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Sachslehner AP, Surbek M, Holthaus KB, Steinbinder J, Golabi B, Hess C, Eckhart L. The Evolution of Transglutaminases Underlies the Origin and Loss of Cornified Skin Appendages in Vertebrates. Mol Biol Evol 2024; 41:msae100. [PMID: 38781495 DOI: 10.1093/molbev/msae100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2024] [Revised: 04/11/2024] [Accepted: 05/20/2024] [Indexed: 05/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Transglutaminases (TGMs) cross-link proteins by introducing covalent bonds between glutamine and lysine residues. These cross-links are essential for epithelial cornification which enables tetrapods to live on land. Here, we investigated which evolutionary adaptations of vertebrates were associated with specific changes in the family of TGM genes. We determined the catalog of TGMs in the main clades of vertebrates, performed a comprehensive phylogenetic analysis of TGMs, and localized the distribution of selected TGMs in tissues. Our data suggest that TGM1 is the phylogenetically oldest epithelial TGM, with orthologs being expressed in the cornified teeth of the lamprey, a basal vertebrate. Gene duplications led to the origin of TGM10 in stem vertebrates, the origin of TGM2 in jawed vertebrates, and an increasing number of epithelium-associated TGM genes in the lineage leading to terrestrial vertebrates. TGM9 is expressed in the epithelial egg tooth, and its evolutionary origin in stem amniotes coincided with the evolution of embryonic development in eggs that are surrounded by a protective shell. Conversely, viviparous mammals have lost both the epithelial egg tooth and TGM9. TGM3 and TGM6 evolved as regulators of cornification in hair follicles and underwent pseudogenization upon the evolutionary loss of hair in cetaceans. Taken together, this study reveals the gain and loss of vertebrate TGM genes in association with the evolution of cornified skin appendages and suggests an important role of TGM9 in the evolution of amniotes.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Marta Surbek
- Department of Dermatology, Medical University of Vienna, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | | | - Julia Steinbinder
- Department of Dermatology, Medical University of Vienna, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Bahar Golabi
- Department of Dermatology, Medical University of Vienna, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Claudia Hess
- Clinic for Poultry and Fish Medicine, Department for Farm Animals and Veterinary Public Health, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, 1210 Vienna, Austria
| | - Leopold Eckhart
- Department of Dermatology, Medical University of Vienna, 1090 Vienna, Austria
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2
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Karim N, Lin LW, Van Eenennaam JP, Fangue NA, Schreier AD, Phillips MA, Rice RH. Epidermal cell cultures from white and green sturgeon (Acipenser transmontanus and medirostris): Expression of TGM1-like transglutaminases and CYP4501A. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0265218. [PMID: 35294467 PMCID: PMC8926185 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0265218] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2021] [Accepted: 02/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Using a system optimized for propagating human keratinocytes, culture of skin samples from white and green sturgeons generated epithelial cells capable of making cross-linked protein envelopes. Two distinct forms of TGM1-like mRNA were molecularly cloned from the cells of white sturgeon and detected in green sturgeon cells, accounting for their cellular envelope forming ability. The protein translated from each displayed a cluster of cysteine residues resembling the membrane anchorage region expressed in epidermal cells of teleosts and tetrapods. One of the two mRNA forms (called A) was present at considerably higher levels than the other (called B) in both species. Continuous lines of white sturgeon epidermal cells were established and characterized. Size measurements indicated that a substantial fraction of the cells became enlarged, appearing similar to squames in human epidermal keratinocyte cultures. The cultures also expressed CYP1A, a cytochrome P450 enzyme inducible by activation of aryl hydrocarbon receptor 2 in fish. The cells gradually improved in growth rate over a dozen passages while retaining envelope forming ability, TGM1 expression and CYP1A inducibility. These cell lines are thus potential models for studying evolution of fish epidermis leading to terrestrial adaptation and for testing sturgeon sensitivity to environmental stresses such as pollution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noreen Karim
- Department of Environmental Toxicology, University of California, Davis, California, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Lo-Wei Lin
- Department of Environmental Toxicology, University of California, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Joel P. Van Eenennaam
- Department of Animal Science, University of California, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Nann A. Fangue
- Department of Wildlife, Fish and Conservation Biology, University of California, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Andrea D. Schreier
- Department of Animal Science, University of California, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Marjorie A. Phillips
- Department of Environmental Toxicology, University of California, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Robert H. Rice
- Department of Environmental Toxicology, University of California, Davis, California, United States of America
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Rodriguez Cruz SI, Phillips MA, Kültz D, Rice RH. Tgm1-like transglutaminases in tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus). PLoS One 2017; 12:e0177016. [PMID: 28472103 PMCID: PMC5417640 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0177016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2016] [Accepted: 04/20/2017] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Among the adaptations of aquatic species during evolution of terrestrial tetrapods was the development of an epidermis preventing desiccation. In present day mammals, keratinocytes of the epidermis, using a membrane-bound transglutaminase (Tgm1), accomplish this function by synthesizing a scaffold of cross-linked protein to which a lipid envelope is attached. This study characterizes the abilities of two homologous transglutaminase isozymes in the teleost fish tilapia to form cross-linked protein structures and their expression in certain tissues. Results indicate they are capable of membrane localization and of generating cellular structures resistant to detergent solubilization. They are both expressed in epithelial cells of the lip, buccal cavity and tips of gill filaments. Adaptation of transglutaminase use in evolution of terrestrial keratinocytes evidently involved refinements in tissue expression, access to suitable substrate proteins and activation of cross-linking during terminal differentiation.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Marjorie A. Phillips
