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Bernstein ZJ, Shenoy A, Chen A, Heller NM, Spangler JB. Engineering the IL-4/IL-13 axis for targeted immune modulation. Immunol Rev 2023; 320:29-57. [PMID: 37283511 DOI: 10.1111/imr.13230] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2023] [Accepted: 05/19/2023] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
The structurally and functionally related interleukin-4 (IL-4) and IL-13 cytokines play pivotal roles in shaping immune activity. The IL-4/IL-13 axis is best known for its critical role in T helper 2 (Th2) cell-mediated Type 2 inflammation, which protects the host from large multicellular pathogens, such as parasitic helminth worms, and regulates immune responses to allergens. In addition, IL-4 and IL-13 stimulate a wide range of innate and adaptive immune cells, as well as non-hematopoietic cells, to coordinate various functions, including immune regulation, antibody production, and fibrosis. Due to its importance for a broad spectrum of physiological activities, the IL-4/IL-13 network has been targeted through a variety of molecular engineering and synthetic biology approaches to modulate immune behavior and develop novel therapeutics. Here, we review ongoing efforts to manipulate the IL-4/IL-13 axis, including cytokine engineering strategies, formulation of fusion proteins, antagonist development, cell engineering approaches, and biosensor design. We discuss how these strategies have been employed to dissect IL-4 and IL-13 pathways, as well as to discover new immunotherapies targeting allergy, autoimmune diseases, and cancer. Looking ahead, emerging bioengineering tools promise to continue advancing fundamental understanding of IL-4/IL-13 biology and enabling researchers to exploit these insights to develop effective interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zachary J Bernstein
- Translational Tissue Engineering Center, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Anjali Shenoy
- Translational Tissue Engineering Center, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Amy Chen
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Nicola M Heller
- Department of Anesthesiology and Critical Care Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
- Division of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, Johns Hopkins University, School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, The Johns Hopkins University Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Jamie B Spangler
- Translational Tissue Engineering Center, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, The Johns Hopkins University Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
- Department of Chemical & Biomolecular Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
- Bloomberg Kimmel Institute for Cancer Immunotherapy, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
- Department of Oncology, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
- Sidney Kimmel Cancer Center, The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
- Department of Ophthalmology, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
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2
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Diogo GR, Sparrow A, Paul MJ, Copland A, Hart PJ, Stelter S, van Dolleweerd C, Drake PMW, Macallan DC, Reljic R. Murine IL-4Δ2 splice variant down-regulates IL-4 activities independently of IL-4Rα binding and STAT-6 phosphorylation. Cytokine 2017; 99:154-162. [PMID: 28917204 DOI: 10.1016/j.cyto.2017.09.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2017] [Revised: 07/26/2017] [Accepted: 09/07/2017] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
IL-4 is a pleiotropic cytokine that is highly Th2 polarizing. The ratio of IL-4 and its splice variant IL-4Δ2 observed in human health and disease suggests a role for both isoforms. In the present study, the biological function of murine IL-4Δ2 and the potential mechanism of action were studied. We report for the first time the generation of a functional, recombinant murine IL-4Δ2 form which is suggestive of its possible biological role in this species. Recombinant murine IL-4Δ2 inhibited IL-4 mediated cellular processes in macrophages and lymphocytes. Specifically, (i) it reversed IL-4 mediated inhibition of IFN-γ induced nitric oxide release by macrophages, (ii) inhibited IL-4 mediated induction of T cell proliferation, and (iii) prevented IL-4 stimulation of IgE synthesis by B cells. However, IL-4Δ2 did not compete with IL-4 for IL-4Rα binding and did not interfere with the downstream STAT-6 phosphorylation in T cells, suggesting an alternative mechanism for its antagonism of specific IL4-driven effects. These findings suggest that the mouse is a suitable experimental model for studies of the biology of IL-4 and its alternative splice variant.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gil R Diogo
- Institute for Infection and Immunity, St George's University of London, Cranmer Terrace, SW17 0RE London, UK
| | - Adam Sparrow
- Institute for Infection and Immunity, St George's University of London, Cranmer Terrace, SW17 0RE London, UK
| | - Matthew J Paul
- Institute for Infection and Immunity, St George's University of London, Cranmer Terrace, SW17 0RE London, UK
| | - Alastair Copland
- Institute for Infection and Immunity, St George's University of London, Cranmer Terrace, SW17 0RE London, UK
| | - Peter J Hart
- Institute for Infection and Immunity, St George's University of London, Cranmer Terrace, SW17 0RE London, UK
| | - Szymon Stelter
- Institute for Infection and Immunity, St George's University of London, Cranmer Terrace, SW17 0RE London, UK
| | - Craig van Dolleweerd
- Institute for Infection and Immunity, St George's University of London, Cranmer Terrace, SW17 0RE London, UK
| | - Pascal M W Drake
- Institute for Infection and Immunity, St George's University of London, Cranmer Terrace, SW17 0RE London, UK
| | - Derek C Macallan
- Institute for Infection and Immunity, St George's University of London, Cranmer Terrace, SW17 0RE London, UK
| | - Rajko Reljic
- Institute for Infection and Immunity, St George's University of London, Cranmer Terrace, SW17 0RE London, UK.
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3
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Shay AE, Diwakar BT, Guan BJ, Narayan V, Urban JF, Prabhu KS. IL-4 up-regulates cyclooxygenase-1 expression in macrophages. J Biol Chem 2017; 292:14544-14555. [PMID: 28684424 PMCID: PMC5582846 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m117.785014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2017] [Revised: 06/30/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Macrophages use various cell-surface receptors to sense their environment and undergo polarized responses. The cytokines, interleukin (IL)-4 and IL-13, released from T-helper type 2 (Th2) cells, drive macrophage polarization toward an alternatively activated phenotype (M2). This phenotype is associated with the expression of potent pro-resolving mediators, such as the prostaglandin (PG) D2-derived cyclopentenone metabolite, 15d-PGJ2, produced by the cyclooxygenase (Ptgs; Cox) pathway. Interestingly, IL-4 treatment of bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDMs) significantly down-regulates Cox-2 protein expression, whereas Cox-1 levels are significantly increased. This phenomenon not only challenges the dogma that Cox-1 is only developmentally regulated, but also demonstrates a novel mechanism in which IL-4-dependent regulation of Cox-1 involves the activation of the mechanistic target of rapamycin complex (mTORC). Using specific chemical inhibitors, we demonstrate here that IL-4-dependent Cox-1 up-regulation occurs at the post-transcriptional level via the Fes-Akt-mTORC axis. Activation of AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) by metformin, inhibition of mTORC by torin 1, or CRISPR/Cas9-mediated genetic knock-out of tuberous sclerosis complex-2 (Tsc2) blocked the IL-4-dependent expression of Cox-1 and the ability of macrophages to polarize to M2. However, use of 15d-PGJ2 partially rescued the effects of AMPK activation, suggesting the importance of Cox-1 in macrophage polarization as also observed in a model of gastrointestinal helminth clearance. In summary, these findings suggest a new paradigm where IL-4-dependent up-regulation of Cox-1 expression may play a key role in tissue homeostasis and wound healing during Th2-mediated immune responses, such as parasitic infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashley E Shay
- From the Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, Center for Molecular Immunology and Infectious Disease and Center for Molecular Toxicology and Carcinogenesis, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802
| | - Bastihalli T Diwakar
- From the Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, Center for Molecular Immunology and Infectious Disease and Center for Molecular Toxicology and Carcinogenesis, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802
| | - Bo-Jhih Guan
- the Department of Genetics and Genome Sciences, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio 44106
| | - Vivek Narayan
- the Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio 44195, and
| | - Joseph F Urban
- the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), Agriculture Research Service, Beltsville Human Nutrition Research Center, Diet, Genomics, and Immunology Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland 20705
| | - K Sandeep Prabhu
- From the Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, Center for Molecular Immunology and Infectious Disease and Center for Molecular Toxicology and Carcinogenesis, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802,
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4
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Interleukin-4 receptor signaling and its binding mechanism: A therapeutic insight from inhibitors tool box. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev 2016; 32:3-15. [PMID: 27165851 DOI: 10.1016/j.cytogfr.2016.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2016] [Revised: 03/23/2016] [Accepted: 04/15/2016] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Studies on Interlukin-4 (IL-4) disclosed great deal of information about its various physiological and pathological roles. All these roles depend upon its interaction and signaling through either type-I (IL-4Rα/common γ-chain) or type-II (IL-4Rα/IL-13Rα) receptors. Another cytokine, IL-13, shares some of the functions of IL-4, because both cytokines use a common receptor subunit, IL-4Rα. Here in this review, we discuss the structural details of IL-4 and IL-4Rα subunit and the structural similarities between IL-4 and IL-13. We also describe detailed chemistry of type-I and type-II receptor complexes and their signaling pathways. Furthermore, we elaborate the strength of type-II hetero dimer signals in response to IL-4 and IL-13. These cytokines are prime players in pathogenesis of allergic asthma, allergic hypersensitivity, different cancers, and HIV infection. Recent advances in the structural and binding chemistry of these cytokines various types of inhibitors were designed to block the interaction of IL-4 and IL-13 with their receptor, including several IL-4 mutant analogs and IL-4 antagonistic antibodies. Moreover, different targeted immunotoxins, which is a fusion of cytokine protein with a toxin or suicidal gene, are the new class of inhibitors to prevent cancer progression. In addition few small molecular inhibitors such as flavonoids have also been developed which are capable of binding with high affinity to IL-4Rα and, therefore, can be very effective in blocking IL-4-mediated responses.
