Mastoparan-induced apoptosis of cultured cerebellar granule neurons is initiated by calcium release from intracellular stores

In vitro exposure to Hymenoptera venom and constituents activates discrete ionotropic pathways in mast cells

Calcium entry is central to the functional processes in mast cells and basophils that contribute to the induction and maintenance of inflammatory responses. Mast cells and basophils express an array of calcium channels, which mediate responses to diverse stimuli triggered by small bioactive molecules, physicochemical stimuli and immunological inputs including antigens and direct immune cell interactions. These cells are also highly responsive to certain venoms (such as Hymenoptera envenomations), which cause histamine secretion, cytokine release and an array of pro-inflammatory functional responses. There are gaps in our understanding of the coupling of venom exposure to specific signaling pathways such as activation of calcium channels. In the present study, we performed a current survey of a model mast cell line selected for its pleiotropic responsiveness to multiple pro-inflammatory inputs. As a heterogenous stimulus, Hymenoptera venom activates multiple classes of conductance at the population level but tend to lead to the measurement of only one type of conductance per cell, despite the cell co-expressing multiple channel types. The data show that I_CRAC, I_ARC, and TRPV-like currents are present in the model mast cell populations and respond to venom exposure. We further assessed individual venom components, specifically secretagogues and arachidonic acid, and identified the conductances associated with these stimuli in mast cells. Single-cell calcium assays and immunofluorescence analysis show that there is heterogeneity of channel expression across the cell population, but this heterogeneity does not explain the apparent selectivity for specific channels in response to exposure to venom as a composite stimulus.

The Cytotoxic Effects of Camptothecin and Mastoparan on the Unicellular Green Alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii

We have recently reported that protease inhibitors affecting the activity of the proteasome cause necrotic cell death in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii instead of inducing apoptosis as shown for some mammalian cell lines. Therefore, we have studied other well-known inducers of apoptosis in mammalian cells for their effects on C. reinhardtii cells. Mastoparan caused rapid cell death without a prominent lag-phase under all growth conditions, whereas the cytotoxic effect of the topoisomerase I inhibitor camptothecin exclusively occurred during the cell-division phase. Essentially no differences between wall-deficient and wild-type cells were observed with respect to dose-response and time-course of camptothecin and mastoparan. In cultures of the wall-deficient strain, cell death was accompanied by swelling and subsequent disruption of the cells, established markers of necrosis. In case of the wild-type strain, camptothecin and mastoparan caused accumulation of apparently intact, but dead cells instead of cell debris due to the presence of the wall. Both in cultures of the wall-deficient and the wild-type strains, cell death was accompanied by an increase of the protein concentration in the culture medium indicating a lytic process like necrosis. Taking together, we have severe doubts on the existence of an apoptotic program in case of C. reinhardtii.

The Gαo Activator Mastoparan-7 Promotes Dendritic Spine Formation in Hippocampal Neurons

Mastoparan-7 (Mas-7), an analogue of the peptide mastoparan, which is derived from wasp venom, is a direct activator of Pertussis toxin- (PTX-) sensitive G proteins. Mas-7 produces several biological effects in different cell types; however, little is known about how Mas-7 influences mature hippocampal neurons. We examined the specific role of Mas-7 in the development of dendritic spines, the sites of excitatory synaptic contact that are crucial for synaptic plasticity. We report here that exposure of hippocampal neurons to a low dose of Mas-7 increases dendritic spine density and spine head width in a time-dependent manner. Additionally, Mas-7 enhances postsynaptic density protein-95 (PSD-95) clustering in neurites and activates Gα_o signaling, increasing the intracellular Ca²⁺ concentration. To define the role of signaling intermediates, we measured the levels of phosphorylated protein kinase C (PKC), c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), and calcium-calmodulin dependent protein kinase IIα (CaMKIIα) after Mas-7 treatment and determined that CaMKII activation is necessary for the Mas-7-dependent increase in dendritic spine density. Our results demonstrate a critical role for Gα_o subunit signaling in the regulation of synapse formation.

