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Ungogo MA, de Koning HP. Drug resistance in animal trypanosomiases: Epidemiology, mechanisms and control strategies. Int J Parasitol Drugs Drug Resist 2024; 25:100533. [PMID: 38555795 PMCID: PMC10990905 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpddr.2024.100533] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2023] [Revised: 03/13/2024] [Accepted: 03/15/2024] [Indexed: 04/02/2024]
Abstract
Animal trypanosomiasis (AT) is a complex of veterinary diseases known under various names such as nagana, surra, dourine and mal de caderas, depending on the country, the infecting trypanosome species and the host. AT is caused by parasites of the genus Trypanosoma, and the main species infecting domesticated animals are T. brucei brucei, T. b. rhodesiense, T. congolense, T. simiae, T. vivax, T. evansi and T. equiperdum. AT transmission, again depending on species, is through tsetse flies or common Stomoxys and tabanid flies or through copulation. Therefore, the geographical spread of all forms of AT together is not restricted to the habitat of a single vector like the tsetse fly and currently includes almost all of Africa, and most of South America and Asia. The disease is a threat to millions of companion and farm animals in these regions, creating a financial burden in the billions of dollars to developing economies as well as serious impacts on livestock rearing and food production. Despite the scale of these impacts, control of AT is neglected and under-resourced, with diagnosis and treatments being woefully inadequate and not improving for decades. As a result, neither the incidence of the disease, nor the effectiveness of treatment is documented in most endemic countries, although it is clear that there are serious issues of resistance to the few old drugs that are available. In this review we particularly look at the drugs, their application to the various forms of AT, and their mechanisms of action and resistance. We also discuss the spread of veterinary trypanocide resistance and its drivers, and highlight current and future strategies to combat it.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marzuq A Ungogo
- The Roslin Institute, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom; School of Infection and Immunity, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Harry P de Koning
- School of Infection and Immunity, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom.
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2
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Ungogo MA, Aldfer MM, Natto MJ, Zhuang H, Chisholm R, Walsh K, McGee M, Ilbeigi K, Asseri JI, Burchmore RJS, Caljon G, Van Calenbergh S, De Koning HP. Cloning and Characterization of Trypanosoma congolense and T. vivax Nucleoside Transporters Reveal the Potential of P1-Type Carriers for the Discovery of Broad-Spectrum Nucleoside-Based Therapeutics against Animal African Trypanosomiasis. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24043144. [PMID: 36834557 PMCID: PMC9960827 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24043144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2023] [Revised: 02/01/2023] [Accepted: 02/02/2023] [Indexed: 02/09/2023] Open
Abstract
African Animal Trypanosomiasis (AAT), caused predominantly by Trypanosoma brucei brucei, T. vivax and T. congolense, is a fatal livestock disease throughout Sub-Saharan Africa. Treatment options are very limited and threatened by resistance. Tubercidin (7-deazaadenosine) analogs have shown activity against individual parasites but viable chemotherapy must be active against all three species. Divergence in sensitivity to nucleoside antimetabolites could be caused by differences in nucleoside transporters. Having previously characterized the T. brucei nucleoside carriers, we here report the functional expression and characterization of the main adenosine transporters of T. vivax (TvxNT3) and T. congolense (TcoAT1/NT10), in a Leishmania mexicana cell line ('SUPKO') lacking adenosine uptake. Both carriers were similar to the T. brucei P1-type transporters and bind adenosine mostly through interactions with N3, N7 and 3'-OH. Expression of TvxNT3 and TcoAT1 sensitized SUPKO cells to various 7-substituted tubercidins and other nucleoside analogs although tubercidin itself is a poor substrate for P1-type transporters. Individual nucleoside EC50s were similar for T. b. brucei, T. congolense, T. evansi and T. equiperdum but correlated less well with T. vivax. However, multiple nucleosides including 7-halogentubercidines displayed pEC50>7 for all species and, based on transporter and anti-parasite SAR analyses, we conclude that nucleoside chemotherapy for AAT is viable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marzuq A. Ungogo
- School of Infection and Immunity, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8TA, UK
- Department of Veterinary Pharmacology and Toxicology, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria 810107, Kaduna State, Nigeria
- Roslin Institute, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Midlothian EH25 9RG, UK
| | - Mustafa M. Aldfer
- School of Infection and Immunity, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8TA, UK
| | - Manal J. Natto
- School of Infection and Immunity, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8TA, UK
| | - Hainan Zhuang
- School of Infection and Immunity, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8TA, UK
| | - Robyn Chisholm
- School of Infection and Immunity, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8TA, UK
| | - Katy Walsh
- School of Infection and Immunity, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8TA, UK
| | - MarieClaire McGee
- School of Infection and Immunity, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8TA, UK
| | - Kayhan Ilbeigi
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Parasitology and Hygiene (LMPH), University of Antwerp, B-2610 Wilrijk, Belgium
| | - Jamal Ibrahim Asseri
- School of Infection and Immunity, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8TA, UK
| | - Richard J. S. Burchmore
- School of Infection and Immunity, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8TA, UK
| | - Guy Caljon
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Parasitology and Hygiene (LMPH), University of Antwerp, B-2610 Wilrijk, Belgium
| | - Serge Van Calenbergh
- Laboratory for Medicinal Chemistry (Campus Heymans), Ghent University, B-9000 Gent, Belgium
| | - Harry P. De Koning
- School of Infection and Immunity, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8TA, UK
- Correspondence:
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Kasozi KI, MacLeod ET, Welburn SC. Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis on Human African Trypanocide Resistance. Pathogens 2022; 11:pathogens11101100. [PMID: 36297157 PMCID: PMC9612373 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens11101100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2022] [Revised: 09/14/2022] [Accepted: 09/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Human African trypanocide resistance (HATr) is a challenge for the eradication of Human African Trypansomiaisis (HAT) following the widespread emergence of increased monotherapy drug treatment failures against Trypanosoma brucei gambiense and T. b. rhodesiense that are associated with changes in pathogen receptors. Methods: Electronic searches of 12 databases and 3 Google search websites for human African trypanocide resistance were performed using a keyword search criterion applied to both laboratory and clinical studies. Fifty-one publications were identified and included in this study using the PRISMA checklist. Data were analyzed using RevMan and random effect sizes were computed for the statistics at the 95% confidence interval. Results: Pentamidine/melarsoprol/nifurtimox cross-resistance is associated with loss of the T. brucei adenosine transporter 1/purine 2 gene (TbAT1/P2), aquaglyceroporins (TbAQP) 2 and 3, followed by the high affinity pentamidine melarsoprol transporter (HAPT) 1. In addition, the loss of the amino acid transporter (AAT) 6 is associated with eflornithine resistance. Nifurtimox/eflornithine combination therapy resistance is associated with AAT6 and nitroreductase loss, and high resistance and parasite regrowth is responsible for treatment relapse. In clinical studies, the TbAT1 proportion of total random effects was 68% (95% CI: 38.0−91.6); I2 = 96.99% (95% CI: 94.6−98.3). Treatment failure rates were highest with melarsoprol followed by eflornithine at 41.49% (95% CI: 24.94−59.09) and 6.56% (3.06−11.25) respectively. HATr-resistant phenotypes used in most laboratory experiments demonstrated significantly higher pentamidine resistance than other trypanocides. Conclusion: The emergence of drug resistance across the spectrum of trypanocidal agents that are used to treat HAT is a major threat to the global WHO target to eliminate HAT by 2030. T. brucei strains were largely resistant to diamidines and the use of high trypanocide concentrations in clinical studies have proved fatal in humans. Studies to develop novel chemotherapeutical agents and identify alternative protein targets could help to reduce the emergence and spread of HATr.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keneth Iceland Kasozi
- Infection Medicine, Deanery of Biomedical Sciences, Edinburgh Medical School, College of Medicine and Veterinary Medicine, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH8 9JZ, UK
- School of Medicine, Kabale University, Kabale P.O. Box 317, Uganda
- Correspondence: (K.I.K.); (S.C.W.)
| | - Ewan Thomas MacLeod
- Infection Medicine, Deanery of Biomedical Sciences, Edinburgh Medical School, College of Medicine and Veterinary Medicine, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH8 9JZ, UK
| | - Susan Christina Welburn
- Infection Medicine, Deanery of Biomedical Sciences, Edinburgh Medical School, College of Medicine and Veterinary Medicine, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH8 9JZ, UK
- Zhejiang University-University of Edinburgh Joint Institute, Zhejiang University, International Campus, 718 East Haizhou Road, Haining 314400, China
- Correspondence: (K.I.K.); (S.C.W.)
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Żołek T, Dömötör O, Rezler M, Enyedy ÉA, Maciejewska D. Deposition of pentamidine analogues in the human body - spectroscopic and computational approaches. Eur J Pharm Sci 2021; 161:105779. [PMID: 33667666 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejps.2021.105779] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2021] [Revised: 02/23/2021] [Accepted: 02/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Bis-benzamidines are a diverse group of compounds with high potential in pharmacotherapy, and among them, pentamidine is a drug of great therapeutic significance in Pneumocystis jiroveci pneumonia (PJP) prophylaxis and therapy. Pharmacokinetic properties of these cationic species such as transport, acid/base equilibria, and interactions with potential target molecules are still of interest, especially for recently designed compounds. To broaden our knowledge drug-likeness, human serum albumin binding, and acidity constants (Ka) were experimentally and theoretically examined for five pentamidine analogues 1 - 5 with -NH-CO-chain-CO-NH-bridges of increasing length and O, N, and S atoms in the chain. The studied analogues display very marked activity against Pneumocystis carinii without cytotoxicity that inspired us to perform an in silico analysis of their mode of action based on the hypothesis that the small DNA groove of rich in adenine-thymine pairs is their molecular target. These studies allowed us to classify them as very promising lead molecules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Teresa Żołek
- Department of Organic Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Medical University of Warsaw, Banacha 1, 02-097 Warsaw, Poland.
| | - Orsolya Dömötör
- Department of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, Interdisciplinary Excellence Centre, University of Szeged, Dóm tér 7. H-6720 Szeged, Hungary; MTA-SZTE Lendület Functional Metal Complexes Research Group, University of Szeged, Dóm tér 7, H-6720 Szeged, Hungary
| | - Mateusz Rezler
- Department of Organic Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Medical University of Warsaw, Banacha 1, 02-097 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Éva A Enyedy
- Department of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, Interdisciplinary Excellence Centre, University of Szeged, Dóm tér 7. H-6720 Szeged, Hungary; MTA-SZTE Lendület Functional Metal Complexes Research Group, University of Szeged, Dóm tér 7, H-6720 Szeged, Hungary
| | - Dorota Maciejewska
- Department of Organic Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Medical University of Warsaw, Banacha 1, 02-097 Warsaw, Poland.