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5
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Luzina IG, Keegan AD, Heller NM, Rook GAW, Shea-Donohue T, Atamas SP. Regulation of inflammation by interleukin-4: a review of "alternatives". J Leukoc Biol 2012; 92:753-64. [PMID: 22782966 DOI: 10.1189/jlb.0412214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 242] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Studies of IL-4 have revealed a wealth of information on the diverse roles of this cytokine in homeostatic regulation and disease pathogenesis. Recent data suggest that instead of simple linear regulatory pathways, IL-4 drives regulation that is full of alternatives. In addition to the well-known dichotomous regulation of Th cell differentiation by IL-4, this cytokine is engaged in several other alternative pathways. Its own production involves alternative mRNA splicing, yielding at least two functional isoforms: full-length IL-4, encoded by the IL-4 gene exons 1-4, and IL-4δ2, encoded by exons 1, 3, and 4. The functional effects of these two isoforms are in some ways similar but in other ways quite distinct. When binding to the surface of target cells, IL-4 may differentially engage two different types of receptors. By acting on macrophages, a cell type critically involved in inflammation, IL-4 induces the so-called alternative macrophage activation. In this review, recent advances in understanding these three IL-4-related branch points--alternative splicing of IL-4, differential receptor engagement by IL-4, and differential regulation of macrophage activation by IL-4--are summarized in light of their contributions to inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irina G Luzina
- University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA
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6
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Constitutive MHC class I molecules negatively regulate TLR-triggered inflammatory responses via the Fps-SHP-2 pathway. Nat Immunol 2012; 13:551-9. [PMID: 22522491 DOI: 10.1038/ni.2283] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2011] [Accepted: 03/06/2012] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The molecular mechanisms that fine-tune Toll-like receptor (TLR)-triggered innate inflammatory responses remain to be fully elucidated. Major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules can mediate reverse signaling and have nonclassical functions. Here we found that constitutively expressed membrane MHC class I molecules attenuated TLR-triggered innate inflammatory responses via reverse signaling, which protected mice from sepsis. The intracellular domain of MHC class I molecules was phosphorylated by the kinase Src after TLR activation, then the tyrosine kinase Fps was recruited via its Src homology 2 domain to phosphorylated MHC class I molecules. This led to enhanced Fps activity and recruitment of the phosphatase SHP-2, which interfered with TLR signaling mediated by the signaling molecule TRAF6. Thus, constitutive MHC class I molecules engage in crosstalk with TLR signaling via the Fps-SHP-2 pathway and control TLR-triggered innate inflammatory responses.
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7
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Voisset E, Lopez S, Dubreuil P, De Sepulveda P. The tyrosine kinase FES is an essential effector of KITD816V proliferation signal. Blood 2007; 110:2593-9. [PMID: 17595334 DOI: 10.1182/blood-2007-02-076471] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
KIT is a tyrosine kinase receptor that is aberrantly activated in several neoplasms. In human pathologies, the most frequent mutation of KIT occurs at codon 816. The resulting KIT mutant protein is activated in the absence of ligand and is resistant to the clinically available inhibitors of KIT. In this report, we provide evidence for an essential function of the cytoplasmic tyrosine kinase FES downstream of KITD816V. FES is phosphorylated on tyrosine residues in cells that carry KITD816V mutation, and this phosphorylation is KIT dependent. Reduction of FES expression using RNA interference results in decreased cell proliferation in human or murine cells harboring KITD816V or the homologous mouse mutation KITD814Y. The reduced cell growth can be rescued using another cytokine (granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor [GM-CSF]) and is not observed when the closely related fer gene is targeted. Finally, signaling downstream of KITD816V is altered in cells lacking FES expression. This study shows a major function of FES downstream of activated KIT receptor and thereby points to FES as a novel target in KIT-related pathologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edwige Voisset
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Rècherche Médicale (INSERM), Unité Mixte de Recherche (UMR) 599, Centre de Recherche en Cancérologie de Marseille, Laboratoire d'Hématopoïèse Moléculaire et Fonctionnelle, Marseille, France
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8
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Delfino F, Shaffer J, Smithgall T. The KRAB-associated co-repressor KAP-1 is a coiled-coil binding partner, substrate and activator of the c-Fes protein tyrosine kinase. Biochem J 2006; 399:141-50. [PMID: 16792528 PMCID: PMC1570157 DOI: 10.1042/bj20060194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
The c-Fes protein tyrosine kinase is implicated in the differentiation of a number of cell types including neuronal, endothelial and myeloid cells. Structurally, Fes consists of a unique N-terminal region, followed by SH2 (Src homology domain 2) and kinase domains. Two coiled-coil (CC) domains (CC1 and CC2) located within the unique N-terminal region are critical regulators of Fes activity in vivo and may function to recruit Fes activators and/or substrates. A yeast two-hybrid screen, utilizing a K-562 cell cDNA library and the Fes CC2 domain as bait, identified an interacting clone encoding the CC domain and B-box motifs (residues 114-357) of the transcriptional co-repressor KRAB-associated protein (KAP)-1. KAP-1(114-357) interacted with full-length Fes in yeast, and the KAP-1 CC domain was sufficient to bind the Fes N-terminal region in Sf-9 cells. Co-expression of Fes with full-length KAP-1 in human 293T cells stimulated Fes autophosphorylation and led to KAP-1 tyrosine phosphorylation. Association of endogenous Fes and KAP-1 was also observed in HL-60 myeloid leukaemia cells. Together, these data identify a novel Fes-KAP-1 interaction, and suggest a dual role for KAP-1 as both a Fes activator and downstream effector.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frank J. Delfino
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Biochemistry, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, U.S.A
| | - Jonathan M. Shaffer
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Biochemistry, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, U.S.A
| | - Thomas E. Smithgall
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Biochemistry, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, U.S.A
- To whom correspondence should be addressed (email )
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9
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Carlson A, Yates KE, Slamon DJ, Gasson JC. Spatial and temporal changes in the subcellular localization of the nuclear protein-tyrosine kinase, c-Fes. DNA Cell Biol 2005; 24:225-34. [PMID: 15812239 DOI: 10.1089/dna.2005.24.225] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Tyrosine phosphorylation has emerged as a mechanism to control cellular events in the nucleus. The c-Fes protein-tyrosine kinase is an important regulator of cell growth and differentiation in several cell types, and is found in the nucleus of hematopoietic cells. In this study, we showed nuclear localization of c-Fes in both hematopoietic (K562, TF-1, HEL, U937, and HL-60) and nonhematopoietic cell lines (293T, CaOv3, TfxH, MG-63, HeLa, DU-145) by immunofluorescence and confocal microscopy. c-Fes showed striking changes in subcellular localization at specific stages of mitosis. In interphase cells, the intranuclear distribution of c-Fes was diffuse with occasional bright foci. Some c-Fes was present in the cytosol after breakdown of the nuclear membrane, in prometaphase. At prometaphase and metaphase c-Fes was also associated with the chromosomes, in a punctate pattern that partially overlapped with the centromere. Further comparison with proteins that are known components of the kinetochore suggested that some c-Fes protein was located at the centromeric alpha-satellite DNA, between the kinetochores. At anaphase and telophase, c-Fes was entirely cytoplasmic and no protein was found associated with the chromosomes. The timing of c-Fes' appearance at the centromere coincides with the period of kinetochore assembly. These data suggest that c-Fes is recruited to the kinetochore during mitosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne Carlson
- Division of Hematology-Oncology, Department of Medicine, UCLA School of Medicine and Jonsson Comprehensive Cancer Center, Los Angeles, California, USA
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10
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Haigh JJ, Ema M, Haigh K, Gertsenstein M, Greer P, Rossant J, Nagy A, Wagner EF. Activated Fps/Fes partially rescues the in vivo developmental potential of Flk1-deficient vascular progenitor cells. Blood 2004; 103:912-20. [PMID: 14525765 DOI: 10.1182/blood-2003-07-2343] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
AbstractRelatively little is known about the modulators of the vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGF-A)/Flk1 signaling cascade. To functionally characterize this pathway, VEGF-A stimulation of endothelial cells was performed. VEGF-A–mediated Flk1 activation resulted in increased translocation of the endogenous Fps/Fes cytoplasmic tyrosine kinase to the plasma membrane and increased tyrosine phosphorylation, suggesting a role for Fps/Fes in VEGF-A/Flk1 signaling events. Addition of a myristoylation consensus sequence to Fps/Fes resulted in VEGF-A–independent membrane localization of Fps/Fes in endothelial cells. Expression of the activated Fps/Fes protein in Flk1-deficient embryonic stem (ES) cells rescued their contribution to the developing vascular endothelium in vivo by using ES cell–derived chimeras. Activated Fps/Fes contributed to this rescue event by restoring the migratory potential to Flk1 null progenitors, which is required for movement of hemangioblasts from the primitive streak region into the yolk sac proper. Activated Fps/Fes in the presence of Flk1 increased the number of hemangioblast colonies in vitro and increased the number of mesodermal progenitors in vivo. These results suggest that Fps/Fes may act synergistically with Flk1 to modulate hemangioblast differentiation into the endothelium. We have also demonstrated that activated Fps/Fes causes hemangioma formation in vivo, independently of Flk1, as a result of increasing vascular progenitor density.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jody J Haigh
- Mount Sinai Hospital, Samuel Lunenfeld Research Institute, 600 University Ave, Toronto, Ontario, Canada M5G 1X5.