Bax inhibitor 1, a modulator of calcium homeostasis, confers affective resilience

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a critical site for intracellular calcium storage as well as protein synthesis, folding, and trafficking. Disruption of these processes is gaining support for contributing to heritable vulnerability of certain diseases. Here, we investigated Bax inhibitor 1 (BI-1), an anti-apoptotic protein that primarily resides in the ER and associates with B-cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl-2) and Bcl-XL, as an affective resiliency factor through its modulation of calcium homeostasis. We found that transgenic (TG) mice with BI-1 reinforced expression, via the neuronal specific enolase promoter, showed protection against the learned helplessness (LH) paradigm, an animal model to test stress coping. TG mice were also protected against anhedonia following both serotonin and catecholamine depletion as measured in two different models, the female urine sniffing test and the saccharine preference test. In addition, we used primary mouse cortical cultures to explore the ability of BI-1 to influence calcium homeostasis under basal conditions and also following challenge with thapsigargin (THPS), an inhibitor of sarco/endoplasmic reticulum Ca(2+) ATPase (SERCA) that disrupts calcium homeostasis. TG neurons showed decreased basal cytosolic calcium levels and decreased Ca(2+) cytosolic accumulation following challenge with THPS as compared to WT neuronal cultures. Together, these data suggest that BI-1, through its actions on calcium homeostasis, may confer affective resiliency in multiple animal models of depression and anhedonia.

Venom peptides from solitary hunting wasps induce feeding disorder in lepidopteran larvae

The cell lytic activity and toxicity against lepidopteran larvae of 13 venom peptides (4 OdVPs and 9 EpVPs) from two solitary hunting wasps, Orancistrocerus drewseni and Eumenes pomiformis, were examined with mastoparan as a reference peptide. Of the 13 peptides, 7 were predicted to have α-helical structures that exhibit the typical character of amphipathic α-helical antimicrobial peptides. The remaining peptides exhibited coil structures; among these, EpVP5 possesses two Cys residues that form an internal disulfide bridge. All the helical peptides including mastoparan showed antimicrobial and insect cell lytic activities, whereas only two of them were hemolytic against human erythrocytes. The helical peptides induced a feeding disorder when injected into the vicinity of the head and thorax of Spodoptera exigua larvae, perhaps because their non-specific neurotoxic or myotoxic action induced cell lysis. At low concentrations, however, these helical peptides increased cell permeability without inducing cell lysis. These findings suggest that the helical venom peptides may function as non-specific neurotoxins or myotoxins and venom-spreading factors at low concentrations, as well as preservatives for long-term storage of the prey via antimicrobial, particularly antifungal, activities.

Induction of Ca2+ signal mediated apoptosis and alteration of IP3R1 and SERCA1 expression levels by stress hormone in differentiating C2C12 myoblasts

Glucocorticoid (GC) are stress hormones, whose cytotoxicity has been shown in various cells. The imbalance of calcium homeostasis is believed to be associated with the dexamethasone (DEX, a synthetic GC)-induced apoptosis. Here we show that in C2C12 myoblasts, DEX markedly up-regulated the expression of inositol 1,4,5-triphosphate receptor 1 (IP3R1) and down-regulated the expression of SERCA1 (sarcoendoplasmic reticulum Ca(2+)-ATPase 1), leading to calcium overload. Furthermore, the imbalance of calcium homeostasis increased the level of BAX, decreased the level of Bcl-2, induced cytochrome c release and activated caspase-3, leading to intranucleosomal DNA fragmentation and plasma membrane damage, eventually resulting in cell apoptosis. Taken together, by using C2C12 myoblasts as a model system, we demonstrated a novel mechanism for stress hormone-induced apoptosis: it is dependent on the induction of intracellular calcium overload via the alterations of IP3R1 and SERCA1 expressions.

The cytotoxic effects of the anti-bacterial peptides on leukocytes

Antimicrobial peptides are small molecular weight proteins with a large antibacterial spectrum. They can reach high local concentrations in tissues with active inflammation, being largely produced by immunocompetent cells. However, their effect on eukaryotic cells is still unclear. We have, therefore, studied three structurally different antimicrobial peptides (cecropin P1, PR-39 and NK-lysin) for their cytotoxic effects on blood mononuclear cells. None of the antimicrobial peptides tested exhibited significant cytotoxic effect on resting lymphocytes isolated either from peripheral blood or from the spleen with the exception of high concentrations (ten times higher than IC100 for Escherichia coli) of NK-lysin. Activated lymphocytes were, however, more sensitive to the cytotoxic effect of the antimicrobial peptides. Both activated T-cells and B-cells were dose dependent sensitive to NK-lysin while only activated B-cells but not activated T-cells were sensitive to PR-39. Cecropin did not exhibit any cytotoxic effect on activated lymphocytes either. By using several cell lines (3B6, K562, U932 and EL-4) we were able to show that NK-lysin has a broad necrotic effect while PR-39 has a cell specific apoptotic effect dependent on the specifically cellular uptake. In conclusion we show here that antimicrobial peptides are not cytotoxic for the resting eukaryotic cells but can be cytotoxic on activated immune cells through distinct mechanisms of cell death.