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Response of Three Nigerian Breeds of Sheep Experimentally Infected with Trypanosoma vivax to Diminazene Aceturate Therapy. FOLIA VETERINARIA 2020. [DOI: 10.2478/fv-2020-0022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
The efficacy of diminazene aceturate in three Nigerian breeds of sheep [West African Dwarf (WAD), Yankassa and Ouda] experimentally infected with Trypanosoma vivax was studied. Five rams of each breed were administered 0.5 ml of goat blood containing 2.5 × 106
T. vivax per millilitre intravenously, while three rams of each breed served as uninfected controls. The treatment with diminazene aceturate was intramuscularly administered to the infected sheep, when their packed cell volume (PCV) fell to 15 %, at a dosage of 7 mg.kg−1 b. w. The parameters measured were parasitaemia, live weight gain and PCV. By 24 hours post treatment (pt.), no trypanosomes were detected by either the Haematocrit Concentration Technique (HCT) or the Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) in the blood of any of the treated sheep. However, a relapse of parasitaemia occurred 17 to 32 days pt. in 46.7 % of the treated rams and these were retreated with 14 mg.kg−1 b. w. diminazene aceturate. There were gradual increments in the live weight gain and the PCV of the treated rams until the resurgence of parasitaemia. Ouda had the highest cases of relapse (80 %), the least mean live weight gain and was the only breed in which mortality was recorded despite the treatment. In conclusion, diminazene aceturate administered at 7 mg.kg−1 b. w. cleared the trypanosomes in the blood of all the treated sheep within 24 hours and this was accompanied by the restoration of lost weight and the reversal of anaemia. However, the subsequent resurgence of parasitaemia indicated that a dosage of 7 mg.kg−1 b. w. was no longer reliable for complete elimination of trypanosomes from all the tissues of the host.
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Hulpia F, Campagnaro GD, Alzahrani KJ, Alfayez IA, Ungogo MA, Mabille D, Maes L, de Koning HP, Caljon G, Van Calenbergh S. Structure-Activity Relationship Exploration of 3'-Deoxy-7-deazapurine Nucleoside Analogues as Anti- Trypanosoma brucei Agents. ACS Infect Dis 2020; 6:2045-2056. [PMID: 32568511 DOI: 10.1021/acsinfecdis.0c00105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Human African trypanosomiasis is a neglected tropical disease caused by Trypanosoma brucei parasites. These protists are unable to produce the purine ring, making them vulnerable to the effects of purine nucleoside analogues. Starting from 3'-deoxytubercidin (5), a lead compound with activity against central-nervous-stage human African trypanosomiasis, we investigate the structure-activity relationships of the purine and ribofuranose rings. The purine ring tolerated only modifications at C7, while from the many alterations of the 3'-deoxyribofuranosyl moiety only the arabino analogue 48 showed pronounced antitrypanosomal activity. Profiling of the most potent analogues against resistant T. brucei strains (resistant to pentamidine, diminazene, and isometamidium) showed reduced dependence on uptake mediated by the P2 aminopurine transporter relative to 5. The introduction of a 7-substituent confers up to 10-fold increased affinity for the P1 nucleoside transporter while generally retaining high affinity for P2. Four of the most promising analogues were found to be metabolically stable, earmarking them as suitable backup analogues for lead 5.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabian Hulpia
- Laboratory for Medicinal Chemistry (Campus Heymans), Ghent University, Ottergemsesteenweg 460, B-9000 Gent, Belgium
| | - Gustavo D. Campagnaro
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8TA, United Kingdom
| | - Khalid J. Alzahrani
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8TA, United Kingdom
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, College of Applied Medical Sciences, Taif University, Taif 21974, Saudi Arabia
| | - Ibrahim A. Alfayez
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8TA, United Kingdom
| | - Marzuq A. Ungogo
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8TA, United Kingdom
- Department of Veterinary Pharmacology and Toxicology, Ahmadu Bello University, 810211 Zaria, Kaduna State, Nigeria
| | - Dorien Mabille
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Parasitology and Hygiene, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1 (S7), B-2610 Wilrijk, Belgium
| | - Louis Maes
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Parasitology and Hygiene, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1 (S7), B-2610 Wilrijk, Belgium
| | - Harry P. de Koning
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8TA, United Kingdom
| | - Guy Caljon
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Parasitology and Hygiene, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1 (S7), B-2610 Wilrijk, Belgium
| | - Serge Van Calenbergh
- Laboratory for Medicinal Chemistry (Campus Heymans), Ghent University, Ottergemsesteenweg 460, B-9000 Gent, Belgium
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7
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Alghamdi AH, Munday JC, Campagnaro GD, Gurvic D, Svensson F, Okpara CE, Kumar A, Quintana J, Martin Abril ME, Milić P, Watson L, Paape D, Settimo L, Dimitriou A, Wielinska J, Smart G, Anderson LF, Woodley CM, Kelly SPY, Ibrahim HM, Hulpia F, Al-Salabi MI, Eze AA, Sprenger T, Teka IA, Gudin S, Weyand S, Field M, Dardonville C, Tidwell RR, Carrington M, O'Neill P, Boykin DW, Zachariae U, De Koning HP. Positively selected modifications in the pore of TbAQP2 allow pentamidine to enter Trypanosoma brucei. eLife 2020; 9:56416. [PMID: 32762841 PMCID: PMC7473772 DOI: 10.7554/elife.56416] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2020] [Accepted: 08/06/2020] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Mutations in the Trypanosoma brucei aquaporin AQP2 are associated with resistance to pentamidine and melarsoprol. We show that TbAQP2 but not TbAQP3 was positively selected for increased pore size from a common ancestor aquaporin. We demonstrate that TbAQP2’s unique architecture permits pentamidine permeation through its central pore and show how specific mutations in highly conserved motifs affect drug permeation. Introduction of key TbAQP2 amino acids into TbAQP3 renders the latter permeable to pentamidine. Molecular dynamics demonstrates that permeation by dicationic pentamidine is energetically favourable in TbAQP2, driven by the membrane potential, although aquaporins are normally strictly impermeable for ionic species. We also identify the structural determinants that make pentamidine a permeant although most other diamidine drugs are excluded. Our results have wide-ranging implications for optimising antitrypanosomal drugs and averting cross-resistance. Moreover, these new insights in aquaporin permeation may allow the pharmacological exploitation of other members of this ubiquitous gene family. African sleeping sickness is a potentially deadly illness caused by the parasite Trypanosoma brucei. The disease is treatable, but many of the current treatments are old and are becoming increasingly ineffective. For instance, resistance is growing against pentamidine, a drug used in the early stages in the disease, as well as against melarsoprol, which is deployed when the infection has progressed to the brain. Usually, cases resistant to pentamidine are also resistant to melarsoprol, but it is still unclear why, as the drugs are chemically unrelated. Studies have shown that changes in a water channel called aquaglyceroporin 2 (TbAQP2) contribute to drug resistance in African sleeping sickness; this suggests that it plays a role in allowing drugs to kill the parasite. This molecular ‘drain pipe’ extends through the surface of T. brucei, and should allow only water and a molecule called glycerol in and out of the cell. In particular, the channel should be too narrow to allow pentamidine or melarsoprol to pass through. One possibility is that, in T. brucei, the TbAQP2 channel is abnormally wide compared to other members of its family. Alternatively, pentamidine and melarsoprol may only bind to TbAQP2, and then ‘hitch a ride’ when the protein is taken into the parasite as part of the natural cycle of surface protein replacement. Alghamdi et al. aimed to tease out these hypotheses. Computer models of the structure of the protein were paired with engineered changes in the key areas of the channel to show that, in T. brucei, TbAQP2 provides a much broader gateway into the cell than observed for similar proteins. In addition, genetic analysis showed that this version of TbAQP2 has been actively selected for during the evolution process of T. brucei. This suggests that the parasite somehow benefits from this wider aquaglyceroporin variant. This is a new resistance mechanism, and it is possible that aquaglyceroporins are also larger than expected in other infectious microbes. The work by Alghamdi et al. therefore provides insight into how other germs may become resistant to drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ali H Alghamdi
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Jane C Munday
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | | | - Dominik Gurvic
- Computational Biology Centre for Translational and Interdisciplinary Research, University of Dundee, Dundee, United Kingdom
| | - Fredrik Svensson
- IOTA Pharmaceuticals Ltd, St Johns Innovation Centre, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Chinyere E Okpara
- Department of Chemistry, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Arvind Kumar
- Chemistry Department, Georgia State University, Atlanta, United States
| | - Juan Quintana
- School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dundee, United Kingdom
| | | | - Patrik Milić
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Laura Watson
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Daniel Paape
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Luca Settimo
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Anna Dimitriou
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Joanna Wielinska
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Graeme Smart
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Laura F Anderson
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | | | - Siu Pui Ying Kelly
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Hasan Ms Ibrahim
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Fabian Hulpia
- Laboratory for Medicinal Chemistry, University of Ghent, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Mohammed I Al-Salabi
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Anthonius A Eze
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Teresa Sprenger
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Ibrahim A Teka
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Simon Gudin
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Simone Weyand
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Mark Field
- School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dundee, United Kingdom.,Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre, Czech Academy of Sciences, Ceske Budejovice, Czech Republic
| | | | - Richard R Tidwell
- Department of Pathology and Lab Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, United States
| | - Mark Carrington
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Paul O'Neill
- Department of Chemistry, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - David W Boykin
- Chemistry Department, Georgia State University, Atlanta, United States
| | - Ulrich Zachariae
- Computational Biology Centre for Translational and Interdisciplinary Research, University of Dundee, Dundee, United Kingdom
| | - Harry P De Koning
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
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8