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11
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Mora AL, Stephenson LM, Enerson B, Youn J, Keegan AD, Boothby M. New programming of IL-4 receptor signal transduction in activated T cells: Stat6 induction and Th2 differentiation mediated by IL-4Ralpha lacking cytoplasmic tyrosines. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2003; 171:1891-900. [PMID: 12902491 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.171.4.1891] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Signaling by the IL-4 receptor alpha-chain (IL-4Ralpha) is a key determinant of the development of the Th2 lineage of effector T cells. Studies performed in tissue culture cell lines have indicated that tyrosines of the IL-4Ralpha cytoplasmic tail are necessary for the induction of Stat6, a transcription factor required for Th2 differentiation. Surprisingly, we have found that in activated T cells, IL-4Ralpha chains lacking all cytoplasmic tyrosines promote induction of this IL-4-specific transcription factor and efficient commitment to the Th2 lineage. Mutagenesis of a tyrosine-free cytoplasmic tail identifies a requirement for the serine-rich ID-1 region in this new program of IL-4R signal transduction observed in activated T cells. Additional findings suggest that an extracellular signal-regulated kinase pathway can be necessary and sufficient for the ability of such tyrosine-free IL-4Ralpha chains to mediate Stat6 induction. These results provide novel evidence that the molecular mechanisms by which a cytokine specifically induces a Stat transcription factor can depend on the activation state of T lymphoid cells. Furthermore, the data suggest that one pathway by which such new programming may be achieved is mediated by extracellular signal-regulated mitogen-activated protein kinases.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Cell Differentiation/genetics
- Cell Differentiation/immunology
- Cytoplasm/genetics
- Cytoplasm/immunology
- Cytoplasm/metabolism
- Humans
- Jurkat Cells
- Lymphocyte Activation/genetics
- MAP Kinase Signaling System/genetics
- MAP Kinase Signaling System/immunology
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred BALB C
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Mice, Knockout
- Mice, Transgenic
- Mutagenesis, Site-Directed
- Peptide Fragments/deficiency
- Peptide Fragments/genetics
- Peptide Fragments/physiology
- Protein Structure, Tertiary/genetics
- Protein Structure, Tertiary/physiology
- Protein Subunits/deficiency
- Protein Subunits/genetics
- Protein Subunits/physiology
- Receptors, Interleukin-4/deficiency
- Receptors, Interleukin-4/genetics
- Receptors, Interleukin-4/physiology
- STAT6 Transcription Factor
- Th2 Cells/cytology
- Th2 Cells/immunology
- Th2 Cells/metabolism
- Trans-Activators/biosynthesis
- Tyrosine/deficiency
- Tyrosine/genetics
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana L Mora
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Vanderbilt University Medical School, Nashville, TN 37232, USA
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12
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Senis YA, Craig AWB, Greer PA. Fps/Fes and Fer protein-tyrosinekinases play redundant roles in regulating hematopoiesis. Exp Hematol 2003; 31:673-81. [PMID: 12901971 DOI: 10.1016/s0301-472x(03)00107-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The highly related protein-tyrosine kinases Fps (also called Fes) and Fer are sole members of a subfamily of kinases. In this study, knock-in mice harboring kinase-inactivating mutations in both fps and fer alleles were used to assess functional redundancy between Fps and Fer kinases in regulating hematopoiesis. METHODS Mice harboring kinase-inactivating mutations in fps and fer alleles were generated previously. Compound homozygous mice were bred that lack both Fps and Fer kinase activities and progeny were analyzed for potential defects in viability and fertility. Potential differences in hematopoiesis were analyzed by lineage analysis of bone marrow cells, peripheral blood counts, and hematopoietic progenitor cell colony-forming assays. RESULTS Mice devoid of both Fps and Fer kinase activities were viable and displayed reduced fertility. Circulating levels of neutrophils, erythrocytes, and platelets were elevated in compound mutant mice compared to wild-type controls, suggesting that hematopoiesis is deregulated in the absence of Fps and Fer kinases. Compound mutant mice also showed reduced overall bone marrow cellularity, and lineage analysis revealed elevated CD11b(hi)Ly-6G(lo) myeloid cells, which may reflect increased granulocyte progenitors. Although no differences in the overall number of granulocyte/monocyte colony-forming progenitors were observed, qualitative differences in myeloid colonies from compound mutant mice suggested a role for Fps and Fer kinases in regulating cell-cell adhesion or a skewing in cellularity of colonies. CONCLUSIONS Mice lacking both Fps and Fer kinase activities develop normally, show reduced fertility, and display defects in hematopoiesis, thus providing evidence for functional redundancy between Fps and Fer kinases in regulating hematopoiesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yotis A Senis
- Department of Pathology, Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada
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13
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Abstract
This review provides a perspective on the role of IL-4 in relation to both normal and leukemic CLL B cells. IL-4 is a well-characterized cytokine known to be produced by normal T cells and have impact on normal B cell differentiation and proliferation. This cytokine and its receptor are now known to exist on CLL B cells. An autocrine pathway for CLL B cells is strongly supported by signaling events, alteration of apoptotic proteins and changes in apoptosis resistance. Based on the increasing knowledge regarding the IL-4 pathway unique opportunities for therapy are now available in B-CLL.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neil E Kay
- Division of Hematology, Department of Medicine, Mayo Graduate and Medical Schools, Mayo Clinic, 200 First Street S.W., Rochester, MN 55905, USA.
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14
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Abstract
IL-13 is an immunoregulatory cytokine secreted predominantly by activated T(H)2 cells. Over the past several years, it has become evident that IL-13 is a key mediator in the pathogenesis of allergic inflammation. IL-13 shares many functional properties with IL-4, stemming from the fact that they share a common receptor subunit, the alpha subunit of the IL-4 receptor (IL-4Ralpha). Characterization of IL-13-deficient mice, IL-4-deficient mice, and IL-4 receptor alpha-deficient (IL-4Ralpha(-/-)) mice have demonstrated nonredundant roles for IL-13. IL-13 mediates its effects by interacting with a complex receptor system comprised of IL-4Ralpha and two IL-13 binding proteins, IL-13Ralpha1 and IL-13Ralpha2. IL-13 receptors are expressed on human B cells, basophils, eosinophils, mast cells, endothelial cells, fibroblasts, monocytes, macrophages, respiratory epithelial cells, and smooth muscle cells. However, functional IL-13 receptors have not been demonstrated on human or mouse T cells. Thus unlike IL-4, IL-13 does not appear to be important in the initial differentiation of CD4 T cells into T(H)2-type cells but rather appears to be important in the effector phase of allergic inflammation. This is further supported by many in vivo observations, including that administration of IL-13 resulted in allergic inflammation, tissue-specific overexpression of IL-13 in the lungs of transgenic mice resulted in airway inflammation and mucus hypersecretion, IL-13 blockade abolished allergic inflammation independently of IL-4, and IL-13 appears to be more important than IL-4 in mucus hypersecretion. Given the importance of IL-13 as an effector molecule, regulation at the level of its receptors might be an important mechanism of modulating IL-13 responses and thus propagation of the allergic response. Accordingly, IL-13 is an attractive, novel therapeutic target for pharmacologic intervention in allergic disorders. This review will summarize the current understanding of the IL-13 receptors and signaling pathways, emphasizing recent observations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gurjit K Khurana Hershey
- Division of Allergy, and Immunology, Department of Pediatrics, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, USA
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15
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Tagliafico E, Siena M, Zanocco-Marani T, Manfredini R, Tenedini E, Montanari M, Grande A, Ferrari S. Requirement of the coiled-coil domains of p92(c-Fes) for nuclear localization in myeloid cells upon induction of differentiation. Oncogene 2003; 22:1712-23. [PMID: 12642874 DOI: 10.1038/sj.onc.1206279] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The nonreceptor tyrosine kinase Fes is implicated in myeloid cells differentiation. It has been observed that its localization can be cytoplasmic, perinuclear, or nuclear. To further characterize this point, we studied Fes subcellular localization in myeloid cell lines (HL60 and K562) and in COS1 cells. Fes was observed in both the nucleus and the cytoplasm of HL60, K562 cells overexpressing Fes and only in the cytoplasm of COS1 cells, suggesting that nuclear localization is cell context dependent. Moreover, in myeloid cells, the treatment with differentiation-inducing agents such as retinoic acid, phorbol esters and vitamin D, is followed by an increase of the oligomeric form of Fes in the nucleus. In fact, oligomerization seems to be necessary for translocation to occur, since Fes mutants missing the coiled-coil domains are not able to form oligomers and fail to localize in the nucleus. The active form of Fes is tyrosine phosphorylated; however, phosphorylation is not required for Fes to localize in the nucleus, since tyrosine kinase inhibitors do not block the translocation process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Enrico Tagliafico
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biomediche, Universitá di Modena e Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy
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16
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Roy B, Bhattacharjee A, Xu B, Ford D, Maizel AL, Cathcart MK. IL‐13 signal transduction in human monocytes: phosphorylation of receptor components, association with Jaks, and phosphorylation/activation of Stats. J Leukoc Biol 2002. [DOI: 10.1189/jlb.72.3.580] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Biswajit Roy
- Department of Cell Biology, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic Foundation, Ohio; and
| | - Ashish Bhattacharjee
- Department of Cell Biology, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic Foundation, Ohio; and
| | - Bo Xu
- Department of Cell Biology, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic Foundation, Ohio; and
| | - Dwayne Ford
- Roger Williams Medical Center, Boston University, School of Medicine, Massachusetts
| | - Abby L. Maizel
- Roger Williams Medical Center, Boston University, School of Medicine, Massachusetts
| | - Martha K. Cathcart
- Department of Cell Biology, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic Foundation, Ohio; and
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17
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Hackenmiller R, Simon MC. Truncation of c-fes via gene targeting results in embryonic lethality and hyperproliferation of hematopoietic cells. Dev Biol 2002; 245:255-69. [PMID: 11977979 DOI: 10.1006/dbio.2002.0643] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
The c-fes protooncogene encodes a nonreceptor tyrosine kinase (Fes) implicated in cytokine receptor signal transduction, granulocyte survival, and myeloid differentiation. To study the role of c-fes during myelopoiesis, we generated embryonic stem (ES) cells with a targeted disruption of the c-fes locus. Targeted mutagenesis deletes the C-terminal SH2 and tyrosine kinase domains of c-fes (referred to as c-fes(Delta c/Delta c)). We demonstrate that the c-fes(Delta c/Delta c) allele results in a truncated Fes protein that retains the N-terminal oligomerization domain, but lacks both the SH2 and the tyrosine kinase domain. In vitro differentiation of c-fes(Delta c/Delta c) ES cells results in hyperproliferation of an early myeloid cell. Generation of c-fes(Delta c/Delta c) mutant chimeric mice causes lethality by E13.5 with embryos exhibiting pleiotropic defects, the most striking being cardiovascular abnormalities. These results establish that c-fes is an important regulator of myeloid cell proliferation and embryonic development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Renee Hackenmiller
- Committee on Genetics, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, USA
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18
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McCafferty DM, Craig AWB, Senis YA, Greer PA. Absence of Fer protein-tyrosine kinase exacerbates leukocyte recruitment in response to endotoxin. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2002; 168:4930-5. [PMID: 11994443 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.168.10.4930] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
The group IV cytoplasmic protein-tyrosine kinase Fer has been linked to cellular signaling responses to many different stimuli, including growth factors and cytokines. However, the biological relevance of Fer activation in vivo has not been demonstrated to date. Recently, we generated a transgenic mouse line in which Fer protein is expressed but lacks catalytic activity. Homozygous mutant mice were viable and fertile, and showed no overt defects. In this study, we used intravital microscopy to examine the role of Fer kinase in leukocyte recruitment (rolling adhesion and emigration) in response to LPS challenge in skeletal muscle microcirculation. In addition, we measured vascular permeability changes (FITC-albumin leakage, venular-to-interstitial space) in response to Ag to examine general endothelial cell function. Local administration of LPS induced decreased leukocyte rolling velocity and increased leukocyte adhesion and emigration in wild-type mice. LPS-induced changes in leukocyte rolling velocity and rolling flux were not significantly different in Fer mutants. However, LPS-induced leukocyte adhesion (23 +/- 3 vs 11 +/- 3 cells/100 microm) and emigration (100 +/- 5 vs 28 +/- 7 cells/field) were significantly elevated in Fer-mutant mice relative to wild-type mice, respectively, suggesting an essential role for the Fer kinase in regulating inflammation-induced leukocyte emigration. Vascular permeability increases in response to Ag were similar between the two groups, indicating that the ability of endothelial cells to retract is intact in the absence of Fer kinase. These data provide the first evidence for a biological role for Fer in regulation of leukocyte recruitment during the innate immune response.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Capillary Permeability/genetics
- Capillary Permeability/immunology
- Cell Movement/genetics
- Cell Movement/immunology
- Endothelium, Vascular/immunology
- Endothelium, Vascular/pathology
- Hemodynamics/genetics
- Hemodynamics/immunology
- Hypersensitivity, Immediate/genetics
- Hypersensitivity, Immediate/immunology
- Inflammation/genetics
- Inflammation/immunology
- Inflammation/pathology
- Injections, Subcutaneous
- Kinetics
- Leukocytes/pathology
- Lipopolysaccharides/administration & dosage
- Mice
- Mice, Mutant Strains
- Mice, Transgenic
- Muscle, Skeletal/blood supply
- Muscle, Skeletal/immunology
- Muscle, Skeletal/pathology
- Nuclear Proteins/deficiency
- Nuclear Proteins/genetics
- Nuclear Proteins/physiology
- Ovalbumin/administration & dosage
- Ovalbumin/immunology
- Protein-Tyrosine Kinases/deficiency
- Protein-Tyrosine Kinases/genetics
- Protein-Tyrosine Kinases/physiology
- Proto-Oncogene Proteins/deficiency
- Proto-Oncogene Proteins/genetics
- Proto-Oncogene Proteins/physiology
- Rheology
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Affiliation(s)
- Donna-Marie McCafferty
- Immunology Research Group, Department of Medical Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta T2N 4N1, Canada.