Endoplasmic reticulum Ca(2+) release through ryanodine and IP(3) receptors contributes to neuronal excitotoxicity

Overactivation of ionotropic glutamate receptors induces a Ca(2+) overload into the cytoplasm that leads neurons to excitotoxic death, a process that has been linked to several neurodegenerative disorders. While the role of mitochondria and its involvement in excitotoxicity have been widely studied, the contribution of endoplasmic reticulum (ER), another crucial intracellular store in maintaining Ca(2+) homeostasis, is not fully understood. In this study, we analyzed the contribution of ER-Ca(2+) release through ryanodine (RyR) and IP(3) (IP(3)R) receptors to a neuronal in vitro model of excitotoxicity. NMDA induced a dose-dependent neuronal death, which was significantly decreased by ER-Ca(2+) release inhibitors in cortical neurons as well as in organotypic slices. Furthermore, ryanodine and 2APB, RyR and IP(3)R inhibitors respectively, attenuated NMDA-triggered intracellular Ca(2+) increase and oxidative stress, whereas 2APB reduced mitochondrial membrane depolarization and caspase-3 cleavage. Consistent with ER-Ca(2+) homeostasis disruption, we observed that NMDA-induced ER stress, characterized here by eIF2alpha phosphorylation and over-expression of GRP chaperones which were regulated by ER-Ca(2+) release inhibitors. These results demonstrate that Ca(2+) release from ER contributes to neuronal death by both promoting mitochondrial dysfunction and inducing specific stress and apoptosis pathways during excitotoxicity.

Intraluminal calcium as a primary regulator of endoplasmic reticulum function

The concentration of Ca2+ inside the lumen of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) regulates a vast array of spatiotemporally distinct cellular processes, from intracellular Ca2+ signals to intra-ER protein processing and cell death. This review summarises recent data on the mechanisms of luminal Ca2+-dependent regulation of Ca2+ release and uptake as well as ER regulation of cellular adaptive processes. In addition we discuss general biophysical properties of the ER membrane, as trans-endomembrane Ca2+ fluxes are subject to basic electrical forces, determined by factors such as the membrane potential of the ER and the ease with which Ca2+ fluxes are able to change this potential (i.e. the resistance of the ER membrane). Although these electrical forces undoubtedly play a fundamental role in shaping [Ca2+](ER) dynamics, at present there is very little direct experimental information about the biophysical properties of the ER membrane. Further studies of how intraluminal [Ca2+] is regulated, best carried out with direct measurements, are vital for understanding how Ca2+ orchestrates cell function. Direct monitoring of [Ca2+](ER) under conditions where the cytosolic [Ca2+] is known may also help to capture elusive biophysical information about the ER, such as the potential difference across the ER membrane.

Structural Evaluation of a Novel Pro-apoptotic Peptide Coupled to CNGRC Tumor Homing Sequence by NMR

Hunter-killer peptides (HKPs) are synthetic peptides that target specific cell types for apoptosis. These studies report functional and structural characteristics of HKP9, an hunter-killer peptide that specifically targets tumor vasculature with a new apoptotic sequence. Vesicle leakage experiments were performed as a model for membrane perturbing activity. Placement of the homing sequence reduces both cell toxicity and vesicle leakage activity. NMR studies elucidate the conformation and orientation of HKP9 in micelles. The positively charged end of the HKP9 killing sequence is solvent exposed; however, the central portion of the peptide is helical and buried in dodecylphosphorylcholine micelles. The homing sequence is less solvent exposed than in a previously reported tumor-homing peptide. The results suggest that solvent accessibility of the homing sequence should be considered in design of future peptides.

Orientation and helical conformation of a tissue-specific hunter-killer peptide in micelles

Hunter-killer peptides are chimeric synthetic peptides that selectively target specific cell types for an apoptotic death. These peptides, which are models for potential therapeutics, contain a homing sequence for receptor-mediated interactions and a pro-apoptotic sequence. Homing domains have been designed to target angiogenic tumor cells, prostate cells, arthritic tissue and, most recently, adipose tissue. After a receptor-mediated internalization, the apoptotic sequence, which contains D-enantiomer amino acids, initiates apoptosis through mitochondrial membrane disruption. We have begun structure and functional studies on a peptide (HKP1) that specifically targets angiogenic tumor cells for apoptosis. As a model for mitochondrial membrane disruption, we have examined peptide-induced leakage of a calcein fluorophore from large unilamellar vesicles. These experiments demonstrate more potent leakage activity by HKP1 than the peptide lacking the homing domain. Circular dichroism and 2D homonuclear NMR experiments demonstrate that this tumor-specific HKP adopts a left-handed amphipathic helix in association with dodecylphosphorylcholine micelles in a parallel orientation to the lipid-water interface with the homing domain remaining exposed to solvent. The amphipathic helix of the apoptotic domain orients with nonpolar leucine and alanine residues inserting most deeply into the lipid environment.