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Campagnaro GD, de Koning HP. Purine and pyrimidine transporters of pathogenic protozoa - conduits for therapeutic agents. Med Res Rev 2020; 40:1679-1714. [PMID: 32144812 DOI: 10.1002/med.21667] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2019] [Revised: 02/12/2020] [Accepted: 02/18/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Purines and pyrimidines are essential nutrients for any cell. Most organisms are able to synthesize their own purines and pyrimidines, but this ability was lost in protozoans that adapted to parasitism, leading to a great diversification in transporter activities in these organisms, especially for the acquisition of amino acids and nucleosides from their hosts throughout their life cycles. Many of these transporters have been shown to have sufficiently different substrate affinities from mammalian transporters, making them good carriers for therapeutic agents. In this review, we summarize the knowledge obtained on purine and pyrimidine activities identified in protozoan parasites to date and discuss their importance for the survival of these parasites and as drug carriers, as well as the perspectives of developments in the field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gustavo D Campagnaro
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, 120 University Place, Glasgow, UK
| | - Harry P de Koning
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, 120 University Place, Glasgow, UK
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9
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Campagnaro GD, de Freitas Nascimento J, Girard RB, Silber AM, de Koning HP. Cloning and characterisation of the Equilibrative Nucleoside Transporter family of Trypanosoma cruzi: ultra-high affinity and selectivity to survive in the intracellular niche. Biochim Biophys Acta Gen Subj 2018; 1862:2750-2763. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagen.2018.08.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2018] [Revised: 08/22/2018] [Accepted: 08/23/2018] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
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10
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Sekhar GN, Georgian AR, Sanderson L, Vizcay-Barrena G, Brown RC, Muresan P, Fleck RA, Thomas SA. Organic cation transporter 1 (OCT1) is involved in pentamidine transport at the human and mouse blood-brain barrier (BBB). PLoS One 2017; 12:e0173474. [PMID: 28362799 PMCID: PMC5376088 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0173474] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2016] [Accepted: 02/21/2017] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Pentamidine is an effective trypanocidal drug used against stage 1 Human African Trypanosomiasis (HAT). At the blood-brain barrier (BBB), it accumulates inside the endothelial cells but has limited entry into the brain. This study examined transporters involved in pentamidine transport at the human and mouse BBB using hCMEC/D3 and bEnd.3 cell lines, respectively. Results revealed that both cell lines expressed the organic cation transporters (OCT1, OCT2 and OCT3), however, P-gp was only expressed in hCMEC/D3 cells. Polarised expression of OCT1 was also observed. Functional assays found that ATP depletion significantly increased [3H]pentamidine accumulation in hCMEC/D3 cells (***p<0.001) but not in bEnd.3 cells. Incubation with unlabelled pentamidine significantly decreased accumulation in hCMEC/D3 and bEnd.3 cells after 120 minutes (***p<0.001). Treating both cell lines with haloperidol and amantadine also decreased [3H]pentamidine accumulation significantly (***p<0.001 and **p<0.01 respectively). However, prazosin treatment decreased [3H]pentamidine accumulation only in hCMEC/D3 cells (*p<0.05), and not bEnd.3 cells. Furthermore, the presence of OCTN, MATE, PMAT, ENT or CNT inhibitors/substrates had no significant effect on the accumulation of [3H]pentamidine in both cell lines. From the data, we conclude that pentamidine interacts with multiple transporters, is taken into brain endothelial cells by OCT1 transporter and is extruded into the blood by ATP-dependent mechanisms. These interactions along with the predominant presence of OCT1 in the luminal membrane of the BBB contribute to the limited entry of pentamidine into the brain. This information is of key importance to the development of pentamidine based combination therapies which could be used to treat CNS stage HAT by improving CNS delivery, efficacy against trypanosomes and safety profile of pentamidine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gayathri N. Sekhar
- King’s College London, Institute of Pharmaceutical Science, Waterloo, London United Kingdom
| | - Ana R. Georgian
- King’s College London, Institute of Pharmaceutical Science, Waterloo, London United Kingdom
| | - Lisa Sanderson
- King’s College London, Institute of Pharmaceutical Science, Waterloo, London United Kingdom
| | - Gema Vizcay-Barrena
- King’s College London, Centre for Ultrastructural Imaging, King’s College London, London Bridge United Kingdom
| | - Rachel C. Brown
- King’s College London, Institute of Pharmaceutical Science, Waterloo, London United Kingdom
| | - Paula Muresan
- King’s College London, Institute of Pharmaceutical Science, Waterloo, London United Kingdom
| | - Roland A. Fleck
- King’s College London, Centre for Ultrastructural Imaging, King’s College London, London Bridge United Kingdom
| | - Sarah A. Thomas
- King’s College London, Institute of Pharmaceutical Science, Waterloo, London United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
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11
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Abstract
Pathogenic animal trypanosomes affecting livestock have represented a major constraint to agricultural development in Africa for centuries, and their negative economic impact is increasing in South America and Asia. Chemotherapy and chemoprophylaxis represent the main means of control. However, research into new trypanocides has remained inadequate for decades, leading to a situation where the few compounds available are losing efficacy due to the emergence of drug-resistant parasites. In this review, we provide a comprehensive overview of the current options available for the treatment and prophylaxis of the animal trypanosomiases, with a special focus on the problem of resistance. The key issues surrounding the main economically important animal trypanosome species and the diseases they cause are also presented. As new investment becomes available to develop improved tools to control the animal trypanosomiases, we stress that efforts should be directed towards a better understanding of the biology of the relevant parasite species and strains, to identify new drug targets and interrogate resistance mechanisms.
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12
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Nishikawa H, Sakagami T, Yamada E, Fukuda Y, Hayakawa H, Nomura N, Mitsuyama J, Miyazaki T, Mukae H, Kohno S. T-2307, a novel arylamidine, is transported into Candida albicans by a high-affinity spermine and spermidine carrier regulated by Agp2. J Antimicrob Chemother 2016; 71:1845-55. [PMID: 27090633 DOI: 10.1093/jac/dkw095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2015] [Accepted: 02/29/2016] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES T-2307, a novel arylamidine, exhibits potent broad-spectrum activities against pathogenic fungi, particularly Candida albicans. We previously reported that T-2307 uptake was mainly mediated by a saturable high-affinity carrier at the MIC for C. albicans. Since we hypothesized that the potent anticandidal activity arose from accumulation via the high-affinity carrier, we characterized the specificity and kinetic features of the carrier. METHODS The MICs of T-2307 for C. albicans strains were evaluated in the presence and absence of potential competitive substrates. The cells were exposed to [(14)C]T-2307, [(14)C]spermine or [(14)C]spermidine in the presence of unlabelled T-2307, pentamidine, propamidine, or competitive substrates if necessary, and the radioactivity in the cells was measured. C. albicans gene deletion was performed using a one-step PCR-based technique. RESULTS Coapplication with exogenous spermine or spermidine decreased the antifungal activity and uptake of T-2307 in C. albicans strains. T-2307 competitively inhibited spermine and spermidine uptake with inhibition constants similar to its Km for the high-affinity carrier. The comparison of MICs and kinetic values between T-2307 and other diamidine compounds suggested that the different antifungal properties could be partially attributable to the variations in their affinity with the carrier. Studies of gene deletion mutants revealed that T-2307 was transported into C. albicans by a high-affinity spermine and spermidine carrier regulated by Agp2. CONCLUSIONS Uptake of T-2307 via the high-affinity spermine and spermidine carrier regulated by Agp2 could contribute to its potent antifungal activity. Further investigation is required to identify the high-affinity carrier for potential targeting with novel therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroshi Nishikawa
- Research Laboratories, Toyama Chemical Co., Ltd, 2-4-1 Shimookui, Toyama, Japan Second Department of Internal Medicine, Nagasaki University, Nagasaki, Japan Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Nagasaki University Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Nagasaki, Japan
| | - Toru Sakagami
- Research Laboratories, Toyama Chemical Co., Ltd, 2-4-1 Shimookui, Toyama, Japan
| | - Eio Yamada
- Research Laboratories, Toyama Chemical Co., Ltd, 2-4-1 Shimookui, Toyama, Japan
| | - Yoshiko Fukuda
- Research Laboratories, Toyama Chemical Co., Ltd, 2-4-1 Shimookui, Toyama, Japan
| | - Hiroyoshi Hayakawa
- Research Laboratories, Toyama Chemical Co., Ltd, 2-4-1 Shimookui, Toyama, Japan
| | - Nobuhiko Nomura
- Research Laboratories, Toyama Chemical Co., Ltd, 2-4-1 Shimookui, Toyama, Japan
| | - Junichi Mitsuyama
- Research Laboratories, Toyama Chemical Co., Ltd, 2-4-1 Shimookui, Toyama, Japan
| | - Taiga Miyazaki
- Second Department of Internal Medicine, Nagasaki University, Nagasaki, Japan Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Nagasaki University Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Nagasaki, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Mukae
- Second Department of Internal Medicine, Nagasaki University, Nagasaki, Japan
| | - Shigeru Kohno
- Second Department of Internal Medicine, Nagasaki University, Nagasaki, Japan
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13
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Lowering the pKa of a bisimidazoline lead with halogen atoms results in improved activity and selectivity against Trypanosoma brucei in vitro. Eur J Med Chem 2015; 101:806-17. [PMID: 26231081 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2015.07.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2015] [Revised: 07/03/2015] [Accepted: 07/07/2015] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Diphenyl-based bis(2-iminoimidazolidines) are promising antiprotozoal agents that are curative in mouse models of stage 1 trypanosomiasis but devoid of activity in the late-stage disease, possibly due to poor brain penetration caused by their dicationic nature. We present here a strategy consisting in reducing the pKa of the basic 2-iminoimidazolidine groups though the introduction of chlorophenyl, fluorophenyl and pyridyl ring in the structure of the trypanocidal lead 4-(imidazolidin-2-ylideneamino)-N-(4-(imidazolidin-2-ylideneamino)phenyl)benzamide (1). The new compounds showed reduced pKa values (in the range 1-3 pKa units) for the imidazolidine group linked to the substituted phenyl ring. In vitro activities (EC50) against wild type and resistant strains of T. b. brucei (s427 and B48, respectively) were in the submicromolar range with four compounds being more active and selective than 1 (SI > 340). In particular, the two most potent compounds (3b and 5a) acted approximately 6-times faster than 1 to kill trypanosomes in vitro. No cross-resistance with the diamidine and melaminophenyl class of trypanocides was observed indicating that these compounds represent interesting leads for further in vivo studies.