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19
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Scheijen B, Griffin JD. Tyrosine kinase oncogenes in normal hematopoiesis and hematological disease. Oncogene 2002; 21:3314-33. [PMID: 12032772 DOI: 10.1038/sj.onc.1205317] [Citation(s) in RCA: 122] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Tyrosine kinase oncogenes are formed as a result of mutations that induce constitutive kinase activity. Many of these tyrosine kinase oncogenes that are derived from genes, such as c-Abl, c-Fes, Flt3, c-Fms, c-Kit and PDGFRbeta, that are normally involved in the regulation of hematopoiesis or hematopoietic cell function. Despite differences in structure, normal function, and subcellular location, many of the tyrosine kinase oncogenes signal through the same pathways, and typically enhance proliferation and prolong viability. They represent excellent potential drug targets, and it is likely that additional mutations will be identified in other kinases, their immediate downstream targets, or in proteins regulating their function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Blanca Scheijen
- Department of Adult Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, 44 Binney Street, Boston, Massachusetts, MA 02115, USA
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20
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Abstract
Fps/Fes and Fer are the only known members of a distinct subfamily of the non-receptor protein-tyrosine kinase family. Recent studies indicate that these kinases have roles in regulating cytoskeletal rearrangements and inside out signalling that accompany receptor ligand, cell matrix and cell cell interactions. Genetic analysis using transgenic mouse models also implicates these kinases in the regulation of inflammation and innate immunity.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Biological Evolution
- Chromosomes, Human, Pair 15/genetics
- Chromosomes, Human, Pair 5/genetics
- Fusion Proteins, gag-onc/chemistry
- Fusion Proteins, gag-onc/genetics
- Fusion Proteins, gag-onc/physiology
- Humans
- Inflammation/physiopathology
- Mice
- Mice, Knockout
- Mice, Transgenic
- Models, Biological
- Models, Molecular
- Protein Structure, Tertiary
- Protein-Tyrosine Kinases/chemistry
- Protein-Tyrosine Kinases/genetics
- Protein-Tyrosine Kinases/physiology
- Proto-Oncogene Proteins/chemistry
- Proto-Oncogene Proteins/genetics
- Proto-Oncogene Proteins/physiology
- Receptor Cross-Talk
- Receptors, Platelet-Derived Growth Factor/physiology
- Signal Transduction
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Greer
- Division of Cancer Research and Genetics, Queen's University Cancer Research Institute, Kingston, Ontario K7L 3N6, Canada.
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21
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Ikizawa K, Kajiwara K, Izuhara K, Yanagihara Y. PKCdelta and zeta mediate IL-4/IL-13-induced germline epsilon transcription in human B cells: a putative regulation via PU.1 phosphorylation. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2001; 288:34-41. [PMID: 11594748 DOI: 10.1006/bbrc.2001.5723] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
We have investigated the role of PKC isozymes in the function of IL-4 and IL-13 in human B cells. In a Burkitt's B lymphoma cell line, DND39, IL-4 induced the translocation of PKCdelta and zeta from the cytosol to the membrane fraction. The activation of germline epsilon promoter by IL-4 was abrogated not only by the expression of dominant negative mutants of PKCdelta and zeta but also by isozyme-selective PKC inhibitors, rottlerin and PKCzeta pseudosubstrate peptide. These inhibitors also suppressed IL-4/IL-13-induced germline epsilon transcription in the IL-13Ralpha1-transfected DND39 cells as well as in normal human B cells, but had no influence on the induction of CD23b in the latter cells. As a downstream event of PKC, we found threonine phosphorylation of PU.1 in IL-4-stimulated DND39 cells. This phosphorylation was suppressed by the PKC inhibitors, although STAT6 activation was unaffected. These results suggest that, in human B cells, IL-4/IL-13 utilize PKCdelta and zeta for the STAT6-independent signaling pathway and thereby modulate the transcriptional activity of PU.1.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Ikizawa
- Clinical Research Center, National Sagamihara Hospital, Kanagawa 228-8522, Japan.
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22
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Zirngibl R, Schulze D, Mirski SE, Cole SP, Greer PA. Subcellular localization analysis of the closely related Fps/Fes and Fer protein-tyrosine kinases suggests a distinct role for Fps/Fes in vesicular trafficking. Exp Cell Res 2001; 266:87-94. [PMID: 11339827 DOI: 10.1006/excr.2001.5217] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
The subcellular localizations of the Fps/Fes and closely related Fer cytoplasmic tyrosine kinases were studied using green fluorescent protein (GFP) fusions and confocal fluorescence microscopy. In contrast to previous reports, neither kinase localized to the nucleus. Fer was diffusely cytoplasmic throughout the cell cycle. Fps/Fes also displayed a diffuse cytoplasmic localization, but in addition it showed distinct accumulations in cytoplasmic vesicles as well as in a perinuclear region consistent with the Golgi. This localization was very similar to that of TGN38, a known marker of the trans Golgi. The localization of Fps/Fes and TGN38 were both perturbed by brefeldin A, a fungal metabolite that disrupts the Golgi apparatus. Fps/Fes was also found to colocalize to various extents with several Rab proteins, which are members of the monomeric G-protein superfamily involved in vesicular transport between specific subcellular compartments. Using Rabs that are involved in endocytosis (Rab5B and Rab7) or exocytosis (Rab1A and Rab3A), we showed that Fps/Fes is localized in both pathways. These results suggest that Fps/Fes may play a general role in the regulation of vesicular trafficking.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Zirngibl
- Cancer Research Laboratories, Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario K7L 3N6, Canada
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23
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Losman J, Chen XP, Jiang H, Pan PY, Kashiwada M, Giallourakis C, Cowan S, Foltenyi K, Rothman P. IL-4 signaling is regulated through the recruitment of phosphatases, kinases, and SOCS proteins to the receptor complex. COLD SPRING HARBOR SYMPOSIA ON QUANTITATIVE BIOLOGY 2001; 64:405-16. [PMID: 11232315 DOI: 10.1101/sqb.1999.64.405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- J Losman
- Departments of Medicine and Microbiology, College of Physicians & Surgeons of Columbia University, New York, New York 10032, USA
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24
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Jiang H, Foltenyi K, Kashiwada M, Donahue L, Vuong B, Hehn B, Rothman P. Fes mediates the IL-4 activation of insulin receptor substrate-2 and cellular proliferation. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2001; 166:2627-34. [PMID: 11160325 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.166.4.2627] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Although Jak kinases are essential for initiating cytokine signaling, the role of other nonreceptor tyrosine kinases in this process remains unclear. We have examined the role of Fes in IL-4 signaling. Examination of Jak1-deficient cell lines demonstrates that Jak1 is required for the activation of Fes by IL-4. Experiments studying signaling molecules activated by IL-4 receptor suggest that IL-4 signaling can be subdivided into Fes-dependent and Fes-independent pathways. Overexpression of kinase-inactive Fes blocks the IL-4 activation of insulin receptor substrate-2, but not STAT6. Fes appears to be a downstream kinase from Jak1/Jak3 in this process. Further examination of downstream signaling demonstrates that kinase-inactive Fes inhibits the recruitment of phosphoinositide 3-kinase to the activated IL-4 receptor complex and decreases the activation of p70(S6k) kinase in response to IL-4. This inhibition correlates with a decrease in IL-4-induced proliferation. In contrast, mutant Fes does not inhibit the activation of Akt by IL-4. These data demonstrate that signaling pathways activated by IL-4 require different tyrosine kinases. This differential requirement predicts that specific kinase inhibitors may permit the disruption of specific IL-4-induced functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Jiang
- Department of Medicine and Microbiology, Columbia University, College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York, NY 10032, USA
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25
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Craig AW, Zirngibl R, Williams K, Cole LA, Greer PA. Mice devoid of fer protein-tyrosine kinase activity are viable and fertile but display reduced cortactin phosphorylation. Mol Cell Biol 2001; 21:603-13. [PMID: 11134346 PMCID: PMC86629 DOI: 10.1128/mcb.21.2.603-613.2001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
The ubiquitous Fer protein-tyrosine kinase has been proposed to regulate diverse processes such as cell growth, cell adhesion, and neurite outgrowth. To gain insight into the biological function of Fer, we have targeted the fer locus with a kinase-inactivating missense mutation (fer(D743R)). Mice homozygous for this mutation develop normally, have no overt phenotypic differences from wild-type mice, and are fertile. Since these mice lack both Fer and the testis-specific FerT kinase activities, these proteins are clearly not essential for development and survival. No differences were observed in overall cellularity of bone marrow, spleen, or thymus in the absence of Fer activity. While most platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF)-induced tyrosine phosphorylation was unchanged in fer(D743R) homozygous embryonic fibroblasts, cortactin phosphorylation was reduced. However, Fer kinase activity was not required for PDGF-induced Stat3, p120(ctn), or epidermal growth factor (EGF)-induced beta-catenin phosphorylation. Also, no defects were observed in changes to the actin cytoskeleton, adherens junctions, or focal adhesions in PDGF- or EGF-stimulated fer(D743R) homozygous embryonic fibroblasts. Therefore, Fer likely serves a redundant role in regulating cell growth, cell adhesion, retinal development, and spermatogenesis but is required for efficient phosphorylation of cortactin.