Localization of intracellular calcium release in cells injured by venom from the ectoparasitoid Nasonia vitripennis (Walker) (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae) and dependence of calcium mobilization on G-protein activation

Venom from the ectoparasitic wasp Nasonia vitripennis induces cellular injury that appears to involve the release of intracellular calcium stores via the activation of phospholipase C, and culminates in oncotic death. A linkage between release of intracellular Ca2+ and oncosis has not been clearly established and was the focus of this study. When BTI-TN-5B1-4 cells were treated with suramin, an uncoupler of G-proteins, venom-induced swelling and oncotic death were inhibited in a dose-dependent manner for at least 24 h. Suramin also blocked increases in free cytosolic [Ca2+], arguing that venom induces calcium mobilization through G-protein signaling pathways. Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) was predicted to be the source of intracellular calcium release, but labeling with the fluorescent probe ER-tracker revealed no indication of organelle swelling or loss of membrane integrity as would be expected if the Ca(2+)-ATPase pump was disabled by crude venom. Incubation of cell monolayers with calmodulin or nitrendipine, modulators of ER calcium release channels, neither attenuated nor augmented the effects of wasp venom. These results suggest that wasp venom stimulates calcium release from ER compartments distinct from RyRs, L-type Ca2+ channels, and the Ca(2+)-ATPase pump, or calcium is released from some other intracellular store. A reduction of mitochondrial membrane potential delta psi(m) appeared to precede a rise in cytosolic free Ca2+ as evidenced by fluorescent microscopy using the calcium-sensitive probe fluo-4 AM. This argues that the initial insult to the cell resulting from venom elicits a rapid loss of (delta psi(m)), followed by unregulated calcium efflux from mitochondria into the cytosol. Mobilization of calcium in this fashion could stimulate cAMP formation, and subsequently promote calcium release from NAADP-sensitive stores.

Physiology and Pathophysiology of the Calcium Store in the Endoplasmic Reticulum of Neurons

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is the largest single intracellular organelle, which is present in all types of nerve cells. The ER is an interconnected, internally continuous system of tubules and cisterns, which extends from the nuclear envelope to axons and presynaptic terminals, as well as to dendrites and dendritic spines. Ca2+release channels and Ca2+pumps residing in the ER membrane provide for its excitability. Regulated ER Ca2+release controls many neuronal functions, from plasmalemmal excitability to synaptic plasticity. Enzymatic cascades dependent on the Ca2+concentration in the ER lumen integrate rapid Ca2+signaling with long-lasting adaptive responses through modifications in protein synthesis and processing. Disruptions of ER Ca2+homeostasis are critically involved in various forms of neuropathology.

Charge delocalisation and the design of novel mastoparan analogues: enhanced cytotoxicity and secretory efficacy of [Lys5, Lys8, Aib10]MP

The formation of an amphipathic helix is a major determinant of the biological activity of the tetradecapeptide mastoparan (MP). To address the functional significance of lysyl residues at positions 4, 11 and 12 of MP, we synthesised five novel analogues using sequence permutation and arginine-substitution to delocalise cationic charge. Comparative bioassays determined cytotoxicity, beta-hexoseaminidase secretory efficacy and peptide-activated extracellular receptor-stimulated kinase (ERK)1/2 phosphorylation. The monosubstitution of individual lysine residues with arginine produced differential changes to the indices of cytotoxicity and secretion indicating that these conservative substitutions are compatible with membrane translocation and the selective binding and activation of intracellular proteins. More profound changes to the predicted hydrophilic face of MP, resulting from the relocation or substitution of additional lysyl residues, enhanced both the cytotoxicity and secretory efficacy of novel peptides. Significantly, the more amphipathic peptide [Lys5, Lys8, Aib10]MP was identified to be both the most cytotoxic and the most potent secretagogue of all the peptides compared here. Charge delocalisation within the hydrophilic face of MP analogues was also compatible with peptide-induced activation of ERK1/2 phosphorylation. Our data indicate that charge delocalisation is a suitable strategy to engineer more potent analogues of MP that differentially target intracellular proteins.