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14
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Munday JC, Tagoe DNA, Eze AA, Krezdorn JAM, Rojas López KE, Alkhaldi AAM, McDonald F, Still J, Alzahrani KJ, Settimo L, De Koning HP. Functional analysis of drug resistance-associated mutations in the Trypanosoma brucei adenosine transporter 1 (TbAT1) and the proposal of a structural model for the protein. Mol Microbiol 2015; 96:887-900. [PMID: 25708978 PMCID: PMC4755147 DOI: 10.1111/mmi.12979] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/21/2015] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
The Trypanosoma brucei aminopurine transporter P2/TbAT1 has long been implicated in the transport of, and resistance to, the diamidine and melaminophenyl arsenical classes of drugs that form the backbone of the pharmacopoeia against African trypanosomiasis. Genetic alterations including deletions and single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) have been observed in numerous strains and clinical isolates. Here, we systematically investigate each reported mutation and assess their effects on transporter function after expression in a tbat1(-/-) T. brucei line. Out of a set of six reported SNPs from a reported 'resistance allele', none significantly impaired sensitivity to pentamidine, diminazene or melarsoprol, relative to the TbAT1-WT allele, although several combinations, and the deletion of the codon for residue F316, resulted in highly significant impairment. These combinations of SNPs, and ΔF316, also strongly impaired the uptake of [(3)H]-adenosine and [(3)H]-diminazene, identical to the tbat1(-/-) control. The TbAT1 protein model predicted that residues F19, D140 and F316 interact with the substrate of the transporter. Mutation of D140 to alanine resulted in an inactive transporter, whereas the mutation F19A produced a transporter with a slightly increased affinity for [(3)H]-diminazene but reduced the uptake rate. The results presented here validate earlier hypotheses of drug binding motifs for TbAT1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jane C Munday
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G12 8TA, UK
- Wellcome Trust Centre for Molecular Parasitology, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Daniel N A Tagoe
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G12 8TA, UK
- Department of Laboratory Technology, University of Cape Coast, Cape Coast, Ghana
| | - Anthonius A Eze
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G12 8TA, UK
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, College of Medicine, University of Nigeria, Enugu Campus, Enugu, Nigeria
| | - Jessica A M Krezdorn
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G12 8TA, UK
| | - Karla E Rojas López
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G12 8TA, UK
| | - Abdulsalam A M Alkhaldi
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G12 8TA, UK
- Department of Biology, College of Science, Aljouf University, Sakaka, Saudi Arabia
| | - Fiona McDonald
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G12 8TA, UK
| | - Jennifer Still
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G12 8TA, UK
| | - Khalid J Alzahrani
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G12 8TA, UK
- Faculty of Medical Sciences, Taif University, Taif, Saudi Arabia
| | - Luca Settimo
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G12 8TA, UK
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, 417 Egan Research Center, Northeastern University, 360 Huntington Avenue, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Harry P De Koning
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G12 8TA, UK
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15
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Munday JC, Settimo L, de Koning HP. Transport proteins determine drug sensitivity and resistance in a protozoan parasite, Trypanosoma brucei. Front Pharmacol 2015; 6:32. [PMID: 25814953 PMCID: PMC4356943 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2015.00032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2015] [Accepted: 02/05/2015] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Drug resistance in pathogenic protozoa is very often caused by changes to the ‘transportome’ of the parasites. In Trypanosoma brucei, several transporters have been implicated in uptake of the main classes of drugs, diamidines and melaminophenyl arsenicals. The resistance mechanism had been thought to be due to loss of a transporter known to carry both types of agents: the aminopurine transporter P2, encoded by the gene TbAT1. However, although loss of P2 activity is well-documented as the cause of resistance to the veterinary diamidine diminazene aceturate (DA; Berenil®), cross-resistance between the human-use arsenical melarsoprol and the diamidine pentamidine (melarsoprol/pentamidine cross resistance, MPXR) is the result of loss of a separate high affinity pentamidine transporter (HAPT1). A genome-wide RNAi library screen for resistance to pentamidine, published in 2012, gave the key to the genetic identity of HAPT1 by linking the phenomenon to a locus that contains the closely related T. brucei aquaglyceroporin genes TbAQP2 and TbAQP3. Further analysis determined that knockdown of only one pore, TbAQP2, produced the MPXR phenotype. TbAQP2 is an unconventional aquaglyceroporin with unique residues in the “selectivity region” of the pore, and it was found that in several MPXR lab strains the WT gene was either absent or replaced by a chimeric protein, recombined with parts of TbAQP3. Importantly, wild-type AQP2 was also absent in field isolates of T. b. gambiense, correlating with the outcome of melarsoprol treatment. Expression of a wild-type copy of TbAQP2 in even the most resistant strain completely reversed MPXR and re-introduced HAPT1 function and transport kinetics. Expression of TbAQP2 in Leishmania mexicana introduced a pentamidine transport activity indistinguishable from HAPT1. Although TbAQP2 has been shown to function as a classical aquaglyceroporin it is now clear that it is also a high affinity drug transporter, HAPT1. We discuss here a possible structural rationale for this remarkable ability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jane C Munday
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow Glasgow, UK
| | - Luca Settimo
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow Glasgow, UK ; Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Northeastern University Boston, MA, USA
| | - Harry P de Koning
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow Glasgow, UK
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16
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Design and synthesis of a series of truncated neplanocin fleximers. Molecules 2014; 19:21200-14. [PMID: 25521119 PMCID: PMC6270936 DOI: 10.3390/molecules191221200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2014] [Revised: 12/08/2014] [Accepted: 12/09/2014] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
In an effort to study the effects of flexibility on enzyme recognition and activity, we have developed several different series of flexible nucleoside analogues in which the purine base is split into its respective imidazole and pyrimidine components. The focus of this particular study was to synthesize the truncated neplanocin A fleximers to investigate their potential anti-protozoan activities by inhibition of S-adenosylhomocysteine hydrolase (SAHase). The three fleximers tested displayed poor anti-trypanocidal activities, with EC50 values around 200 μM. Further studies of the corresponding ribose fleximers, most closely related to the natural nucleoside substrates, revealed low affinity for the known T. brucei nucleoside transporters P1 and P2, which may be the reason for the lack of trypanocidal activity observed.
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17
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Hamidou Soumana I, Tchicaya B, Simo G, Geiger A. Comparative gene expression of Wigglesworthia inhabiting non-infected and Trypanosoma brucei gambiense-infected Glossina palpalis gambiensis flies. Front Microbiol 2014; 5:620. [PMID: 25452752 PMCID: PMC4233935 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2014.00620] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2014] [Accepted: 10/30/2014] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Tsetse flies (Glossina sp.) that transmit trypanosomes causing human (and animal) African trypanosomiasis (HAT and AAT, respectively) harbor symbiotic microorganisms, including the obligate primary symbiont Wigglesworthia glossinidia. A relationship between Wigglesworthia and tsetse fly infection by trypanosomes has been suggested, as removal of the symbiont results in a higher susceptibility to midgut infection in adult flies. To investigate this relationship and to decipher the role of W. glossinidia in the fly's susceptibility to trypanosome infection, we challenged flies with trypanosomes and subsequently analyzed and compared the transcriptomes of W. glossinidia from susceptible and refractory tsetse flies at three time points (3, 10, and 20 days). More than 200 W. glossinidia genes were found to be differentially expressed between susceptible and refractory flies. The high specificity of these differentially expressed genes makes it possible to distinguish Wigglesworthia inhabiting these two distinct groups of flies. Furthermore, gene expression patterns were observed to evolve during the infection time course, such that very few differentially expressed genes were found in common in Wigglesworthia from the 3-, 10- and 20-day post-feeding fly samples. The overall results clearly demonstrate that the taking up of trypanosomes by flies, regardless of whether flies proceed with the developmental program of Trypanosoma brucei gambiense, strongly alters gene expression in Wigglesworthia. These results therefore provide a novel framework for studies that aim to decrease or even abolish tsetse fly vector competence.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Bernadette Tchicaya
- UMR 177, Institut de Recherche pour le Développement-CIRAD Montpellier, France
| | - Gustave Simo
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Dschang Dschang, Cameroon
| | - Anne Geiger
- UMR 177, Institut de Recherche pour le Développement-CIRAD Montpellier, France
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18
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Sekhar GN, Watson CP, Fidanboylu M, Sanderson L, Thomas SA. Delivery of antihuman African trypanosomiasis drugs across the blood-brain and blood-CSF barriers. ADVANCES IN PHARMACOLOGY (SAN DIEGO, CALIF.) 2014; 71:245-75. [PMID: 25307219 DOI: 10.1016/bs.apha.2014.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Human African trypanosomiasis (HAT or sleeping sickness) is a potentially fatal disease caused by the parasite, Trypanosoma brucei sp. The parasites are transmitted by the bite of insect vectors belonging to the genus Glossina (tsetse flies) and display a life cycle strategy that is equally spread between human and insect hosts. T.b. gambiense is found in western and central Africa whereas, T.b. rhodesiense is found in eastern and southern Africa. The disease has two clinical stages: a blood stage after the bite of an infected tsetse fly, followed by a central nervous system (CNS) stage where the parasite penetrates the brain; causing death if left untreated. The blood-brain barrier (BBB) makes the CNS stage difficult to treat because it prevents 98% of all known compounds from entering the brain, including some anti-HAT drugs. Those that do enter the brain are toxic compounds in their own right and have serious side effects. There are only a few drugs available to treat HAT and those that do are stage specific. This review summarizes the incidence, diagnosis, and treatment of HAT and provides a close examination of the BBB transport of anti-HAT drugs and an overview of the latest drugs in development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gayathri N Sekhar
- King's College London, Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, London, United Kingdom
| | - Christopher P Watson
- King's College London, Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, London, United Kingdom
| | - Mehmet Fidanboylu
- King's College London, Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, London, United Kingdom
| | - Lisa Sanderson
- King's College London, Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, London, United Kingdom
| | - Sarah A Thomas
- King's College London, Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, London, United Kingdom.