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Affiliation(s)
- A W Craig
- Department of Biochemistry, Cancer Research Laboratories, Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada K7L 3N6
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26
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Hackenmiller R, Kim J, Feldman RA, Simon MC. Abnormal Stat activation, hematopoietic homeostasis, and innate immunity in c-fes-/- mice. Immunity 2000; 13:397-407. [PMID: 11021537 DOI: 10.1016/s1074-7613(00)00039-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
The c-fes protooncogene encodes a nonreceptor tyrosine kinase (Fes) implicated in cytokine receptor signal transduction, neutrophil survival, and myeloid differentiation. To determine the role of Fes in embryonic development and hematopoiesis, we engineered a null mutation of the murine c-fes locus. c-fes-/- mice are viable but not born in the expected Mendelian ratios. Live born c-fes-/- mice exhibit lymphoid/myeloid homeostasis defects, compromised innate immunity, and increased Stat activation in response to GM-CSF and IL-6 signaling. Therefore, increased cytokine responsiveness in the absence of Fes leads to abnormal myeloid proliferation and functional defects in the macrophage lineage.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Hackenmiller
- Committee on Genetics, University of Chicago, Illinois 60637, USA
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27
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Aronica MA, Goenka S, Boothby M. IL-4-dependent induction of BCL-2 and BCL-X(L)IN activated T lymphocytes through a STAT6- and pi 3-kinase-independent pathway. Cytokine 2000; 12:578-87. [PMID: 10843732 DOI: 10.1006/cyto.1999.0603] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Both B and T lymphocytes require ongoing signals to maintain their viability. The pleiotropic cytokine interleukin (IL-) 4 plays an important role in the maintenance of activated T cells, perhaps reflecting induction of the anti-apoptotic genes Bcl-2 and Bcl-X(L). However, it is not known which of the signalling pathways known to link the IL-4 receptor with transcription regulation are required, or if the levels of Bcl-2/X induction under such physiologic conditions are sufficient to account for the anti-apoptotic effects of IL-4. We report here that although blockade of pathways (PI 3-kinase and pp70 S6 kinase) recruited by the IRS-1/2 adaptor proteins inhibited the anti-apoptotic function of IL-4, Bcl-2/X induction were normal. These findings were recapitulated in primary and culture-adapted T cells whose Stat6 signalling pathway also was defective. These results demonstrate that both the Stat6 and PI 3-kinase pathways can be dispensable for Bcl-2/X induction by IL-4, thus suggesting the involvement of an additional signal transduction pathway. Moreover, the preservation of Bcl-2/X induction despite inhibition of the anti-apoptotic function of IL-4 indicates that this cytokine activates additional protective mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- M A Aronica
- Allergy, Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine Division, Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University Medical School, Nashville, TN, 37232, USA
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28
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Kanda S, Lerner EC, Tsuda S, Shono T, Kanetake H, Smithgall TE. The nonreceptor protein-tyrosine kinase c-Fes is involved in fibroblast growth factor-2-induced chemotaxis of murine brain capillary endothelial cells. J Biol Chem 2000; 275:10105-11. [PMID: 10744691 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.275.14.10105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Fibroblast growth factor-2 (FGF-2)-induced migration of endothelial cells is involved in angiogenesis in vivo. However, signal transduction pathways leading to FGF-2-induced chemotaxis of endothelial cells are largely unknown. Previous studies have shown that the cytoplasmic protein-tyrosine kinase c-Fes is expressed in vascular endothelial cells and may influence angiogenesis in vivo. To investigate the contribution of c-Fes to FGF-2 signaling, we expressed wild-type or kinase-inactive human c-Fes in the murine brain capillary endothelial cell line, IBE (Immortomouse brain endothelial cells). Wild-type c-Fes was tyrosine-phosphorylated upon FGF-2-stimulation in transfected cells, whereas kinase-inactive c-Fes was not. Overexpression of wild-type c-Fes promoted FGF-2-independent tube formation of IBE cells. Tube formation was not observed with endothelial cells expressing kinase-inactive c-Fes, indicating a requirement for c-Fes kinase activity in this biological response. Expression of kinase-defective c-Fes suppressed endothelial cell migration following FGF-2 treatment, suggesting that activation of endogenous c-Fes may be required for the chemotactic response. Expression of either wild-type c-Fes or the kinase-inactive mutant did not affect the tyrosine phosphorylation FRS2, Shc, or phospholipase C-gamma, nor did it influence the kinetics of mitogen-activated protein kinase activation. These results implicate c-Fes in FGF-2-induced chemotaxis of endothelial cells through signaling pathways not linked to mitogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Kanda
- Department of Urology, Nagasaki University School of Medicine, 1-7-1 Sakamoto, Nagasaki 852-8501, Japan.
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29
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Martins-Green M, Bixby JL, Yamamoto T, Graf T, Sudol M. Tissue specific expression of Yrk kinase: implications for differentiation and inflammation. Int J Biochem Cell Biol 2000; 32:351-64. [PMID: 10716632 DOI: 10.1016/s1357-2725(99)00118-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The Src family of proto-oncogenes is a highly conserved group of non-receptor tyrosine kinases with very similar, but not identical, tissue distributions and functions. Yrk is a recently discovered new member of this family. Here we report the patterns of expression of this kinase in a variety of chicken tissues during development and after hatching, and experiments that correlate some of the observed patterns of expression with potential functions. The results show that the Yrk protein is primarily found in neuronal and epithelial cells and in monocyte/macrophages. In neuronal tissues of hatched chicks, Yrk is expressed in Purkinje cells, in the gigantocellularis of the brain-stem, and in retinal ganglion cells. In addition, staining for this kinase is also seen as thread-like and punctate patterns suggesting staining in neurites and growth cones. Epithelial cells express Yrk in the stomach during late developmental stages and after hatching but, in other epithelia such as in the peridermis, intestine and kidney, expression is high during development but low (skin) or undetectable (intestine and kidney) after hatching. These results suggest that Yrk may have several functional roles, specifically in cell migration and or differentiation during neuronal and epithelial cell development and in maintenance of the differentiated phenotype. In this study we also show that significant levels of Yrk are detected in monocytes of the blood and in tissue macrophages. Analysis of chicken hematopoietic cell lines confirmed the expression of Yrk in cells of monocyte/macrophage lineage and show for the first time in experimentally-induced inflammation that Yrk kinase activity is high during the period of monocyte infiltration, raising the possibility that this kinase plays a role in inflammation and/or response to injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Martins-Green
- Department of Cell Biology and Neurosciences, University of California, Riverside 92521, USA.
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30
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Ikizawa K, Yanagihara Y. Possible involvement of Shc in IL-4-induced germline epsilon transcription in a human B cell line. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2000; 268:54-9. [PMID: 10652211 DOI: 10.1006/bbrc.2000.2080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The IL-4Ralpha contains the I4R motif which binds to the phosphotyrosine binding domain of several adaptor proteins, including IRS-1/2 and Shc. Although the involvement of IRS-1/2 in IL-4-induced PI3-kinase activation is known, there is little information on the role of Shc in IL-4 signaling. In this study, we found the preferential utilization of Shc by the IL-4Ralpha in a human Burkitt's B lymphoma cell line, DND39. IL-4 induced the association of tyrosine-phosphorylated Shc with the IL-4Ralpha, whereas no detectable tyrosine phosphorylation of IRS-1 or IRS-2 was induced. IL-4-induced germline epsilon promoter activation was enhanced by overexpression of Shc and was inhibited by truncated Shc lacking the collagen-homologous domain. We further found the association of Shc with PLCgamma1. Although direct tyrosine phosphorylation of PLCgamma1 was not detectable, the amount of PLCgamma1 coprecipitable with anti-phosphotyrosine was increased after IL-4 stimulation. These results suggest that Shc can function as an adaptor protein of the IL-4Ralpha and mediate the germline epsilon transcription.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Ikizawa
- Clinical Research Center for Allergy, National Sagamihara Hospital, Sagamihara, Kanagawa, 228-8522, Japan.