- Department of Environmental Toxicology, University of California, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Dietmar Kültz
- Department of Animal Science, University of California, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Robert H. Rice
- Forensic Science Program, University of California, Davis, California, United States of America
- Department of Environmental Toxicology, University of California, Davis, California, United States of America
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Eckert RL, Sturniolo MT, Jans R, Kraft CA, Jiang H, Rorke EA. TIG3: a regulator of type I transglutaminase activity in epidermis. Amino Acids 2009; 36:739-46. [PMID: 18612777 PMCID: PMC3124850 DOI: 10.1007/s00726-008-0123-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2008] [Accepted: 04/15/2008] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Keratinocytes undergo a process of terminal cell differentiation that results in the construction of a multilayered epithelium designed to produce a structure that functions to protect the body from dehydration, abrasion and infection. These protective properties are due to the production of a crosslinked layer of protein called the cornified envelope. Type I transglutaminase (TG1), an enzyme that catalyzes the formation of epsilon-(gamma-glutamyl)lysine bonds, is the key protein responsible for generation of the crosslinks. The mechanisms that lead to activation of transglutaminase during terminal differentiation are not well understood. We have identified a protein that interacts with TG1 and regulates its activity. This protein, tazarotene-induced gene 3 (TIG3), is expressed in the differentiated layers of the epidermis and its expression is associated with transglutaminase activation and cornified envelope formation. We describe a novel mechanism whereby TIG3 regulates TG1 activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard L Eckert
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, 108 N. Greene Street, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA.
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Phillips MA, Jessen BA, Lu Y, Qin Q, Stevens ME, Rice RH. A distal region of the human TGM1 promoter is required for expression in transgenic mice and cultured keratinocytes. BMC DERMATOLOGY 2004; 4:2. [PMID: 15061870 PMCID: PMC416661 DOI: 10.1186/1471-5945-4-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2003] [Accepted: 04/05/2004] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Background TGM1(transglutaminase 1) is an enzyme that crosslinks the cornified envelope of mature keratinocytes. Appropriate expression of the TGM1 gene is crucial for proper keratinocyte function as inactivating mutations lead to the debilitating skin disease, lamellar ichthyosis. TGM1 is also expressed in squamous metaplasia, a consequence in some epithelia of vitamin A deficiency or toxic insult that can lead to neoplasia. An understanding of the regulation of this gene in normal and abnormal differentiation states may contribute to better disease diagnosis and treatment. Methods In vivo requirements for expression of the TGM1 gene were studied by fusing various lengths of promoter DNA to a reporter and injecting the DNA into mouse embryos to generate transgenic animals. Expression of the reporter was ascertained by Western blotting and immunohistochemistry. Further delineation of a transcriptionally important distal region was determined by transfections of progressively shortened or mutated promoter DNA into cultured keratinocytes. Results In vivo analysis of a reporter transgene driven by the TGM1 promoter revealed that 1.6 kilobases, but not 1.1 kilobases, of DNA was sufficient to confer tissue-specific and cell layer-specific expression. This same region was responsible for reporter expression in tissues undergoing squamous metaplasia as a response to vitamin A deprivation. Mutation of a distal promoter AP1 site or proximal promoter CRE site, both identified as important transcriptional elements in transfection assays, did not prevent appropriate expression. Further searching for transcriptional elements using electrophoretic mobility shift (EMSA) and transfection assays in cultured keratinocytes identified two Sp1 elements in a transcriptionally active region between -1.6 and -1.4 kilobases. While mutation of either Sp1 site or the AP1 site singly had only a small effect, mutation of all three sites eliminated nearly all the transcriptional activity. Conclusions A distal region of the TGM1 gene promoter, containing AP1 and Sp1 binding sites, is evolutionarily conserved and responsible for high level expression in transgenic mice and in transfected keratinocyte cultures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marjorie A Phillips
- Department of Environmental Toxicology, University of California, Davis, CA 95616-8588 USA
| | - Bart A Jessen
- Department of Environmental Toxicology, University of California, Davis, CA 95616-8588 USA
- Pfizer Global Research and Development, San Diego, CA 92121 USA
| | - Ying Lu
- Department of Environmental Toxicology, University of California, Davis, CA 95616-8588 USA
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of California Davis Medical Center, Sacramento, CA 95817 USA
| | - Qin Qin
- Department of Environmental Toxicology, University of California, Davis, CA 95616-8588 USA
| | | | - Robert H Rice
- Department of Environmental Toxicology, University of California, Davis, CA 95616-8588 USA
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Raghunath M, Hennies HC, Ahvazi B, Vogel M, Reis A, Steinert PM, Traupe H. Self-healing collodion baby: a dynamic phenotype explained by a particular transglutaminase-1 mutation. J Invest Dermatol 2003; 120:224-8. [PMID: 12542526 DOI: 10.1046/j.1523-1747.2003.12032.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Spontaneous healing with no or only very mild ichthyosis distinguishes the "self-healing collodion baby" from other congenital ichthyoses. In two self-healing collodion baby siblings with markedly diminished epidermal transglutaminase 1 activity we found the compound heterozygous transglutaminase 1 mutations G278R and D490G. Molecular modeling and biochemical assays of mutant proteins under elevated hydrostatic pressure suggest significantly reduced activity in G278R and a chelation of water molecules in D490G that locks the mutated enzyme in an inactive trans conformation in utero. After birth these water molecules are removed and the enzyme is predicted to isomerize back to a partially active cis form, explaining the dramatic improvement of this skin condition.