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19
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Ferrins L, Gazdik M, Rahmani R, Varghese S, Sykes ML, Jones AJ, Avery VM, White KL, Ryan E, Charman SA, Kaiser M, Bergström CAS, Baell JB. Pyridyl Benzamides as a Novel Class of Potent Inhibitors for the Kinetoplastid Trypanosoma brucei. J Med Chem 2014; 57:6393-402. [DOI: 10.1021/jm500191u] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Michelle Gazdik
- Department
of Chemistry, La Trobe Institute for Molecular Science, La Trobe University, Melbourne, Victoria 3086, Australia
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute, 1G Royal Parade, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia
| | | | - Swapna Varghese
- Department
of Chemistry, La Trobe Institute for Molecular Science, La Trobe University, Melbourne, Victoria 3086, Australia
| | - Melissa L. Sykes
- Eskitis
Institute
for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Brisbane Innovation Park, Don Young
Road, Nathan, Queensland 4111, Australia
| | - Amy J. Jones
- Eskitis
Institute
for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Brisbane Innovation Park, Don Young
Road, Nathan, Queensland 4111, Australia
| | - Vicky M. Avery
- Eskitis
Institute
for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Brisbane Innovation Park, Don Young
Road, Nathan, Queensland 4111, Australia
| | | | | | | | - Marcel Kaiser
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Socinstrasse 57, Basel, 4051, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Petersplatz
1, Basel, 4003, Switzerland
| | - Christel A. S. Bergström
- Department
of Pharmacy, Uppsala University, Biomedical Center P.O. Box 580, SE-751
23 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Jonathan B. Baell
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute, 1G Royal Parade, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia
- Department
of Medical Biology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia
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20
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Drug discovery and human African trypanosomiasis: a disease less neglected? Future Med Chem 2014; 5:1801-41. [PMID: 24144414 DOI: 10.4155/fmc.13.162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Human African trypanosomiasis (HAT) has been neglected for a long time. The most recent drug to treat this disease, eflornithine, was approved by the US FDA in 2000. Current treatments exhibit numerous problematic side effects and are often ineffective against the debilitating CNS resident stage of the disease. Fortunately, several partnerships and initiatives have been formed over the last 20 years in an effort to eradicate HAT, along with a number of other neglected diseases. This has led to an increasing number of foundations and research institutions that are currently working on the development of new drugs for HAT and tools with which to diagnose and treat patients. New biochemical pathways as therapeutic targets are emerging, accompanied by increasing numbers of new antitrypanosomal compound classes. The future looks promising that this collaborative approach will facilitate eagerly awaited breakthroughs in the treatment of HAT.
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21
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Munday JC, Eze AA, Baker N, Glover L, Clucas C, Aguinaga Andrés D, Natto MJ, Teka IA, McDonald J, Lee RS, Graf FE, Ludin P, Burchmore RJS, Turner CMR, Tait A, MacLeod A, Mäser P, Barrett MP, Horn D, De Koning HP. Trypanosoma brucei aquaglyceroporin 2 is a high-affinity transporter for pentamidine and melaminophenyl arsenic drugs and the main genetic determinant of resistance to these drugs. J Antimicrob Chemother 2013; 69:651-63. [PMID: 24235095 PMCID: PMC3922157 DOI: 10.1093/jac/dkt442] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Objectives Trypanosoma brucei drug transporters include the TbAT1/P2 aminopurine transporter and the high-affinity pentamidine transporter (HAPT1), but the genetic identity of HAPT1 is unknown. We recently reported that loss of T. brucei aquaglyceroporin 2 (TbAQP2) caused melarsoprol/pentamidine cross-resistance (MPXR) in these parasites and the current study aims to delineate the mechanism by which this occurs. Methods The TbAQP2 loci of isogenic pairs of drug-susceptible and MPXR strains of T. brucei subspecies were sequenced. Drug susceptibility profiles of trypanosome strains were correlated with expression of mutated TbAQP2 alleles. Pentamidine transport was studied in T. brucei subspecies expressing TbAQP2 variants. Results All MPXR strains examined contained TbAQP2 deletions or rearrangements, regardless of whether the strains were originally adapted in vitro or in vivo to arsenicals or to pentamidine. The MPXR strains and AQP2 knockout strains had lost HAPT1 activity. Reintroduction of TbAQP2 in MPXR trypanosomes restored susceptibility to the drugs and reinstated HAPT1 activity, but did not change the activity of TbAT1/P2. Expression of TbAQP2 sensitized Leishmania mexicana promastigotes 40-fold to pentamidine and >1000-fold to melaminophenyl arsenicals and induced a high-affinity pentamidine transport activity indistinguishable from HAPT1 by Km and inhibitor profile. Grafting the TbAQP2 selectivity filter amino acid residues onto a chimeric allele of AQP2 and AQP3 partly restored susceptibility to pentamidine and an arsenical. Conclusions TbAQP2 mediates high-affinity uptake of pentamidine and melaminophenyl arsenicals in trypanosomes and TbAQP2 encodes the previously reported HAPT1 activity. This finding establishes TbAQP2 as an important drug transporter.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jane C Munday
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
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22
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Patrick DA, Bakunov SA, Bakunova SM, Jones SK, Wenzler T, Barszcz T, Kumar A, Boykin DW, Werbovetz KA, Brun R, Tidwell RR. Synthesis and antiprotozoal activities of benzyl phenyl ether diamidine derivatives. Eur J Med Chem 2013; 67:310-24. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2013.06.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2013] [Revised: 06/10/2013] [Accepted: 06/12/2013] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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Geiger A, Fardeau ML, Njiokou F, Ollivier B. Glossina spp. gut bacterial flora and their putative role in fly-hosted trypanosome development. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2013; 3:34. [PMID: 23898466 PMCID: PMC3721001 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2013.00034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2013] [Accepted: 07/08/2013] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Human African trypanosomiasis (HAT) is caused by trypanosomes transmitted to humans by the tsetse fly, in which they accomplish their development into their infective metacyclic form. The crucial step in parasite survival occurs when it invades the fly midgut. Insect digestive enzymes and immune defenses may be involved in the modulation of the fly's vector competence, together with bacteria that could be present in the fly's midgut. In fact, in addition to the three bacterial symbionts that have previously been characterized, tsetse flies may harbor additional bacterial inhabitants. This review focuses on the diversity of the bacterial flora in Glossina, with regards to the fly species and their geographical distribution. The rationale was (i) that these newly identified bacteria, associated with tsetse flies, may contribute to vector competence as was shown in other insects and (ii) that differences may exist according to fly species and geographic area. A more complete knowledge of the bacterial microbiota of the tsetse fly and the role these bacteria play in tsetse biology may lead to novel ways of investigation in view of developing alternative anti-vector strategies for fighting human--and possibly animal--trypanosomiasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne Geiger
- UMR 177 InterTryp, IRD-CIRAD Montpellier, France.
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Patrick DA, Ismail MA, Arafa RK, Wenzler T, Zhu X, Pandharkar T, Jones SK, Werbovetz KA, Brun R, Boykin DW, Tidwell RR. Synthesis and antiprotozoal activity of dicationic m-terphenyl and 1,3-dipyridylbenzene derivatives. J Med Chem 2013; 56:5473-94. [PMID: 23795673 DOI: 10.1021/jm400508e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
4,4″-Diamidino-m-terphenyl (1) and 36 analogues were prepared and assayed in vitro against T rypanosoma brucei rhodesiense , Trypanosoma cruzi , Plasmodium falciparum , and Leishmania amazonensis . Twenty-three compounds were highly active against T. b. rhodesiense or P. falciparum. Most noteworthy were amidines 1, 10, and 11 with IC50 of 4 nM against T. b. rhodesiense, and dimethyltetrahydropyrimidinyl analogues 4 and 9 with IC50 values of ≤ 3 nM against P. falciparum. Bis-pyridylimidamide derivative 31 was 25 times more potent than benznidazole against T. cruzi and slightly more potent than amphotericin B against L. amazonensis. Terphenyldiamidine 1 and dipyridylbenzene analogues 23 and 25 each cured 4/4 mice infected with T. b. rhodesiense STIB900 with four daily 5 mg/kg intraperitoneal doses, as well as with single doses of ≤ 10 mg/kg. Derivatives 5 and 28 (prodrugs of 1 and 25) each cured 3/4 mice with four daily 25 mg/kg oral doses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Donald A Patrick
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, School of Medicine, University of North Carolina , Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599-7525, United States
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25
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Ferrins L, Rahmani R, Sykes ML, Jones AJ, Avery VM, Teston E, Almohaywi B, Yin J, Smith J, Hyland C, White KL, Ryan E, Campbell M, Charman SA, Kaiser M, Baell JB. 3-(Oxazolo[4,5-b]pyridin-2-yl)anilides as a novel class of potent inhibitors for the kinetoplastid Trypanosoma brucei, the causative agent for human African trypanosomiasis. Eur J Med Chem 2013; 66:450-65. [PMID: 23831695 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2013.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2013] [Revised: 05/01/2013] [Accepted: 05/07/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
A whole organism high-throughput screen of approximately 87,000 compounds against Trypanosoma brucei brucei led to the recent discovery of several novel compound classes with low micromolar activity against this organism and without appreciable cytotoxicity to mammalian cells. Herein we report a structure-activity relationship (SAR) investigation around one of these hit classes, the 3-(oxazolo[4,5-b]pyridin-2-yl)anilides. Sharp SAR is revealed, with our most active compound (5) exhibiting an IC₅₀ of 91 nM against the human pathogenic strain T.b. rhodesiense and being more than 700 times less toxic towards the L6 mammalian cell line. Physicochemical properties are attractive for many compounds in this series. For the most potent representatives, we show that solubility and metabolic stability are key parameters to target during future optimisation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lori Ferrins
- Medicinal Chemistry, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia
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26
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Ali JAM, Creek DJ, Burgess K, Allison HC, Field MC, Mäser P, De Koning HP. Pyrimidine salvage in Trypanosoma brucei bloodstream forms and the trypanocidal action of halogenated pyrimidines. Mol Pharmacol 2012. [PMID: 23188714 DOI: 10.1124/mol.112.082321] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
African trypanosomes are capable of both pyrimidine biosynthesis and salvage of preformed pyrimidines from the host. However, uptake of pyrimidines in bloodstream form trypanosomes has not been investigated, making it difficult to judge the relative importance of salvage and synthesis or to design a pyrimidine-based chemotherapy. Detailed characterization of pyrimidine transport activities in bloodstream form Trypanosoma brucei brucei found that these cells express a high-affinity uracil transporter (designated TbU3) that is clearly distinct from the procyclic pyrimidine transporters. This transporter had low affinity for uridine and 2'deoxyuridine and was the sole pyrimidine transporter expressed in these cells. In addition, thymidine was taken up inefficiently through a P1-type nucleoside transporter. Of importance, the anticancer drug 5-fluorouracil was an excellent substrate for TbU3, and several 5-fluoropyrimidine analogs were investigated for uptake and trypanocidal activity; 5F-orotic acid, 5F-2'deoxyuridine displayed activity in the low micromolar range. The metabolism and mode of action of these analogs was determined using metabolomic assessments of T. brucei clonal lines adapted to high levels of these pyrimidine analogs, and of the sensitive parental strains. The analysis showed that 5-fluorouracil is incorporated into a large number of metabolites but likely exerts toxicity through incorporation into RNA. 5F-2'dUrd and 5F-2'dCtd are not incorporated into nucleic acids but act as prodrugs by inhibiting thymidylate synthase as 5F-dUMP. We present the most complete model of pyrimidine salvage in T. brucei to date, supported by genome-wide profiling of the predicted pyrimidine biosynthesis and conversion enzymes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juma A M Ali
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8TA, United Kingdom
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27
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Abstract
The present study aimed to determine the in vitro biological efficacy and selectivity of 7 novel AIAs upon bloodstream trypomastigotes and intracellular amastigotes of Trypanosoma cruzi. The biological activity of these aromatic compounds was assayed for 48 and 24 h against intracellular parasites and bloodstream forms of T. cruzi (Y strain), respectively. Additional assays were also performed to determine their potential use in blood banks by treating the bloodstream parasites with the compounds diluted in mouse blood for 24 h at 4°C. Toxicity against mammalian cells was evaluated using primary cultures of cardiac cells incubated for 24 and 48 h with the AIAs and then cellular death rates were determined by MTT colorimetric assays. Our data demonstrated the outstanding trypanocidal effect of AIAs against T. cruzi, especially DB1853, DB1862, DB1867 and DB1868, giving IC50 values ranging between 16 and 70 nanomolar against both parasite forms. All AIAs presented superior efficacy to benznidazole and some, such as DB1868, also demonstrated promising activity as a candidate agent for blood prophylaxis. The excellent anti-trypanosomal efficacy of these novel AIAs against T. cruzi stimulates further in vivo studies and justifies the screening of new analogues with the goal of establishing a useful alternative therapy for Chagas disease.