Channel-forming activity in the venom of the cockroach-hunting wasp, Ampulex compressa

The parasitoid solitary wasp Ampulex compressa uses the cockroach Periplaneta americana as a food supply for its larvae. To subdue its prey, the wasp injects a venom cocktail into the brain of the cockroach. We investigated channel activity of A. compressa venom by collecting venom and incorporating it into a planar lipid bilayer. The venom, reconstituted into the bilayer, showed ion channel activity, forming a fast-fluctuating channel with a small conductance of 20+/-0.1pS, with no voltage sensitivity. These channels were not observed when the venom was digested with proteases before application to the bilayer, but were not affected by exposure to protease after their incorporation into the bilayer, indicating that the active venom component is a peptide. The channels were found to be cation selective with similar selectivity for the monovalent cations K(+), Li(+) and Na(+), but showed high selectivity against anions (Cl(-)) and divalent cations (Ca(2+) and Mg(2+)). This study is the first demonstration and biophysical characterization of channel activity in the venom of A. compressa. The possible functional significance of this channel activity is discussed in light of the unusual nature of the effects of this wasp venom on the behavior of its prey.

Temporal and spatial distribution of activated caspase-3 after subdural kainic acid infusions in rat spinal cord

The molecular events initiating apoptosis following traumatic spinal cord injury (SCI) remain poorly understood. Soon after injury, the spinal cord is exposed to numerous secondary insults, including elevated levels of glutamate, that contribute to cell dysfunction and death. In the present study, we attempted to mimic the actions of glutamate by subdural infusion of the selective glutamate receptor agonist, kainic acid, into the uninjured rat spinal cord. Immunohistochemical colocalization studies revealed that activated caspase-3 was present in ventral horn motor neurons at 24 hours, but not 4 hours or 96 hours, following kainic acid treatment. However, at no time point examined was there evidence of significant neuronal loss. Kainic acid resulted in caspase-3 activation in several glial cell populations at all time points examined, with the most pronounced effect occurring at 24 hours following infusion. In particular, caspase-3 activation was observed in a significant number of oligodendroglia in the dorsal and ventral funiculi, and there was a pronounced loss of oligodendroglia at 96 hours following treatment. The results of these experiments indicate a role for glutamate as a mediator of oligodendroglial apoptosis in traumatic SCI. In addition, understanding the apoptotic signaling events activated by glutamate will be important for developing therapies targeting this cell death process.

Regulation of ER stress proteins by valproate: therapeutic implications

OBJECTIVES

This paper reviews results of our studies examining the regulation of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress proteins by valproate (VPA). and discusses the possible implications in bipolar disorder.

METHODS

Our previous studies in the field are reviewed along with relevant literature.

RESULTS

Using differential display PCR, we identified GRP78 as a VPA-regulated gene in rat cerebral cortex. We also showed that other members of the ER stress proteins family, GRP94 and calreticulin, are also upregulated by VPA. Immunohistochemistry identified that ER stress proteins are increased in frontal and parietal cortex, as well as regions of the hippocampus in rat brain following chronic treatment with VPA.

CONCLUSIONS

Regulation of ER stress proteins by VPA may prove to be important to the mechanism of action of the drug. The neuroprotective role of these proteins may also prove to be involved in the pathophysiology of bipolar disorder.

Transient vesicle leakage initiated by a synthetic apoptotic peptide derived from the death domain of neurotrophin receptor, p75NTR

Peptides that induce apoptosis have potential as anticancer therapeutics. The design of safe, effective cancer therapeutic peptides requires characterization of the physical and chemical properties that influence activation of cell death in neoplastic cells. NTR365 is a synthetic pro-apoptotic peptide with an amino acid sequence derived from the death domain of p75(NTR). These studies were initiated to identify a potential mechanism for the apoptotic activity of NTR365 identified by Rabizadeh et al. We examined the interactions of this synthetic pro-apoptotic peptide with phospholipid vesicles. Fluorescence experiments demonstrate that the peptide induces leakage from large unilamellar vesicles. Leakage activity is transient and dependent on the presence of anionic lipid in the vesicles. Circular dichroism studies show that the NTR365 adopts a different conformation and may have altered vesicle affinity under conditions conducive to leakage. The active conformation of NTR365 differs from that of the NMR derived conformation. A related peptide with a single substitution is not apoptotically active, does not form a helical structure in the presence of vesicles and does not induce appreciable vesicle leakage under the same conditions as NTR365. These studies suggest that the demonstrated apoptotic activity of a closely related NTR364 peptide is linked to disruption of a membrane barrier and to the ability of the peptide to form a helical structure.