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Grenard P, Bates MK, Aeschlimann D. Evolution of transglutaminase genes: identification of a transglutaminase gene cluster on human chromosome 15q15. Structure of the gene encoding transglutaminase X and a novel gene family member, transglutaminase Z. J Biol Chem 2001; 276:33066-78. [PMID: 11390390 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m102553200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 140] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
We isolated and characterized the gene encoding human transglutaminase (TG)(X) (TGM5) and mapped it to the 15q15.2 region of chromosome 15 by fluorescence in situ hybridization. The gene consists of 13 exons separated by 12 introns and spans about 35 kilobases. Further sequence analysis and mapping showed that this locus contained three transglutaminase genes arranged in tandem: EPB42 (band 4.2 protein), TGM5, and a novel gene (TGM7). A full-length cDNA for the novel transglutaminase (TG(Z)) was obtained by anchored polymerase chain reaction. The deduced amino acid sequence encoded a protein with 710 amino acids and a molecular mass of 80 kDa. Northern blotting showed that the three genes are differentially expressed in human tissues. Band 4.2 protein expression was associated with hematopoiesis, whereas TG(X) and TG(Z) showed widespread expression in different tissues. Interestingly, the chromosomal segment containing the human TGM5, TGM7, and EPB42 genes and the segment containing the genes encoding TG(C),TG(E), and another novel gene (TGM6) on chromosome 20q11 are in mouse all found on distal chromosome 2 as determined by radiation hybrid mapping. This finding suggests that in evolution these six genes arose from local duplication of a single gene and subsequent redistribution to two distinct chromosomes in the human genome.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Grenard
- Connective Tissue Biology Laboratories, School of Biosciences, Cardiff University, Cardiff CF10 3US, United Kingdom
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Jessen BA, Qin Q, Rice RH. Functional AP1 and CRE response elements in the human keratinocyte transglutaminase promoter mediating Whn suppression. Gene 2000; 254:77-85. [PMID: 10974538 DOI: 10.1016/s0378-1119(00)00291-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Expression of keratinocyte transglutaminase (TGM1) is critical for maturation of mammalian epidermis and occurs during squamous metaplasia. Examination of the TGM1 5'-flanking region in transient transfections of human epidermal cells revealed an AP1 site approximately 1.5kb upstream from the transcription start site and a CRE site approximately 0.5kb upstream that, combined, accounted for as much as 90% of the transcriptional activity. Upon incubation with nuclear extract, three electrophoretically separable protein complexes were formed by a CRE site oligonucleotide, one of which was competed by an AP1 response element. In super-shift analysis, c-Jun and JunD formed complexes with both the AP1 and CRE sequences. The AP1 and CRE sites were found to mediate the suppressive effects of the Whn transcription factor on the activity of the TGM1 promoter. Similarly, two previously described AP1 sites mediated Whn suppression of involucrin promoter activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- B A Jessen
- Department of Environmental Toxicology, University of California, One Shields Avenue, Davis, CA 95616-8588, USA
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9
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Jessen BA, Phillips MA, Hovnanian A, Rice RH. Role of Sp1 response element in transcription of the human transglutaminase 1 gene. J Invest Dermatol 2000; 115:113-7. [PMID: 10886517 DOI: 10.1046/j.1523-1747.2000.00027.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
This study addresses the contribution of an Sp1 response element in the proximal promoter of the transglutaminase 1 gene to transcription in normal epidermis and in a case of lamellar ichthyosis lacking transglutaminase 1 activity. The latter exhibited an Sp1 promoter mutation previously hypothesized to suppress transcription. In this study, several experiments indicated that the native Sp1 response element was functional, but it had only a small influence on transcription, and the previously observed mutation had no effect. These experiments involved mobility shift assays and transfections of promoter constructs in which the Sp1 site was mutated or lacking altogether. In addition the proximal 1.6 kb of the promoter from the affected individual was as active in transfections as the promoter from unaffected individuals. A search for sequence alterations in mRNA transcribed in keratinocytes from the patient revealed a novel single base mutation in codon 661 of the transglutaminase coding region predicted to result in premature termination of protein translation. The presence of this mutation in parental genomic DNA was confirmed by restriction digestion. Thus the lamellar ichthyosis phenotype in this case is likely attributable to a novel non-sense mutation in the coding region leading to reduced transglutaminase 1 mRNA levels rather than mutation of the Sp1 site.