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28
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Čimbora-Zovko T, Brozovic A, Piantanida I, Fritz G, Virag A, Alič B, Majce V, Kočevar M, Polanc S, Osmak M. Synthesis and biological evaluation of 4-nitro-substituted 1,3-diaryltriazenes as a novel class of potent antitumor agents. Eur J Med Chem 2011; 46:2971-83. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2011.04.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2010] [Revised: 04/06/2011] [Accepted: 04/09/2011] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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29
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Paliwal SK, Verma AN, Paliwal S. Neglected disease - african sleeping sickness: recent synthetic and modeling advances. Sci Pharm 2011; 79:389-428. [PMID: 21886894 PMCID: PMC3163371 DOI: 10.3797/scipharm.1012-08] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2010] [Accepted: 05/10/2011] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Human African Trypanosomiasis (HAT) also called sleeping sickness is caused by subspecies of the parasitic hemoflagellate Trypanosoma brucei that mostly occurs in sub-Saharan Africa. The current chemotherapy of the human trypanosomiases relies on only six drugs, five of which have been developed more than 30 years ago, have undesirable toxic side effects and most of them show drug-resistance. Though development of new anti-trypanosomal drugs seems to be a priority area research in this area has lagged far behind. The given review mainly focus upon the recent synthetic and computer based approaches made by various research groups for the development of newer anti-trypanosomal analogues which may have improved efficacy and oral bioavailability than the present ones. The given paper also attempts to investigate the relationship between the various physiochemical parameters and anti-trypanosomal activity that may be helpful in development of potent anti-trypanosomal agents against sleeping sickness.
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Trypanocidal furamidine analogues: influence of pyridine nitrogens on trypanocidal activity, transport kinetics, and resistance patterns. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2011; 55:2352-61. [PMID: 21402852 DOI: 10.1128/aac.01551-10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Current therapies for human African trypanosomiasis (HAT) are unsatisfactory and under threat from emerging drug resistance linked to the loss of transporters, e.g., the P2 aminopurine transporter (TbAT1). Here we compare the uptake and trypanocidal properties of furamidine (DB75), recently evaluated in clinical trials against stage 1 (haemolymphatic) HAT, and two aza analogues, DB820 and CPD0801 (DB829), which are candidate compounds for treatment of stage 2 (neurological) disease. Values of 50% inhibitory concentrations (IC50s) determined in vitro against both wild-type and transporter mutant parasites were submicromolar, with DB75 trypanotoxicity shown to be better than and DB820 trypanotoxicity similar to that of the widely used veterinary trypanocide diminazene, while CPD0801 was less active. Activity correlated with uptake and with the minimum drug exposure time necessary to kill trypanosomes: DB75 accumulated at double and 10-fold the rates of DB820 and CPD0801, respectively. All three compounds inhibited P2-mediated adenosine transport with similar Ki values, indicating affinity values for this permease in the low to submicromolar range. Uptake of DB75, DB820, and CPD0801 was significantly reduced in tbat1-/- parasites and was sensitive to inhibition by adenine, showing that all three compounds are substrates for the P2 transporter. Uptake in vitro was significantly less than that seen with parasites freshly isolated from infected rats, correlating with a downregulation of P2 activity in vitro. We conclude that DB75, DB820, and CPD0801 are actively accumulated by Trypanosoma brucei brucei, with P2 as the main transport route. The aza analogues of DB75 accumulate more slowly than furamidine itself and reveal less trypanocidal activity in standard in vitro drug sensitivity assays.
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31
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Wube AA, Bucar F, Gibbons S, Asres K, Rattray L, Croft SL. Antiprotozoal activity of drimane and coloratane sesquiterpenes towards Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense and Plasmodium falciparum in vitro. Phytother Res 2011; 24:1468-72. [PMID: 20878696 DOI: 10.1002/ptr.3126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
The extracts and 12 sesquiterpenes obtained from the East African medicinal plant Warburgia ugandensis Sprague (Canellaceae) were assessed for their antiplasmodial activity against the chloroquine-sensitive (3D7) and chloroquine-resistant (K1) strains of Plasmodium falciparum and antitrypanosomal activity against Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense. The dichloromethane extract displayed strong antiplasmodial and antitrypanosomal activities with IC(50) values of 8.10 and 1.10 µg/mL against K1 strain of the malaria parasite and STlB900 strain of T. b. rhodesiense, respectively. Among the compounds evaluated for inhibition of trypomastigotes, both drimane and coloratane sesquiterpenes possessing aldehyde groups at positions 8 and 9 were found to show most antitrypanosomal activity with IC(50) values in the range 0.56-6.4 µM. The antiplasmodial assays also revealed that the six coloratane and six drimane sesquiterpenes isolated from this extract exhibited significant antitrypanosomal activity with IC(50) values ranged from 0.45 to ?114 µM. Among the compounds tested against the malarial parasite P. falciparum 11?-hydroxymuzigadiolide (3) was most active with an IC(50) value of 6.40 µM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abraham Abebe Wube
- Department of Pharmacognosy, Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Karl-Franzens University Graz, Universitaetsplatz 4/1, A-8010 Graz, Austria
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Nishikawa H, Yamada E, Shibata T, Uchihashi S, Fan H, Hayakawa H, Nomura N, Mitsuyama J. Uptake of T-2307, a novel arylamidine, in Candida albicans. J Antimicrob Chemother 2010; 65:1681-7. [PMID: 20513704 DOI: 10.1093/jac/dkq177] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES T-2307, a novel arylamidine synthesized at Toyama Chemical Co., Ltd, has in vitro and in vivo broad-spectrum activities against pathogenic fungi. T-2307 particularly exhibits potent in vitro and in vivo activity against Candida albicans, suggesting that its uptake might be mediated by a transport system. In this report, we studied the uptake of T-2307 in C. albicans. METHODS C. albicans cells and rat hepatocytes were exposed to 0.02 microM [(14)C]T-2307. After incubation, the reaction mixture was concentrated and layered on a silicon layer (mixture of silicon oil and liquid paraffin) inside a tube. The tube was then centrifuged to transfer cells into the bottom layer (sodium hydroxide) for solubilization. The bottom layer was neutralized and measured for radioactivity. RESULTS T-2307 was concentrated from the extracellular medium by C. albicans cells in 10 mM phosphate buffer solution supplemented with 1% glucose by 3200- to 5100-fold. The accumulation was approximately two orders of magnitude greater than that achieved with a rat hepatocyte preparation. T-2307 uptake was sensitive to temperature and extracellular pH, and was reduced in the presence of inhibitors of mitochondrial respiration, oxidative phosphorylation and plasma membrane proton pump, and by an uncoupler. Furthermore, T-2307 uptake was concentration dependent and an Eadie-Hofstee plot suggested the involvement of two transport systems. CONCLUSIONS The considerably higher concentrations of T-2307 were selectively accumulated in C. albicans via transporter-mediated systems, as compared with the concentrations in rat hepatocytes. This transporter-mediated uptake of T-2307 contributes to its potent anticandidal activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroshi Nishikawa
- Research Laboratories, Toyama Chemical Co., Ltd, 2-4-1 Shimookui, Toyama, Japan.