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31
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Gessner A, Röllinghoff M. Biologic functions and signaling of the interleukin-4 receptor complexes. Immunobiology 2000; 201:285-307. [PMID: 10776786 DOI: 10.1016/s0171-2985(00)80084-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
IL-4 is a pleiotropic cytokine which plays a pivotal role in shaping immune responses. The effects of IL-4 are mediated after binding to high affinity receptor complexes present on hematopoietic as well as non-hematopoietic cells. This review will summarize the current knowledge on the molecular structure of the different types of IL-4 receptor (IL-4R) complexes as well as the signal transduction mechanisms induced by IL-4 leading to cellular proliferation and / or gene activation. IL-4 effects are modulated by soluble forms of the respective receptor molecules which are produced by several immune cells in a regulated manner. The biological impact of recently described IL-4R allotypes of mice and humans as well as the results of studies with IL-4R knockout mice will be particularly emphasized.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Gessner
- Institute of Clinical Microbiology, Immunology and Hygiene, University of Erlangen-Nürnberg, Germany.
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32
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Cheng H, Rogers JA, Dunham NA, Smithgall TE. Regulation of c-Fes tyrosine kinase and biological activities by N-terminal coiled-coil oligomerization domains. Mol Cell Biol 1999; 19:8335-43. [PMID: 10567558 PMCID: PMC84918 DOI: 10.1128/mcb.19.12.8335] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
The cytoplasmic protein-tyrosine kinase Fes has been implicated in cytokine signal transduction, hematopoiesis, and embryonic development. Previous work from our laboratory has shown that active Fes exists as a large oligomeric complex in vitro. However, when Fes is expressed in mammalian cells, its kinase activity is tightly repressed. The Fes unique N-terminal sequence has two regions with strong homology to coiled-coil-forming domains often found in oligomeric proteins. Here we show that disruption or deletion of the first coiled-coil domain upregulates Fes tyrosine kinase and transforming activities in Rat-2 fibroblasts and enhances Fes differentiation-inducing activity in myeloid leukemia cells. Conversely, expression of a Fes truncation mutant consisting only of the unique N-terminal domain interfered with Rat-2 fibroblast transformation by an activated Fes mutant, suggesting that oligomerization is essential for Fes activation in vivo. Coexpression with the Fes N-terminal region did not affect the transforming activity of v-Src in Rat-2 cells, arguing against a nonspecific suppressive effect. Taken together, these findings suggest a model in which Fes activation may involve coiled-coil-mediated interconversion of monomeric and oligomeric forms of the kinase. Mutation of the first coiled-coil domain may activate Fes by disturbing intramolecular coiled-coil interaction, allowing for oligomerization via the second coiled-coil domain. Deletion of the second coiled-coil domain blocks fibroblast transformation by an activated form of c-Fes, consistent with this model. These results provide the first evidence for regulation of a nonreceptor protein-tyrosine kinase by coiled-coil domains.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Cheng
- Eppley Institute for Research in Cancer, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska
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33
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Goenka S, Youn J, Dzurek LM, Schindler U, Yu-Lee LY, Boothby M. Paired Stat6 C-Terminal Transcription Activation Domains Required Both for Inhibition of an IFN-Responsive Promoter and Trans-Activation. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 1999. [DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.163.9.4663] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Abstract
The cytokines IL-4 and IFN-γ exert biologically antagonistic effects that in part reflect opposing influences on gene transcription. While the molecular mechanisms for IL-4-mediated transcription activation have been extensively studied, little is known about molecular mechanisms required for IL-4 inhibition of IFN-γ signaling. We have investigated IL-4 inhibition of the IFN-γ-inducible promoter for IFN regulatory factor-1 (IRF-1). In a cell line with low endogenous Stat6, increasing levels of activated Stat6 at constant doses of IFN-γ and IL-4 leads to inhibition of the IRF-1 promoter. The Stat1-dependent IFN-γ activation sequence element of the IRF-1 promoter is a target for Stat6-mediated inhibition despite apparently normal Stat1 DNA binding. However, our data are inconsistent with competition between Stat1 and Stat6 for access to the IRF-1 IFN-γ activation sequence or for an essential coactivator as a mechanism for this Stat6-mediated inhibition. Instead, the data demonstrate that a threshold of Stat6 transcription activation domains is required for IL-4-dependent inhibition. The findings provide evidence of a novel mechanism in which the Stat6 transcription activation domains play a critical role in the IL-4-mediated inhibition of an IFN-γ-inducible promoter.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Li-yuan Yu-Lee
- §Cell Biology and
- ¶Medicine (Rheumatology), Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030
| | - Mark Boothby
- *Microbiology and Immunology and
- †Medicine (Rheumatology), Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37232
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34
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Senis Y, Zirngibl R, McVeigh J, Haman A, Hoang T, Greer PA. Targeted disruption of the murine fps/fes proto-oncogene reveals that Fps/Fes kinase activity is dispensable for hematopoiesis. Mol Cell Biol 1999; 19:7436-46. [PMID: 10523632 PMCID: PMC84737 DOI: 10.1128/mcb.19.11.7436] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The fps/fes proto-oncogene encodes a cytoplasmic protein-tyrosine kinase that is functionally implicated in the survival and terminal differentiation of myeloid progenitors and in signaling from several members of the cytokine receptor superfamily. To gain further insight into the physiological function of fps/fes, we targeted the mouse locus with a kinase-inactivating missense mutation. Mutant Fps/Fes protein was expressed at normal levels in these mice, but it lacked detectable kinase activity. Homozygous mutant animals were viable and fertile, and they showed no obvious defects. Flow cytometry analysis of bone marrow showed no statistically significant differences in the levels of myeloid, erythroid, or B-cell precursors. Subtle abnormalities observed in mutant mice included slightly elevated total leukocyte counts and splenomegaly. In bone marrow hematopoietic progenitor cell colony-forming assays, mutant mice gave slightly elevated numbers and variable sizes of CFU-granulocyte macrophage in response to interleukin-3 (IL-3) and granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF). Tyrosine phosphorylation of Stat3 and Stat5A in bone marrow-derived macrophages was dramatically reduced in response to GM-CSF but not to IL-3 or IL-6. This suggests a distinct nonredundant role for Fps/Fes in signaling from the GM-CSF receptor that does not extend to the closely related IL-3 receptor. Lipopolysaccharide-induced Erk1/2 activation was also reduced in mutant macrophages. These subtle molecular phenotypes suggest a possible nonredundant role for Fps/Fes in myelopoiesis and immune responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Senis
- Department of Pathology, Cancer Research Laboratories, Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario K7L 3N6
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35
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Gattei V, Degan M, Rossi FM, de Iuliis A, Mazzocco FT, Serraino D, Zagonel V, Aldinucci D, Pinto A. CD30 ligand (CD30L)-expressing acute myeloid leukemias: a new model of paracrine interactions for the regulation of blast cells proliferation. Leuk Lymphoma 1999; 35:21-35. [PMID: 10512160 DOI: 10.3109/10428199909145702] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
CD30 ligand (CD30L) is a type-II membrane glycoprotein capable of transducing signals through its specific counterstructure CD30. Even though there are indications that CD30L plays a key role as a paracrine-acting surface molecule in the deregulated cytokine cascade of Hodgkin's disease, little is known about its biological functions in other human hemopoietic malignancies, despite the demonstration of the frequent expression of CD30L in hemopoietic neoplasms of both myeloid and lymphoid origin. The present review summarises structural and biological properties of CD30L, and focuses on CD30L+ acute myeloid leukemias (AMLs) by recapitulating some phenotypic and clinical features of this subset of acute leukemias. We also discuss some mechanisms by which CD30L-expressing leukemic blasts may gain a proliferative advantage through direct interaction with specific cells, in turn expressing its specific counterreceptor CD30. In particular, data has been provided suggesting that CD30L+ AMLs may evoke a sort of polarized T-cell response with the preferential production of Th2-like cytokines, mainly IL-4, by specific CD30-expressing T cell subsets. On the other hand, leukemic blasts presenting surface CD30L, have been shown to express a peculiar cytokine-receptors pattern that makes them an ideal target for T cells-produced Th2-like cytokines. Furthermore, some Th2-like cytokines, such as IL-4, are able to enhance blast cells proliferation, as well as to up-regulate the surface expression of specific adhesion molecules that have been shown to be associated with the presence of CD30L on AML blasts.
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Affiliation(s)
- V Gattei
- Department of Medical Oncology, Centro di Riferimento Oncologico, I.R.C.C.S., Aviano, Italy.