Venom from the ectoparasitic wasp Nasonia vitripennis increases Na+ influx and activates phospholipase C and phospholipase A2 dependent signal transduction pathways in cultured insect cells

The mode of action of venom from the ectoparasitic wasp Nasonia vitripennis in eliciting cell death was examined using an in vitro approach with BTI-TN-5B1-4 cells, and the cell responses were compared to those evoked by the extensively studied wasp toxin mastoparan. Wasp venom increased plasma membrane permeability to Na+, resulting in cellular swelling and death due to oncosis. When ouabain was used to disable Na+, K+-ATPases, the effects of venom were enhanced. Measurements of intracellular calcium using fluo-4 AM revealed a rearrangement and an increase in cytosolic [Ca+2]i within 30 min after exposure of BTI-TN-5B1-4 cells to venom. This venom-mediated increase in Ca+2 was apparently due to mobilization of intracellular stores since the changes occurred in the absence of extracellular Ca+2. Phospholipase C (PLC) inhibitors, neomycin and U-73122, blocked the venom-induced death temporarily (<3h), but by 24h, all venom-treated cells swelled and lysed. Pre-treatment of cells with caffeine or theophylline but not ryanodine attenuated the induction of oncosis by wasp venom. Anti-inflammatory peptide 1 (antiflammin 1) but not bromophenacyl bromide, agents that block phospholipase A2 (PLA2) activity, abolished the responsiveness of BTI-TN-5B1-4 cells to venom. These results suggest that venom initiates cell death by inducing Ca+2 release from intracellular stores probably via phospholipase C and IP3. A possible mode of action for venom from N. vitripennis requiring dual activation of PLC and PLA2 is discussed and compared to the pathways known to be activated by mastoparan.

Multiple mechanisms underlie neurotoxicity by different types of Alzheimer's disease mutations of amyloid precursor protein

We examined a neuronal cell system in which single-cell expression of either familial Alzheimer's disease (FAD) gene V642I-APP or K595N/M596L-APP (NL-APP) in an inducible plasmid was controlled without affecting transfection efficiency. This system revealed that (i) low expression of both mutants exerted toxicity sensitive to both Ac-DEVD-CHO (DEVD) and glutathione ethyl ester (GEE), whereas wild-type APP (wtAPP) only at higher expression levels caused GEE/DEVD-resistant death to lesser degrees; (ii) toxicity by the V642I mutation was entirely GEE/DEVD sensitive; and (iii) toxicity by higher expression of NL-APP was GEE/DEVD resistant. The GEE/DEVD-sensitive death was sensitive to pertussis toxin and was due to G(o)-interacting His(657)-Lys(676) domain. The GEE/DEVD-resistant death was due to C-terminal Met(677)-Asn(695). APP mutants lacking either domain unraveled elaborate intracellular cross-talk between these domains. E618Q-APP, responsible for non-AD type of a human disease, only exerted GEE/DEVD-resistant death at higher expression. Therefore, (i) different FAD mutations in APP cause neuronal cell death through different cytoplasmic domains via different sets of mechanisms; (ii) expression levels of FAD genes are critical in activating specific death mechanisms; and (iii) toxicity by low expression of both mutants most likely reflects the pathogenetic mechanism of FAD.

V642I APP-inducible neuronal cells: a model system for investigating Alzheimer's disorders

APP is a precursor of beta amyloid deposited in Alzheimer's disease (AD). Although genetic studies established that mutations in APP cause familial AD (FAD), the mechanism for neuronal death by FAD mutants has not been well understood. We established neuronal cells (F11/EcR/V642I cells) in which V642I APP was inducibly expressed by ecdysone. Treatment with ecdysone, but not vehicle, killed most cells within a few days, with rounding, shrinkage, and detachment as well as nuclear fragmentation. Death was suppressed by Ac-DEVD-CHO and pertussis toxin. Electron microscopic analysis revealed that apoptosis occurred in ecdysone-treated cells. V642I-APP-induced death was suppressed by the anti-AD factors estrogen and apoE2. These data demonstrate not only that expression of this FAD gene causes neuronal apoptosis, but that F11/EcR/V642I cells, the first neuronal cells with inducible FAD gene expression, provide a useful model system in investigating AD disorders.