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Affiliation(s)
- B A Jessen
- Department Of Environmental Toxicology, University Of California, Davis, California 95616-8588, USA
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Polakowska RR, Graf B, Falciano V, LaCelle P. Transcription regulatory elements of the first intron control human transglutaminase type I gene expression in epidermal keratinocytes. J Cell Biochem 1999. [DOI: 10.1002/(sici)1097-4644(19990601)73:3<355::aid-jcb7>3.0.co;2-d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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11
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Medvedev A, Saunders NA, Matsuura H, Chistokhina A, Jetten AM. Regulation of the transglutaminase I gene. Identification of DNA elements involved in its transcriptional control in tracheobronchial epithelial cells. J Biol Chem 1999; 274:3887-96. [PMID: 9920944 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.274.6.3887] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
The transglutaminase I (TGase I) gene encodes an enzyme that catalyzes the cross-linking of structural proteins involved in the formation of the cornified envelope during squamous cell differentiation. To identify DNA elements important for the transcriptional control of the TGase I gene, we analyzed the ability of a 2.9-kilobase pair (kb) upstream regulatory region to control the expression of a reporter gene in vivo and in vitro. Transgenic mice bearing the pTG(-2.9kb)CAT construct exhibited the same pattern of tissue-specific expression of CAT as reported for TGase I. Deletion analysis in transiently transfected rabbit tracheal epithelial cells indicated that two sequences from bp -490 to -470 and from -54 to -37 are involved in the activation of TGase I transcription. Point mutation analysis and mobility shift assays showed that the sequence located between -54 and -37 is a functional Sp1-like transcription element. Sp1 and Sp3, but not Sp2, are part of nuclear protein complexes from differentiated RbTE cells binding to this site. The element TGATGTCA between bp -490 and -470 is contained in a larger 22-bp palindrome and resembles the consensus cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB)/AP-1 element recognized by dimeric complexes of members of the CREB, ATF, Fos, and Jun families. Mutations in this sequence greatly reduced promoter activity. Supershift analysis identified CREB1, JunB, c-Fos, Fra-1, and c-Jun in protein complexes isolated from differentiated rabbit tracheal epithelial cells binding to this site. Our study shows that the Sp1- and CREB/AP-1-like sites act in concert to stimulate transcription of the TGase I gene. The 2.9-kb promoter region could guide expression of specific genes in the granular layer of the epidermis and could be useful in gene therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Medvedev
- Cell Biology Section, Laboratory of Pulmonary Pathobiology, NIEHS, National Institutes of Health, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27709, USA
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Hennies HC, Küster W, Wiebe V, Krebsová A, Reis A. Genotype/phenotype correlation in autosomal recessive lamellar ichthyosis. Am J Hum Genet 1998; 62:1052-61. [PMID: 9545389 PMCID: PMC1377076 DOI: 10.1086/301818] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Autosomal recessive lamellar ichthyosis is a severe congenital disorder of keratinization, characterized by variable erythema of the whole body surface and by different scaling patterns. Recently, mutations have been identified in patients with lamellar ichthyosis in the TGM1 gene coding for keratinocyte transglutaminase, and a second locus has been mapped to chromosome 2. We have now analyzed the genotype/phenotype correlation in a total of 14 families with lamellar ichthyosis. Linkage analyses using microsatellites in the region of the TGM1 gene confirmed genetic heterogeneity. In patients not linked to the TGM1 gene, the second region identified on chromosome 2 and a further candidate region on chromosome 20 were excluded, confirming as well the existence of at least three loci for lamellar ichthyosis. Sequence analyses of the TGM1 gene in families compatible with linkage to this locus revealed seven different missense mutations, five of these unpublished so far, and one splice mutation. No genotype/phenotype correlation for mutations in the TGM1 gene was found in this group of patients, which included two unrelated patients homozygous for the same mutation. Similarly, no clear difference in the clinical picture was seen between patients with TGM1 mutations and those unlinked to the TGM1 locus. Comparison of genetic and clinical classifications for patients with lamellar ichthyosis shows no consistency and thus indicates that clinical criteria currently in use cannot discriminate between the molecularly different forms of the disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- H C Hennies
- Institute of Human Genetics, Charité, Humboldt University, Berlin, Germany
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13
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Hohl D, Aeschlimann D, Huber M. In vitro and rapid in situ transglutaminase assays for congenital ichthyoses--a comparative study. J Invest Dermatol 1998; 110:268-71. [PMID: 9506447 DOI: 10.1046/j.1523-1747.1998.00132.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Autosomal recessive congenital ichthyoses are a heterogeneous group of disfiguring skin diseases. They are generally characterized by variable scaling and erythroderma, and patients are frequently collodion babies at birth. Autosomal recessive congenital ichthyoses are represented in 25 of our 50 families by a defective keratinocyte transglutaminase (TGK). Pathogenic classification is difficult to assess on clinical grounds for autosomal recessive congenital ichthyoses and impossible for collodion babies. Thus, we have established a rapid TGK assay in situ on frozen skin sections using incorporation of dansyl-cadaverin to assess transglutaminase (TG) activity in combination with immunohistochemistry for TGK protein. Results were compared with TG activity levels measured in cultured differentiating keratinocytes. Sixteen of 26 patients, including a collodion baby, had strongly diminished TG activity in the cell periphery of differentiating keratinocytes and membrane-bound TG activities in vitro, ranging from 2.2 to 281.3 pmol per h mg. Nine of 26 patients, including a collodion baby, showed strong TG activity in the cell periphery of differentiating keratinocytes in situ and membrane-bound TG activities in vitro ranged from 1519 to 10917 pmol per h mg. In one case, TG assay in situ was ambiguous; however, membranous TG activity in vitro was very low at 76.9 pmol/h x mg. Our results demonstrate an excellent correlation of TG assays in vitro and in situ. In addition, we present a novel test with prognostic value for the collodion baby phenotype. This assay allows rapid pathogenic classification of autosomal recessive congenital ichthyoses with only one caveat that in rare ambiguous cases it might be necessary for proper classification to assess membrane-bound TG activity in vitro.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Hohl
- Department of Dermatology, CHUV/DHURDV, Lausanne, Switzerland
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14
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Ishida-Yamamoto A, Iizuka H. Structural organization of cornified cell envelopes and alterations in inherited skin disorders. Exp Dermatol 1998; 7:1-10. [PMID: 9517915 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0625.1998.tb00295.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The cornified cell envelope is a highly insoluble and extremely tough structure formed beneath the cell membrane during terminal differentiation of keratinocytes. Its main function is to provide human skin with a protective barrier against the environment. Sequential cross-linking of several integral components catalyzed by transglutaminases leads to a gradual increase in the thickness of the envelope and underscores its rigidity. Key structural players in this cross-linking process include involucrin, loricrin, SPRRs, elafin, cystatin A, S100 family proteins, and some desmosomal proteins. The recent identification of genetic skin diseases with mutations in the genes encoding some of these proteins, including transglutaminase 1 and loricrin, has disclosed that abnormal cornified cell envelope synthesis is significantly involved in the pathophysiology of certain inherited keratodermas and reflects perturbations in the complex, yet highly orderly process of cornified cell envelope formation in normal skin biology.
