genetically modified mice has prompted the adaptation of the intraluminal filament occlusion model of focal ischaemia for use in mice. In the present study, we investigated the effects of increasing duration of intraluminal occlusion on the extent and distribution of ischaemic pathology and local cerebral blood flow (LCBF) in C57Bl/6J mice, the most common background mouse strain. Volumetric assessment of ischaemic damage was performed after 15, 30 or 60 min occlusion followed by 24 h reperfusion. LCBF was measured after 15 and 60 min occlusion using quantitative 14C-iodoantipyrine autoradiography. The extent and distribution of ischaemic damage was highly sensitive to increasing occlusion duration. Recruitment of tissue outside MCA territory produced a steep increase in the volume of damage with increasing occlusion duration: 15 min (9+/-2 mm3); 30 min (56+/-6 mm3); 60 min (69+/-2 mm3). Significant increases in the severity of cerebral hypoperfusion were observed after 60 min compared to 15 min occlusion within and outside MCA territory, e.g. caudate nucleus (9+/-6 ml per 100 g per min at 60 min vs. 33 ml per 100 g per min at 15 min) and hippocampus (16+/-14 ml per 100 g per min at 60 min vs. 61+/-16 ml per 100 g per min at 15 min). MABP remained stable for 25 min after occlusion onset and declined thereafter. The integrity of the circle of Willis was examined by carbon black perfusion of the vasculature. A complete circle of Willis was present in only one of 10 mice. These results demonstrate that intraluminal filament occlusion in C57Bl/6J mice leads to an occlusion duration-dependent increase in severity of cerebral hypoperfusion and extension of ischaemic pathology beyond MCA territory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barry W McColl
- Division of Clinical Neuroscience, Wellcome Surgical Institute and Hugh Fraser Neuroscience Laboratories, University of Glasgow, Garscube Estate, Glasgow G61 1QH, UK
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Gillingwater TH, Haley JE, Ribchester RR, Horsburgh K. Neuroprotection after transient global cerebral ischemia in Wld(s) mutant mice. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 2004; 24:62-6. [PMID: 14688617 DOI: 10.1097/01.wcb.0000095798.98378.34] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
The Wld(s) mouse mutant demonstrates a remarkable phenotype of delayed axonal and synaptic degeneration after nerve lesion. In this study, the authors tested the hypothesis that expression of Wld protein is neuroprotective in an in vivo mouse model of global cerebral ischemia. This model is associated with selective neuronal degeneration in specific brain regions such as the caudate nucleus and CA2 hippocampal pyramidal cell layer. The extent of neuronal damage was quantified in Wld(s) compared to wild-type mice after an identical episode of global cerebral ischemia. The results demonstrated a significant and marked reduction in the extent of neuronal damage in Wld(s) as compared to wild-type C57Bl/6 mice. In the caudate nucleus, Wld expression significantly reduced the percentage of ischemic neuronal damage after global ischemia (Wld(s), 27.7 +/- 16.8%; wild-type mice, 58.7 +/- 32.3%; P = 0.036). Similarly, in the CA2 pyramidal cell layer, there was a significant reduction of neuronal damage in the Wld(s) mice as compared to wild-type mice after ischemia (Wld(s), 17.7 +/- 23.0%; wild-type mice, 41.9 +/- 28.0%; P < 0.023). Thus, these results clearly demonstrate that the Wld gene confers substantial neuroprotection after cerebral ischemia, and suggest a new role to that previously described for Wld(s).