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36
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Craig AW, Zirngibl R, Greer P. Disruption of coiled-coil domains in Fer protein-tyrosine kinase abolishes trimerization but not kinase activation. J Biol Chem 1999; 274:19934-42. [PMID: 10391941 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.274.28.19934] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The protein-tyrosine kinase Fer and the highly homologous proto-oncoprotein Fps/Fes are implicated in signaling from a variety of growth factor and cytokine receptors. Here we examine the molecular basis of Fer kinase activation with an emphasis on the role of oligomerization. We show that Fer forms trimers in vivo and that disruption of either the first or second coiled-coil domain abolishes oligomerization, suggesting a cooperative interaction between these two domains. Although Fps/Fes also forms homotypic oligomers, probably via homologous coiled-coil domains, no heterotypic interactions were observed between Fer and Fps/Fes. Incorporation of catalytically inactive Fer peptides into the oligomeric complex caused only mild reduction of wild type Fer kinase activity, suggesting that kinase-inactive Fer would not behave as a potent dominant negative. Although oligomerization of Fer can potentiate autophosphorylation in trans at three major phosphorylation sites, these residues can likely also be phosphorylated in cis. In contrast, the testis-specific FerT isomer does not oligomerize and is able to autophosphorylate in cis at two of the same three residues autophosphorylated in Fer. These results suggest that although oligomerization potentiates autophosphorylation in trans, this is apparently not necessary for Fer activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- A W Craig
- Cancer Research Laboratories, Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario K7L 3N6, Canada
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37
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Nelms K, Keegan AD, Zamorano J, Ryan JJ, Paul WE. The IL-4 receptor: signaling mechanisms and biologic functions. Annu Rev Immunol 1999; 17:701-38. [PMID: 10358772 DOI: 10.1146/annurev.immunol.17.1.701] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1179] [Impact Index Per Article: 47.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Interleukin-4 is a multifunctional cytokine that plays a critical role in the regulation of immune responses. Its effects depend upon binding to and signaling through a receptor complex consisting of the IL-4R alpha chain and the common gamma chain (gamma c), resulting in a series of phosphorylation events mediated by receptor-associated kinases. In turn, these cause the recruitment of mediators of cell growth, of resistance to apoptosis, and of gene activation and differentiation. Here we describe our current understanding of the organization of the IL-4 receptor, of the signaling pathways that are induced as a result of receptor occupancy, and of the various mechanisms through which receptor function is modulated. We particularly emphasize the modular nature of the receptor and the specialization of different receptor regions for distinct functions, most notably the independent regulation of cell growth and gene activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Nelms
- Laboratory of Immunology, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
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38
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Chomarat P, Banchereau J. Interleukin-4 and interleukin-13: their similarities and discrepancies. Int Rev Immunol 1999; 17:1-52. [PMID: 9914942 DOI: 10.3109/08830189809084486] [Citation(s) in RCA: 237] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Interleukin-4 (IL-4) and the closely related cytokine, interleukin-13 (IL-13) share many biological and immunoregulatory functions on B lymphocytes, monocytes, dendritic cells and fibroblasts. Both IL-4 and IL-13 genes are located in the same vicinity on chromosome 5 and display identical major regulatory sequences in their respective promoters, thus explaining their restricted secretion pattern to activated T cells and mast cells. The IL-4 and IL-13 receptors are multimeric and share at least one common chain called IL-4R alpha. Recent progress made in the description of IL-4 and IL-13 receptor complex have demonstrated the existence of two types of IL-4 receptors: one constituted by the IL-4R alpha and the gamma c chain, and a second constituted by the IL-4 R alpha and the IL-13R alpha 1 and able to transduce both IL-4 and IL-13 signals. Specific IL-13 receptors are results from the association between the IL-4R alpha and the IL-13R alpha 2 or between two IL-13R alpha. Furthermore, similarities in IL-4 and IL-13 signal transduction have been also described, thus explaining the striking overlapping of IL-4- and IL-13-induced biological activities such as regulation of antibody production and inflammation. However, the restricted expression of IL-4 to type 2 helper T lymphocytes as well as the inability of IL-13 to regulate T cell differentiation due to a lack of IL-13 receptors on T lymphocytes represent the major differences between these cytokines. This would indicate that although IL-4 and IL-13 share a large number of properties, precise mechanisms of regulation are also present to guarantee their distinct functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Chomarat
- Schering-Plough, Laboratory for Immunological Research, Dardilly, France
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39
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Kim L, Wong TW. Growth factor-dependent phosphorylation of the actin-binding protein cortactin is mediated by the cytoplasmic tyrosine kinase FER. J Biol Chem 1998; 273:23542-8. [PMID: 9722593 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.273.36.23542] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Previous characterization of the nonreceptor tyrosine kinase FER identified a tight physical association with the catenin pp120 and led to the suggestion that FER may be involved in cell-cell signaling. To further understand the function of FER, we have continued our analyses of the interaction of FER with pp120 and other proteins. The majority of FER is localized to the cytoplasmic fraction where it forms a complex with the actin-binding protein cortactin. The Src homology 2 sequence of FER is required for directly binding cortactin, and phosphorylation of the FER-cortactin complex is up-regulated in cells treated with peptide growth factors. Using a dominant-negative mutant of FER, we provided evidence that FER kinase activity is required for the growth factor-dependent phosphorylation of cortactin. These data suggest that cortactin is likely to be a direct substrate of FER. Our observations provide additional support for a role of FER in mediating signaling from the cell surface, via growth factor receptors, to the cytoskeleton. The nature of the FER-cortactin interaction, and their putative enzyme-substrate relationship, support the previous proposal that one of the functions of the Src homology 2 sequences of nonreceptor tyrosine kinases is to provide a binding site for their preferred substrates.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Kim
- Department of Biochemistry, Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Piscataway, New Jersey 08854, USA
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40
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Schwartz Y, Ben-Dor I, Navon A, Motro B, Nir U. Tyrosine phosphorylation of the TATA element modulatory factor by the FER nuclear tyrosine kinases. FEBS Lett 1998; 434:339-45. [PMID: 9742951 DOI: 10.1016/s0014-5793(98)01003-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
The FER locus in the mouse encodes two tyrosine kinases, p94fer and p51ferT. While p94fer accumulates in the cytoplasm and nucleus of most mammalian cells the expression of p51ferT is restricted to the nucleus of meiotic primary spermatocytes. The cellular function of the FER kinases is not understood, nor has a substrate for these enzymes been characterized. To identify putative substrates of p94fer and p51ferT, the two enzymes were used as 'baits' in the yeast two-hybrid screening system. cDNAs encoding the mouse TATA element modulatory factor (TMF) were repeatedly isolated in this assay. TMF was previously shown to bind the TATA element in RNA polymerase II promoters and impaired their functioning in a cell free transcription system. Both p94fer and p51ferT phosphorylated the TMF protein in in vitro and in vivo kinase assays. Sequential deletions showed that the carboxy-terminal region of TMF was essential for phosphorylation. In situ hybridization analysis revealed the preferential accumulation of TMF transcripts in meiotic spermatogenic and oogenic cells. p94fer and p51ferT may thus modulate the suppressive activity of TMF during cellular growth and in defined differentiation processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Schwartz
- Department of Life Sciences, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat-Gan, Israel
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41
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Li J, Smithgall TE. Fibroblast transformation by Fps/Fes tyrosine kinases requires Ras, Rac, and Cdc42 and induces extracellular signal-regulated and c-Jun N-terminal kinase activation. J Biol Chem 1998; 273:13828-34. [PMID: 9593727 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.273.22.13828] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
The small GTP-binding proteins Ras, Rac, and Cdc42 link protein-tyrosine kinases with mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling cascades. Ras controls the activation of extracellular signal-regulated kinases (ERKs), while Rac and Cdc42 regulate the c-Jun N-terminal kinases (JNKs). In this study, we investigated whether small G protein/MAPK cascades contribute to signal transduction by transforming variants of c-Fes, a nonreceptor tyrosine kinase implicated in cytokine signaling and myeloid differentiation. First, we investigated the effects of dominant-negative small G proteins on Rat-2 fibroblast transformation by a retroviral homolog of c-Fes (v-Fps) and by c-Fes activated via N-terminal addition of the v-Src myristylation signal (Myr-Fes). We observed that dominant-negative Ras, Rac, and Cdc42 inhibited v-Fps- and Myr-Fes-induced growth of Rat-2 cells in soft agar, indicating that activation of these small GTP-binding proteins is required for fibroblast transformation by Fps/Fes tyrosine kinases. To determine whether MAPK pathways are activated downstream of these small G proteins, we measured ERK and JNK activity in the v-Fps- and Myr-Fes-transformed Rat-2 cells. Both ERK and JNK activities were elevated in the transformed cells, suggesting that these pathways are involved in cellular transformation. Dominant-negative mutants of Ras (but not Rac or Cdc42) specifically inhibited ERK activation by v-Fps and Myr-Fes, demonstrating that ERK activation occurs exclusively downstream of Ras. All three dominant-negative small G proteins inhibited JNK activation by v-Fps and Myr-Fes, indicating that JNK activation by these tyrosine kinases requires both Ras and Rho family GTPases. These data demonstrate that multiple small G protein/MAPK cascades are involved in downstream signal transduction by Fps/Fes tyrosine kinases.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Li
- Eppley Institute for Research in Cancer and Department of Pharmacology University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska 68198-6805, USA
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42
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Nelson KL, Rogers JA, Bowman TL, Jove R, Smithgall TE. Activation of STAT3 by the c-Fes protein-tyrosine kinase. J Biol Chem 1998; 273:7072-7. [PMID: 9507017 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.273.12.7072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
STATs (signal transducers and activators of transcription) are transcription factors that contain SH2 domains and are activated by tyrosine phosphorylation, often in response to cytokine stimulation. Recent evidence indicates that the transforming tyrosine kinases encoded by the v-Src, v-Abl, and v-Fps oncogenes can induce STAT activation, suggesting that their normal cellular homologs may contribute to STAT activation under physiological conditions. In this report, we provide direct evidence that c-Fes, the normal human homolog of v-Fps, potently activates STAT3. Transient transfection of human 293T cells with STAT3 and Fes resulted in strong stimulation of STAT3 DNA binding activity. In contrast, only modest activation of STAT5 by Fes was observed in this system, indicative of possible selectivity. To determine whether Fes-induced STAT3 activation is dependent upon endogenous mammalian kinases, co-expression studies were also performed in Sf-9 insect cells. Fes also induced a dramatic increase in STAT3 DNA binding activity in this system, whereas no activation of STAT5 was observed. As a positive control, both STAT3 and STAT5 were shown to be activated by the Bcr-Abl tyrosine kinase in Sf-9 cells. Fes induced strong tyrosine phosphorylation of STAT3 in both expression systems, consistent with the gel-shift results. Fes and STAT3 have been independently linked to myeloid differentiation. Results presented here suggest that these proteins may cooperate to promote differentiation signaling in response to hematopoietic cytokines.
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Affiliation(s)
- K L Nelson
- Eppley Institute for Research in Cancer and Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska 68198-6805, USA
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43
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Keegan AD, Zamorano J. Regulation of gene expression, growth, and cell survival by IL-4: contribution of multiple signaling pathways. Cell Res 1998; 8:1-13. [PMID: 9570012 DOI: 10.1038/cr.1998.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Interleukin-4 is a cytokine produced by activated T cells, mast cells, and basophils that elicits many important biological responses[1] (see Tab 1). These responses range from the regulation of helper T cell differentiation[2] and the production of IgE[3] to the regulation of the adhesive properties of endothelial cells via VCAM-1[4]. In keeping with these diverse biological effects, high-affinity binding sites for IL-4 (Kd 20 to 300 pM) have been detected on many hematopoietic and non-hematopoietic cell types at levels ranging from 50 to 5000 sites per cell[5]. This review will focus on the discrete signal transduction pathways activated by the IL-4 receptor and the coordination of these individual pathways in the regulation of a final biological outcome.