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MESH Headings
- Amino Acid Sequence
- Animals
- Cell Membrane/metabolism
- Cell Membrane/pathology
- Cornified Envelope Proline-Rich Proteins
- Cystatins/metabolism
- Filaggrin Proteins
- Humans
- Ichthyosis/genetics
- Ichthyosis/metabolism
- Ichthyosis/pathology
- Intermediate Filament Proteins/metabolism
- Keratinocytes/metabolism
- Keratinocytes/pathology
- Keratoderma, Palmoplantar, Diffuse/genetics
- Keratoderma, Palmoplantar, Diffuse/metabolism
- Keratoderma, Palmoplantar, Diffuse/pathology
- Membrane Proteins/genetics
- Membrane Proteins/metabolism
- Protein Precursors/metabolism
- Proteinase Inhibitory Proteins, Secretory
- Proteins/metabolism
- Skin/cytology
- Skin/metabolism
- Skin Diseases, Genetic/genetics
- Skin Diseases, Genetic/metabolism
- Skin Diseases, Genetic/pathology
- Transglutaminases/metabolism
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Affiliation(s)
- A Ishida-Yamamoto
- Department of Dermatology, Asahikawa Medical College, Nishikagura, Japan
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15
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Abstract
Epidermal differentiation is a multi-step process defined by a cascade of interrelated changes in the expression of growth-regulatory and differentiation-specific genes (Fig. 1). Irreversible growth arrest is an early event in epidermal differentiation which occurs when cells transit from the basal to the innermost suprabasal layer of the skin and begin to express squamous-specific genes. In culture, interferon gamma, phorbol esters, confluence and growth in suspension are effective signals to induce irreversible growth arrest and differentiation. The induction of differentiation-specific genes occurs either concomitantly with or following growth arrest and is believed to be linked to the molecular events that control irreversible growth arrest. Such a link has been demonstrated in other cell systems undergoing terminal differentiation, such as myogenesis and adipogenesis. Genes encoding proteins involved in the formation of the cross-linked envelope are one set of squamous-specific genes which are induced in the suprabasal layers and include transglutaminase I and III, involucrin, loricrin and cornifins/small proline-rich proteins. Squamous-specific genes exhibit not only different patterns of tissue-specific expression but are also induced at different stages during differentiation, suggesting that transcription of individual genes is regulated by distinct mechanisms. The latter is supported by the identification of different sets of regulatory elements controlling the transcription of these genes. The importance of understanding both the mechanisms that regulate growth arrest and the differentiation program is emphasized by the association found between specific skin diseases and genetic alterations in growth-regulatory genes as well as differentiation markers. In addition, studies into those mechanisms will provide insight into the control of squamous metaplasia and the development of squamous cell carcinomas.
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Affiliation(s)
- A M Jetten
- Cell Biology Section, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA
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16
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Fraij BM, Gonzales RA. Organization and structure of the human tissue transglutaminase gene. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA 1997; 1354:65-71. [PMID: 9375794 DOI: 10.1016/s0167-4781(97)00132-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Analysis of the genomic organization of tissue transglutaminase shows that the gene is 32.5 kilobases, contains 13 exons and 12 introns. Our results show that the sites for the two alternative splicing forms of tissue transglutaminase we reported earlier are located within exons 6 and 10 respectively. The 5'-upstream region of the gene has several potential regulatory promoter elements, and the 3'-exon contains about 50% of the total cDNA size and codes for the C-terminus of the protein. Alignment of deduced tissue transglutaminase amino acid sequence with other transglutaminases showed very similar intron splice positions.
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Affiliation(s)
- B M Fraij
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater 74078, USA.