Membrane perturbation by mastoparan 7 elicits a broad alteration in lipid composition of L1210 cells

Mastoparan 7 (Mas-7), an amphiphilic peptide possessing membrane perturbing activity, has been known to selectively stimulate some lipases. To examine changes in the lipid composition induced by Mas-7, we carried out systemic lipid analysis of L1210 cells after Mas-7 treatment. The total lipid was determined by HPLC, gas-liquid chromatography, and electrospray ionization mass spectrometry in conjunction with differential radiolabelling with [(32)P]orthophosphate, [(3)H]myristic acid, and [(3)H]arachidonic acid. The lipid analysis revealed multiple changes in more than 10 lipid classes. Free fatty acids (FFAs) and phosphatidylethanol (PEt), the phospholipase D product in the presence of ethanol, were increased significantly and phosphatidylcholine (PC) was decreased. Digitonin, a membrane permeabilizing reagent, similarly affected the lipid composition of L1210. The FFA released showed a very broad distribution of saturated, monounsaturated, and polyunsaturated fatty acids, implying that phospholipase A(2) alone could not account for all of the FFAs released. By comparing the molecular species of PEt with those of endogenous PC, we showed that phospholipase D in L1210 cells appeared to act selectively on diacyl-PC. The perturbation-induced alterations in the lipid composition brought about by Mas-7 might play a crucial role in the physiology of the affected cells.

Mitochondria and neuronal survival

Mitochondria play a central role in the survival and death of neurons. The detailed bioenergetic mechanisms by which isolated mitochondria generate ATP, sequester Ca(2+), generate reactive oxygen species, and undergo Ca(2+)-dependent permeabilization of their inner membrane are currently being applied to the function of mitochondria in situ within neurons under physiological and pathophysiological conditions. Here we review the functional bioenergetics of isolated mitochondria, with emphasis on the chemiosmotic proton circuit and the application (and occasional misapplication) of these principles to intact neurons. Mitochondria play an integral role in both necrotic and apoptotic neuronal cell death, and the bioenergetic principles underlying current studies are reviewed.

Involvement of inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate-regulated stores of intracellular calcium in calcium dysregulation and neuron cell death caused by HIV-1 protein tat

HIV-1 infection commonly leads to neuronal cell death and a debilitating syndrome known as AIDS-related dementia complex. The HIV-1 protein Tat is neurotoxic, and because cell survival is affected by the intracellular calcium concentration ([Ca2+]i), we determined mechanisms by which Tat increased [Ca2+]i and the involvement of these mechanisms in Tat-induced neurotoxicity. Tat increased [Ca2+]i dose-dependently in cultured human fetal neurons and astrocytes. In neurons, but not astrocytes, we observed biphasic increases of [Ca2+]i. Initial transient increases were larger in astrocytes than in neurons and in both cell types were significantly attenuated by antagonists of inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP3)-mediated intracellular calcium release [8-(diethylamino)octyl-3,4,5-trimethoxybenzoate HCI (TMB-8) and xestospongin], an inhibitor of receptor-Gi protein coupling (pertussis toxin), and a phospholipase C inhibitor (neomycin). Tat significantly increased levels of IP3 threefold. Secondary increases of neuronal [Ca2+]i in neurons were delayed and progressive as a result of excessive calcium influx and were inhibited by the glutamate receptor antagonists ketamine, MK-801, (+/-)-2-amino-5-phosphonopentanoic acid, and 6,7-dinitroquinoxaline-2,3-dione. Secondary increases of [Ca2+]i did not occur when initial increases of [Ca2+]i were prevented with TMB-8, xestospongin, pertussis toxin, or neomycin, and these inhibitors as well as thapsigargin inhibited Tat-induced neurotoxicity. These results suggest that Tat, via pertussis toxin-sensitive phospholipase C activity, induces calcium release from IP3-sensitive intracellular stores, which leads to glutamate receptor-mediated calcium influx, dysregulation of [Ca2+]i, and Tat-induced neurotoxicity.