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Affiliation(s)
- A D Keegan
- Department of Immunology, Jerome H. Holland Laboratory, American Red Cross, Rockville, MD, USA
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44
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Renard N, Harada N, Callet-Bauchu E, Miyajima A, Duvert V, Banchereau J, Saeland S. Heterogeneity of the inhibitory effects of IL-4 in two novel B lineage acute lymphoblastic leukemia cell lines. Leuk Res 1997; 21:1037-46. [PMID: 9444937 DOI: 10.1016/s0145-2126(97)00099-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
The present study describes two novel cell lines, DUNATIS and SILVANUS, established from B lineage acute lymphoblastic leukemia patients. Respectively, DUNATIS and SILVANUS display an early pre-B cell and a pre-B cell phenotype. Spontaneous DNA replication of both cell lines was strongly inhibited by IL-4. This effect was directly mediated by IL-4 and exerted through the CD124 IL-4 receptor chain. Notably, IL-4 was associated with rapid cell death and reduction of cellularity in DUNATIS, whereas these parameters were considerably less pronounced and only observed after longer-term exposure of the SILVANUS cells to IL-4. In addition to these differences, although both cell lines expressed FES oncoprotein, a 100 kDa protein associated with FES was strikingly found to be tyrosine-phosphorylated in response to IL-4 exclusively in DUNATIS cells. These data demonstrate that IL-4 displays heterogenous effects on leukemic B cell precursors responsive to inhibition of DNA synthesis via IL-4 mediated engagement of the CD124 receptor chain. The present findings may be of use for appreciation of the effects of IL-4 in B lineage ALL, and the novel cell lines could represent a model for further identification of target molecules in IL-4 signalling.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Renard
- Schering-Plough, Laboratory for Immunological Research, Dardilly, France
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45
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Read RD, Lionberger JM, Smithgall TE. Oligomerization of the Fes tyrosine kinase. Evidence for a coiled-coil domain in the unique N-terminal region. J Biol Chem 1997; 272:18498-503. [PMID: 9218495 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.272.29.18498] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
The c-fes proto-oncogene encodes a non-receptor tyrosine kinase (Fes) that has been implicated in cytokine receptor signal transduction and myeloid differentiation. Previous work from our laboratory has shown that Fes autophosphorylates via an intermolecular mechanism more commonly associated with growth factor receptor tyrosine kinases. Analysis of the Fes amino acid sequence with the COILS algorithm indicates that the N-terminal region of the protein has a very high probability of forming coiled-coil structures often associated with oligomeric proteins. These findings suggest that oligomerization may be a prerequisite for trans-autophosphorylation and activation of Fes. To establish whether the active form of Fes is oligomeric, we performed gel-filtration experiments with recombinant Fes and found that it eluted as a single symmetrical peak of approximately 500 kDa. No evidence of the monomeric, 93-kDa form of the protein was observed. Deletion of the unique N-terminal domain (amino acids 1-450, including the coiled-coil homology region) completely abolished the formation of oligomers. Furthermore, co-precipitation assays demonstrated that an immobilized glutathione S-transferase fusion protein containing the Fes N-terminal region bound to full-length Fes but not to a mutant lacking the N-terminal region. Similarly, a recombinant Fes N-terminal domain protein was readily cross-linked in vitro, whereas the SH2 and kinase domains were refractory to cross-linking. Incubation of wild-type Fes with a kinase-inactive Fes mutant or with the isolated N-terminal region suppressed Fes autophosphorylation in vitro, suggesting that oligomerization may be essential for autophosphorylation of full-length Fes. The presence of an oligomerization function in the Fes family of tyrosine kinases suggests a novel mechanism for non-receptor protein-tyrosine kinase regulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- R D Read
- Eppley Institute for Research in Cancer and the Department of Pathology and Microbiology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska 68198-6805, USA
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46
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Taylor N, Candotti F, Smith S, Oakes SA, Jahn T, Isakov J, Puck JM, O'Shea JJ, Weinberg K, Johnston JA. Interleukin-4 signaling in B lymphocytes from patients with X-linked severe combined immunodeficiency. J Biol Chem 1997; 272:7314-9. [PMID: 9054429 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.272.11.7314] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Interleukin-4 (IL-4) is an important cytokine for B and T lymphocyte function and mediates its effects via a receptor that contains gammac. B cells derived from patients with X-linked severe combined immunodeficiency (X-SCID) are deficient in gammac and provide a useful model in which to dissect the role of this subunit in IL-4-mediated signaling. We found that although IL-4 stimulation of X-SCID B cells did not result in Janus tyrosine kinase-3 (JAK3) phosphorylation, other IL-4 substrates including JAK1 and IRS-1 were phosphorylated. Additionally, we detected signal transducers and activators of transcription 6 (STAT6) tyrosine phosphorylation and DNA binding activity in X-SCID B cells with a wide range of gammac mutations. However, reconstitution of these X-SCID B cells with gammac enhanced IL-4-mediated responses including STAT6 phosphorylation and DNA binding activity and resulted in increased CD23 expression. Thus, gammac is not necessary to trigger IL-4-mediated responses in B cells, but its presence is important for optimal IL-4-signaling. These results suggest that two distinct IL-4 signaling pathways exist.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Taylor
- Division of Research Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation, Childrens Hospital Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California 90027, USA.
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Chen XH, Patel BK, Wang LM, Frankel M, Ellmore N, Flavell RA, LaRochelle WJ, Pierce JH. Jak1 expression is required for mediating interleukin-4-induced tyrosine phosphorylation of insulin receptor substrate and Stat6 signaling molecules. J Biol Chem 1997; 272:6556-60. [PMID: 9045682 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.272.10.6556] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
The Jak1, Jak2, Jak3, and Fes tyrosine kinases have been demonstrated to undergo tyrosine phosphorylation in response to interleukin (IL)-4 stimulation in different cell systems. However, it is not clear which, if any, of these kinases are responsible for initiating IL-4-induced tyrosine phosphorylation of intracellular substrates in vivo. In the present study, we have utilized a mutant Jak1-deficient HeLa cell line, E1C3, and its parental Jak1-expressing counterpart, 1D4, to analyze the role of Jak1 in mediating IL-4-induced tyrosine phosphorylation events. IL-4 treatment rapidly induced tyrosine phosphorylation of insulin receptor substrate (IRS)-1 and IRS-2 in 1D4 but not in E1C3 cells. IL-4-mediated tyrosine phosphorylation of Stat6 was pronounced in 1D4 cells, while no IL-4-induced Stat6 phosphorylation was detected in E1C3 cells. IL-4 also induced Stat6 DNA binding activity from lysates of 1D4 but not E1C3 cells utilizing a radiolabeled immunoglobulin heavy chain germline epsilon promotor sequence (Iepsilon) in an electrophoretic mobility shift assay. Reconstitution of Jak1 expression in E1C3 cells restored the ability of IL-4 to induce IRS and Stat6 tyrosine phosphorylation. These results provide evidence that Jak1 expression is required for mediating tyrosine phosphorylation and activation of crucial molecules involved in IL-4 signal transduction.
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Affiliation(s)
- X H Chen
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Biology, NCI, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892-4255, USA
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Jücker M, McKenna K, da Silva AJ, Rudd CE, Feldman RA. The Fes protein-tyrosine kinase phosphorylates a subset of macrophage proteins that are involved in cell adhesion and cell-cell signaling. J Biol Chem 1997; 272:2104-9. [PMID: 8999909 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.272.4.2104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
The c-fps/fes proto-oncogene encodes a 92-kDa protein-tyrosine kinase that is expressed at high levels in macrophages. We have previously shown that overexpression of c-fps/fes in a CSF-1-dependent macrophage cell line (BAC1.2F5) partially released these cells from their factor dependence and that this correlated with the tyrosine phosphorylation of a subset of proteins in a tissue-specific manner. We have now identified one of the macrophage substrates of Fes as the crk-associated substrate (Cas) and a second substrate as a 130-kDa protein that has been previously described as a T cell activation-dependent substrate and is unrelated to Cas. Both of these proteins, which have optimal consensus sequences for phosphorylation by Fes, were tightly associated with this kinase through its SH2 domain, suggesting that they were direct substrates of Fes. Remarkably, when the Fes SH2 domain was used as an affinity reagent to identify potential substrates of endogenous Fes in control BAC1.2F5 cells, the phosphotyrosyl proteins that were recognized were the same as those that were specifically phosphorylated when Fes was overexpressed in the same cells. We conclude that the substrates we identified may be structurally related or identical to the physiological targets of this kinase in macrophages. The known functions of Cas and p130 suggest that Fes kinase may play a role in signaling triggered by cell adhesion and cell-cell interactions during immune responses of macrophages.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Jücker
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21201, USA
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49
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Abstract
Intracellular signal transduction following the extracellular ligation of a wide variety of different types of surface molecules on leukocytes involves the activation of protein tyrosine kinases. The dependence of successful intracellular signaling on the functions of the nontransmembrane class of protein tyrosine kinases coupled with the cell type-specific expression patterns for several of these enzymes makes them appealing targets for therapeutic intervention. Development of drugs that can interfere with the catalytic functions of the nontransmembrane protein tyrosine kinases or that can disrupt critical interactions with regulatory molecules and/or substrates should find clinical applications in the treatment of allergic diseases, autoimmunity, transplantation rejection, and cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- J B Bolen
- DNAX Research Institute, Palo Alto, California 94304, USA.
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50
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Yates KE, Crooks GM, Gasson JC. Analysis of Fes kinase activity in myeloid cell growth and differentiation. Stem Cells 1996; 14:714-24. [PMID: 8948028 DOI: 10.1002/stem.140714] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Fes is a nonreceptor protein tyrosine kinase that has been implicated in a variety of cytokine signal transduction pathways, as well as differentiation of myeloid cells. To address the role of Fes in these processes, we overexpressed a kinase-defective Fes protein in the factor-dependent cell-lines, TF-1 and 32D. Proliferative responses to GM-CSF and interleukin 3, and the induction of differentiation by G-CSF were not altered by expression of the kinase mutant Fes protein, indicating that Fes kinase activity is not critical for these biological events in these cell lines.
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Affiliation(s)
- K E Yates
- Department of Biological Chemistry, UCLA School of Medicine 90095-1678, USA
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