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17
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Huber M, Yee VC, Burri N, Vikerfors E, Lavrijsen AP, Paller AS, Hohl D. Consequences of seven novel mutations on the expression and structure of keratinocyte transglutaminase. J Biol Chem 1997; 272:21018-26. [PMID: 9261103 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.272.34.21018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
We report the molecular characterization of seven new keratinocyte transglutaminase mutations (R315C, S358R, V379L, G473S, R687C, deletion Delta679-696, R127Stop) found in lamellar ichthyosis patients. Arg-315, Ser-358, Val-379, and Gly-473 are highly conserved residues in transglutaminases while Arg-687 and Delta679-696 are not. All mutations strongly decreased transglutaminase activity and protein levels. The mutation R127Stop diminished the amount of mRNA. Structural analysis of these mutations based on the factor XIII A-subunit crystal structure demonstrated that Arg-315, Ser-358, Val-379, and Gly-473 are located in the catalytic core domain, and Arg-687 and the deletion are in the beta-barrel domains. The side chains of amino acids Arg-315, Ser-358, and Gly-473 make ionic and hydrogen bonds important for folding and structural stability of the enzyme but are not directly involved in catalysis. Val-379 is two amino acids away from the active site cysteine, and its change into leucine disturbs the active site structure. The decreased activity and protein level after expression of the R687C and Delta679-696 TGK cDNA in TGK negative keratinocytes excluded that they are polymorphisms. These results identify important amino acids in the central core domain of transglutaminases and show that the C-terminal end influences the structural and functional integrity of TGK.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Huber
- Department of Dermatology, University Hospital (CHUV/DHURDV), CH-1011 Lausanne, Switzerland
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18
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Monsonego A, Shani Y, Friedmann I, Paas Y, Eizenberg O, Schwartz M. Expression of GTP-dependent and GTP-independent tissue-type transglutaminase in cytokine-treated rat brain astrocytes. J Biol Chem 1997; 272:3724-32. [PMID: 9013629 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.272.6.3724] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Tissue-type transglutaminases (TGases) were recently shown to exert dual enzymatic activities; they catalyze the posttranslational modification of proteins by transamidation, and they also act as guanosine triphosphatase (GTPase). Here we show that a tissue-type TGase is expressed in rat brain astrocytes in vitro, and is induced by the inflammation-associated cytokines interleukin-1beta and to a lesser extent by tumor necrosis factor-alpha. Induction is accompanied by overexpression and appearance of an additional shorter clone, which does not contain the long 3'-untranslated region and encodes for a novel TGase enzyme whose C terminus lacks a site that affects the enzyme's interaction with guanosine triphosphate (GTP). Expression of two clones revealed that the long form is inhibited noncompetitively by GTP, but the short form significantly less so. The different affinities for GTP may account for the difference in physiological function between these two enzymes.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Monsonego
- Department of Neurobiology, The Weizmann Institute of Science, 76100 Rehovot, Israel
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19
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20
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Lee JH, Jang SI, Yang JM, Markova NG, Steinert PM. The Proximal Promoter of the Human Transglutaminase 3 Gene. J Biol Chem 1996. [DOI: 10.1074/jbc.271.8.4561] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
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21
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Mariniello L, Qin Q, Jessen BA, Rice RH. Keratinocyte transglutaminase promoter analysis. Identification of a functional response element. J Biol Chem 1995; 270:31358-63. [PMID: 8537408 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.270.52.31358] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Keratinocyte transglutaminase catalyzes isopeptide bond formation to yield the highly insoluble cross-linked envelope during terminal differentiation of epidermal cells. Transcriptional response elements were identified in the 5'-flanking DNA of the gene for this enzyme by a combination of transient transfection and electrophoretic mobility shift analyses. Since human keratinocytes transcribed ineffectively transfected transglutaminase flanking DNA, a key feature of these experiments was the use of rat bladder epithelial cells as recipients. Serial deletion experiments identified by transient transfection an important response region containing three putative AP2-like response elements approximately 0.5 kilobases from the transcription initiation site. Oligonucleotides, each containing a single one of the elements, formed specific complexes with keratinocyte nuclear proteins. Two of the response elements were found to be functional by transfection in site-specific deletion experiments. Of these one formed specific DNA-protein complexes with nuclear proteins only from cells exhibiting keratinocyte differentiation. UV cross-linking experiments estimated the protein component of the complex to be approximately 85 kDa. This response element alone increased substantially the transcription of a minimal transglutaminase promoter in transient transfections. Further characterization of the putative transcription factor binding to this response element may provide insight into the regulation of keratinocyte transglutaminase.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Mariniello
- Department of Environmental Toxicology, University of California, Davis 95616-8588, USA
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22
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Stewart BE, Rice RH. Differentiation-associated expression of the proto-oncogene pim-1 in cultured human keratinocytes. J Invest Dermatol 1995; 105:699-703. [PMID: 7594647 DOI: 10.1111/1523-1747.ep12324482] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
The proto-oncogene pim-1 was expressed in nine human tissues (including epidermis) examined by Northern blotting. Expression of pim-1 was also observed in a number of carcinoma-derived keratinocyte lines in addition to strains derived from normal epidermis. With the exception of a squamous carcinoma line that exhibits little differentiated character in culture (SCC-4), where it was not detected, pim-1 expression was substantially higher after confluence than during log-phase growth in each case. The differentiation marker keratinocyte transglutaminase showed the same pattern of expression as pim-1 in relation to confluence in each of the cell lines and strains studied. The influences on pim-1 mRNA levels of several known effectors of keratinocyte differentiation were studied in the squamous carcinoma line SCC-9. pim-1 mRNA was stimulated by hydrocortisone and suppressed by the tumor promoter tetradecanoyl phorbol acetate. pim-1 mRNA was also regulated by calcium ion concentration in the culture medium, with expression being threefold higher in 0.15 mM than in 0.03 mM calcium ion. Keratinocyte transglutaminase was regulated similarly by these effectors. Thus pim-1 expression was associated with keratinocyte differentiation in these cultured cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- B E Stewart