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33
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In vitro activity and preliminary toxicity of various diamidine compounds against Trypanosoma evansi. Vet Parasitol 2010; 169:264-72. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2010.01.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2009] [Revised: 01/07/2010] [Accepted: 01/14/2010] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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Metalloid transport by aquaglyceroporins: consequences in the treatment of human diseases. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2010; 679:57-69. [PMID: 20666224 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4419-6315-4_5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Metalloids can severely harm human physiology in a toxicological sense if taken up from the environment in acute high doses or chronically. However, arsenic or antimony containing drugs are still being used as treatment and are often the sole regime for certain forms of cancer, mainly types of leukemia and diseases caused by parasites, such as sleeping sickness or leishmaniasis. In this chapter, we give an outline of the positive effects of arsenicals and antimonials against such diseases, we summarize data on uptake pathways through human and parasite aquaglyceroporins and we discuss the progress and options in the development of therapeutic aquaporin and aquaglyceroporin inhibitor compounds.
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35
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Curcuminoid analogs with potent activity against Trypanosoma and Leishmania species. Eur J Med Chem 2009; 45:941-56. [PMID: 20004045 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2009.11.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2009] [Revised: 07/15/2009] [Accepted: 11/17/2009] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The natural curcuminoids curcumin (1), demethoxycurcumin (2) and bisdemethoxycurcumin (3) have been chemically modified to give 46 analogs and 8 pairs of 1:1 mixture of curcuminoid analogs and these parent curcuminoids and their analogs were assessed against protozoa of the Trypanosoma and Leishmania species. The parent curcuminoids exhibited low antitrypanosomal activity (EC(50) for our drug-sensitive Trypanosoma brucei brucei line (WT) of compounds 1, 2 and 3 are 2.5, 4.6 and 7.7 microM, respectively). Among 43 curcuminoid analogs and 8 pairs of 1:1 mixture of curcuminoid analogs tested, 8 pure analogs and 5 isomeric mixtures of analogs exhibited high antitrypanosomal activity in submicromolar order of magnitude. Among these highly active analogs, 1,7-bis(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)hept-4-en-3-one (40) was the most active compound, with an EC(50) value of 0.053+/-0.007 microM; it was about 2-fold more active than the standard veterinary drug diminazene aceturate (EC(50) 0.12+/-0.01 microM). Using a previously characterized diminazene-resistant T. b. brucei (TbAT1-KO) and a derived multi-drug resistant line (B48), no cross-resistance of curcuminoids was observed to the diamidine and melaminophenyl arsenical drugs that are the current treatments. Indeed, curcuminoids carrying a conjugated keto (enone) motif, including 40, were significantly more active against T. b. brucei B48. This enone motif was found to contribute to particularly high trypanocidal activity against all Trypanosoma species and strains tested. The parent curcuminoids showed low antileishmanial activity (EC(50) values of compounds 1 and 2 for Leishmania mexicana amastigotes are 16+/-3 and 37+/-6 microM, respectively) while the control drug, pentamidine, displayed an EC(50) of 16+/-2 microM. Among the active curcuminoid analogs, four compounds exhibited EC(50) values of less than 5 microM against Leishmania major promastigotes and four against L. mexicana amastigotes. No significant difference in sensitivity to curcuminoids between L. major promastigotes and L. mexicana amastigotes was observed. The parent curcuminoids and most of their analogs were also tested for their toxicity against human embryonic kidney (HEK) cells. All the curcuminoids exhibited lower toxicity to HEK cells than to T. b. brucei bloodstream forms and only one of the tested compounds showed significantly higher activity against HEK cells than curcumin (1). The selectivity index for T. b. brucei ranged from 3-fold to 1500-fold. The selectivity index for the most active analog, the enone 40, was 453-fold.
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Abstract
The protozoan parasitesTrypanosoma bruceiandTrypanosoma cruziare the causative agents of African trypanosomiasis and Chagas disease, respectively. These are debilitating infections that exert a considerable health burden on some of the poorest people on the planet. Treatment of trypanosome infections is dependent on a small number of drugs that have limited efficacy and can cause severe side effects. Here, we review the properties of these drugs and describe new findings on their modes of action and the mechanisms by which resistance can arise. We further outline how a greater understanding of parasite biology is being exploited in the search for novel chemotherapeutic agents. This effort is being facilitated by new research networks that involve academic and biotechnology/pharmaceutical organisations, supported by public–private partnerships, and are bringing a new dynamism and purpose to the search for trypanocidal agents.
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Eberle C, Burkhard J, Stump B, Kaiser M, Brun R, Krauth-Siegel R, Diederich F. Synthesis, Inhibition Potency, Binding Mode, and Antiprotozoal Activities of Fluorescent Inhibitors of Trypanothione Reductase Based on Mepacrine-Conjugated Diaryl Sulfide Scaffolds. ChemMedChem 2009; 4:2034-44. [DOI: 10.1002/cmdc.200900327] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
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Collar CJ, Al-Salabi MI, Stewart ML, Barrett MP, Wilson WD, de Koning HP. Predictive computational models of substrate binding by a nucleoside transporter. J Biol Chem 2009; 284:34028-35. [PMID: 19808668 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m109.049726] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Transporters play a vital role in both the resistance mechanisms of existing drugs and effective targeting of their replacements. Melarsoprol and diamidine compounds similar to pentamidine and furamidine are primarily taken up by trypanosomes of the genus Trypanosoma brucei through the P2 aminopurine transporter. In standardized competition experiments with [(3)H]adenosine, P2 transporter inhibition constants (K(i)) have been determined for a diverse dataset of adenosine analogs, diamidines, Food and Drug Administration-approved compounds and analogs thereof, and custom-designed trypanocidal compounds. Computational biology has been employed to investigate compound structure diversity in relation to P2 transporter interaction. These explorations have led to models for inhibition predictions of known and novel compounds to obtain information about the molecular basis for P2 transporter inhibition. A common pharmacophore for P2 transporter inhibition has been identified along with other key structural characteristics. Our model provides insight into P2 transporter interactions with known compounds and contributes to strategies for the design of novel antiparasitic compounds. This approach offers a quantitative and predictive tool for molecular recognition by specific transporters without the need for structural or even primary sequence information of the transport protein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catharine J Collar
- Department of Chemistry, Georgia State University, Atlanta, Georgia 30303, USA
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39
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Geiger A, Fardeau ML, Grebaut P, Vatunga G, Josénando T, Herder S, Cuny G, Truc P, Ollivier B. First isolation of Enterobacter, Enterococcus, and Acinetobacter spp. as inhabitants of the tsetse fly (Glossina palpalis palpalis) midgut. INFECTION GENETICS AND EVOLUTION 2009; 9:1364-70. [PMID: 19800031 DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2009.09.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2009] [Revised: 09/18/2009] [Accepted: 09/22/2009] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
This paper reports the first evidence of the presence of bacteria, other than the three previously described as symbionts, Wigglesworthia glossinidia, Wolbachia, and Sodalis glossinidius, in the midgut of Glossina palpalis palpalis, the tsetse fly, a vector of the chronic form of human African trypanosomiasis in sub-Saharan African countries. Based on the morphological, nutritional, physiological, and phylogenetic results, we identified Enterobacter, Enterococcus, and Acinetobacter spp. as inhabitants of the midgut of the tsetse fly from Angola. Enterobacter spp. was the most frequently isolated. The role of these bacteria in the gut, in terms of vector competence of the tsetse fly, is discussed, as is the possibility of using these bacteria to produce in situ trypanolytic molecules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne Geiger
- UMR 177, IRD-CIRAD, CIRAD TA A-17/G, Campus International de Baillarguet, 34398 Montpellier Cedex 5, France.
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40
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Link A, Heidler P, Kaiser M, Brun R. Synthesis of a series of N6-substituted adenosines with activity against trypanosomatid parasites. Eur J Med Chem 2009; 44:3665-71. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2009.02.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2008] [Revised: 02/11/2009] [Accepted: 02/12/2009] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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41
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Geiger A, Fardeau ML, Falsen E, Ollivier B, Cuny G. Serratia glossinae sp. nov., isolated from the midgut of the tsetse fly Glossina palpalis gambiensis. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol 2009; 60:1261-1265. [PMID: 19667382 DOI: 10.1099/ijs.0.013441-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
We report the isolation of a novel bacterium, strain C1(T), from the midgut of the tsetse fly Glossina palpalis gambiensis, one of the vector insects responsible for transmission of the trypanosomes that cause sleeping sickness in sub-Saharan African countries. Strain C1(T) is a motile, facultatively anaerobic, rod-like bacterium (0.8-1.0 microm in diameter; 2-6 microm long) that grows as single cells or in chains. Optimum growth occurred at 25-35 degrees C, at pH 6.7-8.4 and in medium containing 5-20 g NaCl l(-1). The bacterium hydrolysed urea and used L-lysine, L-ornithine, citrate, pyruvate, D-glucose, D-mannitol, inositol, D-sorbitol, melibiose, amygdalin, L-arabinose, arbutin, aesculin, D-fructose, D-galactose, glycerol, maltose, D-mannose, raffinose, trehalose and d-xylose; it produced acetoin, reduced nitrate to nitrite and was positive for beta-galactosidase and catalase. The DNA G+C content was 53.6 mol%. It was related phylogenetically to members of the genus Serratia, family Enterobacteriaceae, the type strain of Serratia fonticola being its closest relative (99 % similarity between 16S rRNA gene sequences). However, DNA-DNA relatedness between strain C1(T) and S. fonticola DSM 4576(T) was only 37.15 %. Therefore, on the basis of morphological, nutritional, physiological and fatty acid analysis and genetic criteria, strain C1(T) is proposed to be assigned to a novel Serratia species, Serratia glossinae sp. nov. (type strain C1(T) =DSM 22080(T) =CCUG 57457(T)).