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Tsuchiya D, Hong S, Matsumori Y, Kayama T, Swanson RA, Dillman WH, Liu J, Panter SS, Weinstein PR. Overexpression of Rat Heat Shock Protein 70 Reduces Neuronal Injury after Transient Focal Ischemia, Transient Global Ischemia, or Kainic Acid-induced Seizures. Neurosurgery 2003; 53:1179-87; discussion 1187-8. [PMID: 14580286 DOI: 10.1227/01.neu.0000090341.38659.cf] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2003] [Accepted: 07/11/2003] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Transgenic (Tg) mice overexpressing rat heat shock protein 70 (hsp70) demonstrated less infarction than did wild-type (WT) littermates after permanent focal cerebral ischemia. The purpose of this study was to determine whether neuronal injury and apoptosis were reduced in hsp70 Tg mice after transient focal ischemia. The effects of hsp70 overexpression were also evaluated after transient global ischemia or kainic acid (KA)-induced seizures, to verify the results in other excitotoxic stress models. METHODS Transient focal ischemia was produced with middle cerebral artery occlusion via intraluminal suture cannulation. Infarction volumes were assessed 24 hours after 30 minutes of middle cerebral artery occlusion. Transient global ischemia was produced with 25 minutes of bilateral common carotid artery occlusion. KA (30 mg/kg) was administered subcutaneously, and seizure activity was evaluated. The number of eosinophilic neurons was assessed in the CA1 region 72 hours after bilateral common carotid artery occlusion and in the CA3 region 24 hours after KA administration. RESULTS The infarction volume after transient middle cerebral artery occlusion was significantly smaller in hsp70 Tg mice than in WT mice (9.1 +/- 5.7 mm(3) versus 22.4 +/- 16.8 mm(3), P < 0.05). The number of eosinophilic neurons in the CA1 area after bilateral common carotid artery occlusion and in CA3 after KA injection was significantly lower in hsp70 Tg mice than in WT mice (949.1 +/- 1095.5 versus 2406.9 +/- 1380.3, P < 0.05, and 33.8 +/- 45.3 versus 119.4 +/- 112.1, P < 0.05, respectively). Fewer terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated biotinylated deoxyuridine triphosphate nick end-labeling-positive cells were observed in hsp70 Tg mice than in WT mice in each model. CONCLUSION The results demonstrate that overexpression of hsp70 reduces neuronal injury after ischemia and seizures. The reduction in the number of terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated biotinylated deoxyuridine triphosphate nick end-labeling-positive cells in hsp70 Tg mice suggests that hsp70 overexpression might reduce apoptotic cell death.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daisuke Tsuchiya
- Department of Neurological Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, California 94143-0112, USA
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Horsburgh K, Macrae IM, Carswell H. Estrogen is neuroprotective via an apolipoprotein E-dependent mechanism in a mouse model of global ischemia. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 2002; 22:1189-95. [PMID: 12368657 DOI: 10.1097/01.wcb.0000037991.07114.4e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Estrogen can ameliorate brain damage in experimental models of focal cerebral ischemia., estrogen increases levels of apolipoprotein E (apoE), which also has neuroprotective effects in brain injury. The authors tested the hypotheses that physiologically relevant levels of 17beta-estradiol are neuroprotective in global cerebral ischemia and that neuroprotection is mediated via apoE. In the first study, subcutaneous implants of 17beta-estradiol were tested in female C57Bl/6J mice (ovariectomized and nonovariectomized) and plasma levels measured by radioimmunoassay to validate that physiologically relevant levels could be achieved. In the second study, female C57Bl/6J and apoE-deficient mice were ovariectomized and implanted with 17beta-estradiol or placebo pellet. Two weeks later, transient global ischemia was induced by bilateral carotid artery occlusion and the mice killed after 72 hours. Ischemic and normal neurons were counted in the caudate nucleus and CA1 pyramidal cell layer and the percentage of neuronal damage was compared between the treated groups. In C57Bl/6J mice, there was less neuronal damage in the 17beta-estradiol-treated group compared with placebo group in the caudate nucleus (15 +/- 20% versus 39 +/- 27%, = 0.02) and in the CA1 pyramidal cell layer (1.8 +/- 2% versus 10 +/- 14%, = 0.08). In contrast, neuronal damage was not significantly different between the 17beta-estradiol and placebo groups in apoE-deficient mice in the caudate nucleus (47 +/- 35% versus 53 +/- 29%, = 0.7) or in the CA1 pyramidal cell layer (24 +/- 19% versus 24 +/- 19%, = 1.0). The data indicate a neuroprotective role for estrogen in global ischemia, the mechanism of which is apoE-dependent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen Horsburgh
- Wellcome Surgical Institute and Hugh Fraser Neuroscience Laboratories, Glasgow, Scotland, UK.
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Estrogen Is Neuroprotective via an Apolipoprotein E???Dependent Mechanism in a Mouse Model of Global Ischemia. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 2002. [DOI: 10.1097/00004647-200210000-00006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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