- Department of Environmental Toxicology, University of California, Davis 95616-8588, USA
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23
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Kim SY, Chung SI, Steinert PM. Highly active soluble processed forms of the transglutaminase 1 enzyme in epidermal keratinocytes. J Biol Chem 1995; 270:18026-35. [PMID: 7629111 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.270.30.18026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
The transglutaminase 1 (TGase 1) enzyme is required for the formation of a cornified cell envelope in epidermal keratinocytes. We show here that in addition to its membrane-anchored form, soluble forms of it are also important in keratinocytes. Proliferating cells contain soluble full-length enzyme of 106 kDa, but terminally differentiating cells contain a soluble 67-kDa form often complexed with a 33-kDa protein as well. The amino terminus of the 67 kDa form is residue 93 of the TGase 1 protein, corresponding to the site of proteolytic activation of the factor XIIIa TGase. The amino terminus of the 33-kDa protein is residue 573, corresponding to the site of a second proteolytic cleavage site of factor XIIIa, and of the site for proteolytic activation of the TGase 3 enzyme. The specific activity of the 67/33-kDa soluble complex is twice that of the soluble 67-kDa form and 10 times that of full-length TGase 1. The half-lives of the 67/33- and 106-kDa forms are about 7 or 20 h, respectively. Thus the TGase 1 enzyme is complex, since it exists in keratinocytes as multiple soluble forms, either intact or proteolytically processed at conserved sites, and which have varying specific activities and likely functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Y Kim
- Skin Biology Branch, NIAMS, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892-2755, USA
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24
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Lu S, Saydak M, Gentile V, Stein JP, Davies PJ. Isolation and characterization of the human tissue transglutaminase gene promoter. J Biol Chem 1995; 270:9748-56. [PMID: 7730352 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.270.17.9748] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Tissue transglutaminase belongs to a family of calcium-dependent enzymes, the transglutaminases that catalyze the covalent cross-linking of specific proteins by the formation of epsilon (gamma-glutamyl)lysine isopeptide bonds. The goal of this study has been the isolation and characterization of the human tissue transglutaminase gene promoter. Genomic DNA clones, spanning the 5' region of the gene, were isolated and the structure of the 5'-end of the human tissue transglutaminase gene was determined. 1.74 kilobases of flanking DNA were sequenced and were found to contain a TATA box element (TATAA), a CAAT box element (GGACAAT), a series of potential transcription factor-binding sites (AP1, SP1, interleukin-6 response element), and a glucocorticoid response elements. Transient transfection experiments showed that this DNA fragment included a functional promoter, which is constitutively active in multiple cell types.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Lu
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Texas Medical School, Houston 77225, USA
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25
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Huber M, Rettler I, Bernasconi K, Frenk E, Lavrijsen SP, Ponec M, Bon A, Lautenschlager S, Schorderet DF, Hohl D. Mutations of keratinocyte transglutaminase in lamellar ichthyosis. Science 1995; 267:525-8. [PMID: 7824952 DOI: 10.1126/science.7824952] [Citation(s) in RCA: 339] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Lamellar ichthyosis is a severe congenital skin disorder characterized by generalized large scales and variable redness. Affected individuals in three families exhibited drastically reduced keratinocyte transglutaminase (TGK) activity. In two of these families, expression of TGK transcripts was diminished or abnormal and no TGK protein was detected. Homozygous or compound heterozygous mutations of the TGK gene were identified in all families. These data suggest that defects in TGK cause lamellar ichthyosis and that intact cross-linkage of cornified cell envelopes is required for epidermal tissue homeostasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Huber
- Department of Dermatology, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vandois (CHUV), Hôpital de Beaumont, Lausanne, Switzerland
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26
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Kim SY, Kim IG, Chung SI, Steinert PM. The structure of the transglutaminase 1 enzyme. Deletion cloning reveals domains that regulate its specific activity and substrate specificity. J Biol Chem 1994. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(18)46883-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
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27
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Kim IG, Lee SC, Lee JH, Yang JM, Chung SI, Steinert PM. Structure and organization of the human transglutaminase 3 gene: evolutionary relationship to the transglutaminase family. J Invest Dermatol 1994; 103:137-42. [PMID: 7913719 DOI: 10.1111/1523-1747.ep12392470] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
The human haploid genome contains a family of at least five different transglutaminases that are differentially expressed in time- and tissue-specific ways. Of these, transglutaminase 3 (TGase3) is unusual in that it is a pro-enzyme requiring activation by proteolysis. To date it is known to be expressed only in terminally differentiating epidermal and hair follicle keratinocytes. In this paper we show that it is encoded by a gene (TGM3) of 42.8 kbp containing 13 exons. In the course of isolation of genomic clones for the TGM3 gene, we also found clones encoding the widely expressed tissue or TGase2 enzyme, perhaps due to high degrees of sequence homology. The structure of the TGM2 gene has not yet been reported. Our incomplete data suggest its exon/intron organization is very similar to that of TGM3. Although the common intron splice points of all members of the transglutaminase gene family have been conserved, the TGM3 and TGM2 genes, and the gene for the subplasma membrane transglutaminase-like protein band 4.2, lack two introns found in the TGM1 and factor XIIIa genes, and the exact intron splice point of another intron is shifted with respect to that of the TGM1 and factor XIIIa genes. Based on sequence homologies and gene structures, the data support a phylogenic tree in which the TGM2 and TGM3 genes belong on a branch distinct from other transglutaminases.