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Affiliation(s)
- A Geiger
- UMR 177, IRD-CIRAD, CIRAD TA A-17/G, Campus International de Baillarguet, 34398 Montpellier Cedex 5, France
| | - M-L Fardeau
- Laboratoire de Microbiologie IRD, UMR 180, Universités de Provence et de la Méditerranée, ESIL, case 925, 163 Avenue de Luminy, 13288 Marseille cedex 9, France
| | - E Falsen
- CCUG, Culture Collection, University of Göteborg, Guldhedsgatan 10, SE-413 46 Göteborg, Sweden
| | - B Ollivier
- Laboratoire de Microbiologie IRD, UMR 180, Universités de Provence et de la Méditerranée, ESIL, case 925, 163 Avenue de Luminy, 13288 Marseille cedex 9, France
| | - G Cuny
- UMR 177, IRD-CIRAD, CIRAD TA A-17/G, Campus International de Baillarguet, 34398 Montpellier Cedex 5, France
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Bakunova SM, Bakunov SA, Wenzler T, Barszcz T, Werbovetz KA, Brun R, Tidwell RR. Synthesis and Antiprotozoal Activity of Pyridyl Analogues of Pentamidine. J Med Chem 2009; 52:4657-67. [DOI: 10.1021/jm900805v] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Svetlana M. Bakunova
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, School of Medicine, The University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599−7525
| | - Stanislav A. Bakunov
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, School of Medicine, The University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599−7525
| | - Tanja Wenzler
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Infection Biology, Swiss Tropical Institute, CH-4002 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Todd Barszcz
- Division of Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, The Ohio State University, 500 West 12th Avenue, Columbus, Ohio 43210
| | - Karl A. Werbovetz
- Division of Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, The Ohio State University, 500 West 12th Avenue, Columbus, Ohio 43210
| | - Reto Brun
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Infection Biology, Swiss Tropical Institute, CH-4002 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Richard R. Tidwell
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, School of Medicine, The University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599−7525
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43
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Link A, Heidler P, Kaiser M, Brun R. Parallel synthesis of a series of non-functional ATP/NAD analogs with activity against trypanosomatid parasites. Mol Divers 2009; 14:215-24. [PMID: 19484371 DOI: 10.1007/s11030-009-9160-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2009] [Accepted: 05/09/2009] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Non-functional analogs of the cofactors ATP and NAD are putative inhibitors of ATP- or NAD-dependant enzymes. Since pathogenic protozoa rely heavily on the salvage of purine nucleosides from the bloodstream of their host, such compounds are of interest as antiplasmodial and antitrypanosomal agents with a multitude of molecular targets. By replacing the negatively charged phosphate residues with a constrained unsaturated amide spacer and the nicotinamide moiety of NAD with various lipophilic substituents, 15 new ATP/NAD analogs were obtained in screening quantities. In these compounds, a 5'-desoxyadenosine moiety was conserved as key molecular recognition motif. The inhibition of P. falciparum and T. brucei ssp. in a whole parasite in vitro assay is reported.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreas Link
- Institute of Pharmacy, Ernst-Moritz-Arndt-University, Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Strasse 17, 17487, Greifswald, Germany.
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Sanderson L, Dogruel M, Rodgers J, De Koning HP, Thomas SA. Pentamidine movement across the murine blood-brain and blood-cerebrospinal fluid barriers: effect of trypanosome infection, combination therapy, P-glycoprotein, and multidrug resistance-associated protein. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2009; 329:967-77. [PMID: 19261919 DOI: 10.1124/jpet.108.149872] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
During the first stage of human African trypanosomiasis (HAT), Trypanosoma brucei gambiense is found mainly in the blood, and pentamidine treatment is used. Pentamidine is predominantly ineffective once the parasites have invaded the central nervous system (CNS). This lack of efficacy is thought to be due to the inability of pentamidine to cross the blood-brain barrier, although this has never been explored directly. This study addresses this using brain perfusion in healthy mice, P-glycoprotein-deficient mice, and in a murine model of HAT (T. brucei brucei). The influence of additional antitrypanosomal drugs on pentamidine delivery to the CNS also was investigated. Results revealed that [(3)H]pentamidine can cross the blood-brain barrier, although a proportion was retained by the capillary endothelium and failed to reach the healthy or trypanosome-infected brain (up to day 21 p.i.). The CNS distribution of pentamidine was increased in the final (possibly terminal) stage of trypanosome infection, partly because of loss of barrier integrity (days 28-35 p.i.) as measured by [(14)C]sucrose and [(3)H]suramin. Furthermore, pentamidine distribution to the CNS involved influx and efflux [via P-glycoprotein and multidrug resistance-associated protein (MRP)] transporters and was affected by the other antitrypanosomal agents, suramin, melarsoprol, and nifurtimox, but not eflornithine. These interactions could contribute to side effects or lead to the development of parasite resistance to the drugs. Thus, great care must be taken when designing drug combinations containing pentamidine or other diamidine analogs. However, coadministration of P-glycoprotein and/or MRP inhibitors with pentamidine or other diamidines might provide a means of improving efficacy against CNS stage HAT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa Sanderson
- King's College London, Pharmaceutical Sciences Research Division, Hodgkin Building, Guy's Campus, London, SE1 1UL, UK
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Planche AS, Scotti MT, Emerenciano VDP, López AG, Pérez EM, Uriarte E. Designing novel antitrypanosomal agents from a mixed graph-theoretical substructural approach. J Comput Chem 2009; 31:882-94. [DOI: 10.1002/jcc.21374] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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46
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Abstract
Aquaglyceroporin (AQP) channels facilitate the diffusion of a wide range of neutral solutes, including water, glycerol, and other small uncharged solutes. More recently, AQPs have been shown to allow the passage of trivalent arsenic and antimony compounds. Arsenic and antimony are metalloid elements. At physiological pH, the trivalent metalloids behave as molecular mimics of glycerol, and are conducted through AQP channels. Arsenicals and antimonials are extremely toxic to cells. Despite their toxicity, both metalloids are used as chemotherapeutic agents for the treatment of cancer and protozoan parasitic diseases. The metalloid homeostasis property of AQPs can be a mixed blessing. In some cases, AQPs form part of the detoxification pathway, and extrude metalloids from cells. In other instances, AQPs allow the transport of metalloids into cells, thereby conferring sensitivity. Understanding the factors that modulate AQP expression will aid in a better understanding of metalloid toxicity and also provide newer approaches to metalloid based chemotherapy.
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47
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Ever-increasing complexities of diamidine and arsenical crossresistance in African trypanosomes. Trends Parasitol 2008; 24:345-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pt.2008.04.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2008] [Revised: 04/08/2008] [Accepted: 04/08/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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Bridges DJ, Pitt AR, Hanrahan O, Brennan K, Voorheis HP, Herzyk P, de Koning HP, Burchmore RJS. Characterisation of the plasma membrane subproteome of bloodstream form Trypanosoma brucei. Proteomics 2008; 8:83-99. [PMID: 18095354 DOI: 10.1002/pmic.200700607] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Proteome analysis by conventional approaches is biased against hydrophobic membrane proteins, many of which are also of low abundance. We have isolated plasma membrane sheets from bloodstream forms of Trypanosoma brucei by subcellular fractionation, and then applied a battery of complementary protein separation and identification techniques to identify a large number of proteins in this fraction. The results of these analyses have been combined to generate a subproteome for the pellicular plasma membrane of bloodstream forms of T. brucei as well as a separate subproteome for the pellicular cytoskeleton. In parallel, we have used in silico approaches to predict the relative abundance of proteins potentially expressed by bloodstream form trypanosomes, and to identify likely polytopic membrane proteins, providing quality control for the experimentally defined plasma membrane subproteome. We show that the application of multiple high-resolution proteomic techniques to an enriched organelle fraction is a valuable approach for the characterisation of relatively intractable membrane proteomes. We present here the most complete analysis of a protozoan plasma membrane proteome to date and show the presence of a large number of integral membrane proteins, including 11 nucleoside/nucleobase transporters, 15 ion pumps and channels and a large number of adenylate cyclases hitherto listed as putative proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel J Bridges
- Division of Infection and Immunity, Institute of Biomedical and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
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Ogbunugafo H, Okochi V, Okpuzor J, Odesanmi O, Ebigwe F. The Butanol Extract of Mitragyna ciliata Root: Potential as a Trypanocide. INT J PHARMACOL 2008. [DOI: 10.3923/ijp.2008.102.107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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50
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Bakunova SM, Bakunov SA, Wenzler T, Barszcz T, Werbovetz KA, Brun R, Hall JE, Tidwell RR. Synthesis and in Vitro Antiprotozoal Activity of Bisbenzofuran Cations. J Med Chem 2007; 50:5807-23. [DOI: 10.1021/jm0708634] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Svetlana M. Bakunova
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, School of Medicine, The University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599-7525, Division of Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, The Ohio State University, 500 West 12th Avenue, Columbus, Ohio 43210, and Department of Medical Parasitology and Infection Biology, Swiss Tropical Institute, CH-4002 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Stanislav A. Bakunov
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, School of Medicine, The University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599-7525, Division of Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, The Ohio State University, 500 West 12th Avenue, Columbus, Ohio 43210, and Department of Medical Parasitology and Infection Biology, Swiss Tropical Institute, CH-4002 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Tanja Wenzler
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, School of Medicine, The University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599-7525, Division of Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, The Ohio State University, 500 West 12th Avenue, Columbus, Ohio 43210, and Department of Medical Parasitology and Infection Biology, Swiss Tropical Institute, CH-4002 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Todd Barszcz
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, School of Medicine, The University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599-7525, Division of Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, The Ohio State University, 500 West 12th Avenue, Columbus, Ohio 43210, and Department of Medical Parasitology and Infection Biology, Swiss Tropical Institute, CH-4002 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Karl A. Werbovetz
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, School of Medicine, The University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599-7525, Division of Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, The Ohio State University, 500 West 12th Avenue, Columbus, Ohio 43210, and Department of Medical Parasitology and Infection Biology, Swiss Tropical Institute, CH-4002 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Reto Brun
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, School of Medicine, The University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599-7525, Division of Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, The Ohio State University, 500 West 12th Avenue, Columbus, Ohio 43210, and Department of Medical Parasitology and Infection Biology, Swiss Tropical Institute, CH-4002 Basel, Switzerland
| | - James Edwin Hall
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, School of Medicine, The University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599-7525, Division of Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, The Ohio State University, 500 West 12th Avenue, Columbus, Ohio 43210, and Department of Medical Parasitology and Infection Biology, Swiss Tropical Institute, CH-4002 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Richard R. Tidwell
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, School of Medicine, The University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599-7525, Division of Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, The Ohio State University, 500 West 12th Avenue, Columbus, Ohio 43210, and Department of Medical Parasitology and Infection Biology, Swiss Tropical Institute, CH-4002 Basel, Switzerland
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