Semaphorins as mediators of neuronal apoptosis

Shrinkage and collapse of the neuritic network are often observed during the process of neuronal apoptosis. However, the molecular and biochemical basis for the axonal damage associated with neuronal cell death is still unclear. We present evidence for the involvement of axon guidance molecules with repulsive cues in neuronal cell death. Using the differential display approach, an up-regulation of collapsin response mediator protein was detected in sympathetic neurons undergoing dopamine-induced apoptosis. A synchronized induction of mRNA of the secreted collapsin-1 and the intracellular collapsin response mediator protein that preceded commitment of neurons to apoptosis was detected. Antibodies directed against a conserved collapsin-derived peptide provided marked and prolonged protection of several neuronal cell types from dopamine-induced apoptosis. Moreover, neuronal apoptosis was inhibited by antibodies against neuropilin-1, a putative component of the semaphorin III/collapsin-1 receptor. Induction of neuronal apoptosis was also caused by exposure of neurons to semaphorin III-alkaline phosphatase secreted from 293EBNA cells. Anti-collapsin-1 antibodies were effective in blocking the semaphorin III-induced death process. We therefore suggest that, before their death, apoptosis-destined neurons may produce and secrete destructive axon guidance molecules that can affect their neighboring cells and thus transfer a "death signal" across specific and susceptible neuronal populations.

Seizure-induced cell death produced by repeated tetanic stimulation in vitro: possible role of endoplasmic reticulum calcium stores

Seizures may cause brain damage due to mechanisms initiated by excessive excitatory synaptic transmission. One such mechanism is the activation of death-promoting intracellular cascades by the influx and the perturbed homeostasis of Ca2+. The neuroprotective effects of preventing the entry of Ca2+ from voltage-dependent Ca2+ channels, NMDA receptors, and non-NMDA receptors, is well known. Less clear is the contribution to excitotoxicity of Ca2+ released from endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stores. We produced epileptiform discharges in combined entorhinal cortex/hippocampus slices using repeated tetanic stimulation of the Schaffer collaterals and assessed cell death after 1, 3, or 12-14 h with gel electrophoresis of genomic DNA and immunohistologically using terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase (TdT)-mediated deoxyuridine 5'-triphosphate (dUTP) nick end labeling (TUNEL) staining. We manipulated ER Ca2+ stores using two conventional drugs, dantrolene, which blocks the Ca2+ release channel, and thapsigargin, which blocks sarco-endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+-ATPases resulting in depletion of ER Ca2+ stores. To monitor epileptogenesis, and to assess effects attributable to dantrolene and thapsigargin on normal synaptic transmission, extracellular potentials were recorded in stratum pyramidale of the CA1 region. Repeated tetanic stimulation reliably produced primary afterdischarge and spontaneous epileptiform discharges, which persisted for 14 h, the longest time recorded. We did not observe indications of cell death attributable to seizures with either method when assessed after 1 or 3 h; however, qualitatively more degraded DNA always was observed in tetanized slices from the 12- to 14-h group compared with time-matched controls. Consistent with these data was a significant, fourfold, increase in the percentage of TUNEL-positive cells in CA3, CA1, and entorhinal cortex in tetanized slices from the 12- to 14-h group (16. 5 +/- 4.4, 33.7 +/- 7.1, 11.6 +/- 2.1, respectively; means +/- SE; n = 7) compared with the appropriate time-matched control (4.1 +/- 2.2, 7.3 +/- 2.0, 2.8 +/- 0.9, respectively; n = 6). Dantrolene (30 microM; n = 5) and thapsigargin (1 microM; n = 4) did not affect significantly normal synaptic transmission, assessed by the amplitude of the population spike after 30 min of exposure. Dantrolene and thapsigargin also were without effect on the induction or the persistence of epileptiform discharges, but both drugs prevented seizure-induced cell death when assessed with gel electrophoresis. We suggest that Ca2+ entering a cell from the outside, in addition to the Ca2+ contributed from ryanodine-sensitive stores (i.e., Ca2+-induced Ca2+ release), may be necessary for seizure-induced cell death.

Neuronal calcium stores

Neuronal calcium stores associated with specialized intracellular organelles, such as endoplasmic reticulum and mitochondria, dynamically participate in generation of cytoplasmic calcium signals which accompany neuronal activity. They fulfil a dual role in neuronal Ca2+ homeostasis being involved in both buffering the excess of Ca2+ entering the cytoplasm through plasmalemmal channels and providing an intracellular source for Ca2+. Increase of Ca2+ content within the stores regulates the availability and magnitude of intracellular calcium release, thereby providing a mechanism which couples the neuronal activity with functional state of intracellular Ca2+ stores. Apart of 'classical' calcium stores (endoplasmic reticulum and mitochondria) other organelles (e.g. nuclear envelope and neurotransmitter vesicles) may potentially act as a functional Ca2+ storage compartments. Calcium ions released from internal stores participate in many neuronal functions, and might be primarily involved in regulation of various aspects of neuronal plasticity.