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Affiliation(s)
- I G Kim
- Skin Biology Branch, National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892
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28
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Patent Evaluation: Transglutaminase gene clones and their potential for the treatment of cystic fibrosis. Expert Opin Ther Pat 1994. [DOI: 10.1517/13543776.4.4.433] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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29
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Phillips MA, Qin Q, Mehrpouyan M, Rice RH. Keratinocyte transglutaminase membrane anchorage: analysis of site-directed mutants. Biochemistry 1993; 32:11057-63. [PMID: 8105889 DOI: 10.1021/bi00092a015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Keratinocyte transglutaminase is anchored on the cytosolic side of the plasma membrane by fatty acid thioesterification near the amino terminus, a process which is seen to occur within 30 min of synthesis. The importance of a cluster of five cysteines (residues 47, 48, 50, 51, and 53) where acylation was presumed to occur is now demonstrated by site-directed mutagenesis. Transglutaminase mutants in which the cluster is deleted or the cysteines are all converted to alanine or serine are cytosolic. Partial replacement of the cluster, leaving two contiguous cysteines, is sufficient to confer membrane anchorage, while a single cysteine is only partially effective. As demonstrated with a soluble transglutaminase mutant, membrane anchorage confers susceptibility of the amino-terminal region to phorbol ester-stimulated phosphorylation. Attachment of 105 residues from the transglutaminase amino terminus to involucrin, a highly soluble protein, results in membrane anchorage of the hybrid protein. Attachment of the cysteine cluster alone does not result in membrane attachment of involucrin, but a 32-residue segment containing this cluster is sufficient. Stable transfectants of the human transglutaminase in mouse 3T3 cells are membrane-bound, indicating the fatty acid transacylation is not keratinocyte-specific.
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Affiliation(s)
- M A Phillips
- Department of Environmental Toxicology, University of California, Davis 95616-8588
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30
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Dotimas E, Speicher DW, GuptaRoy B, Cohen CM. Structural domain mapping and phosphorylation of human erythrocyte pallidin (band 4.2). BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA 1993; 1148:19-29. [PMID: 8499466 DOI: 10.1016/0005-2736(93)90156-t] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Pallidin (band 4.2) is a major protein of the human erythrocyte membrane, and plays an important but as yet undefined role in maintaining the normal shape and lifespan of the erythrocyte. The pallidin protein has been purified by a new procedure which yields a protein which is > 97% pure as judged by gel electrophoresis, while pallidin purified by our original procedure is only approx. 85% pure. The new form of the protein is unstable in physiological salt solutions. However, taking advantage of its high purity, we have used the new form of the protein to produce a structural domain map of its principal tryptic fragments. We also show that pallidin can be phosphorylated by a red-cell membrane kinase which partially co-purifies with it, and has properties similar to the catalytic subunit of cAMP-dependent kinase. Both cAMP-dependent kinase and the red-cell kinase phosphorylate the same tryptic domains on the pallidin protein. Our results show that endogenous pallidin on the red-cell membrane is a poor substrate for the kinase, possibly because it is fully phosphorylated, or inaccessible to the kinase.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Dotimas
- Dept. of Biomedical Research, St. Elizabeth's Hospital of Boston, MA 02135
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31
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Takahashi H, Iizuka H. Analysis of the 5'-upstream promoter region of human involucrin gene: activation by 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate. J Invest Dermatol 1993; 100:10-5. [PMID: 8380829 DOI: 10.1111/1523-1747.ep12349867] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Involucrin is one of the precursor proteins of keratinocyte cornified envelope. Although the formation of the cornified envelope is induced by tumor-promoting phorbol esters, the effect of 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA) on the involucrin gene expression remains unknown. We have isolated a 5'-upstream region of human involucrin gene and examined its TPA-dependent promoter activity. The involucrin upstream region with the untranslated first exon was connected to chloramphenicol acetyltransferase (CAT)-involucrin promoter expression vector (INV-CAT) and was transfected into fetal rat keratinizing epidermal (FRSK) cells. The INV-CAT-transfected FRSK cells showed considerable CAT activity that was significantly augmented by the treatment of cells with TPA. FRSK cells that were transfected with a reversely oriented 5'-upstream sequence revealed little CAT activity and did not respond to TPA. The effect of TPA was significantly inhibited by the protein kinase C inhibitor 1-(5-isoquinoline-sulfonyl)-2-methyl piperazine dihydrochloride (H-7). Other protein kinase C activators (1-oleoyl-2-acetylglycerol and mezerein) also induced the INV-CAT promoter activity, whereas 4-O-methyl phorbol myristate acetate, a very weak protein kinase C activator, had only a slight effect. Analysis of the nucleotide sequence of the 5'-upstream region detected several 5'-TGANTCAA-3' sequences that are highly conserved TPA-response elements (TRE). Cotransfection of both c-jun and c-fos expression vectors with the INV-CAT vector into FRSK cells resulted in increased CAT activity. Cotransfection of either the c-jun or c-fos vector singly with the INV-CAT vector into FRSK cells had negligible effects. Dexamethasone significantly inhibited the TPA-induced promoter activity in the INV-CAT-transfected FRSK cells. These results indicate that involucrin gene expression is positively controlled by TPA through the activation of the protein kinase C/TRE system.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Takahashi
- Department of Dermatology, Asahikawa Medical College, Japan
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32
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White RA, Peters LL, Adkison LR, Korsgren C, Cohen CM, Lux SE. The murine pallid mutation is a platelet storage pool disease associated with the protein 4.2 (pallidin) gene. Nat Genet 1992; 2:80-3. [PMID: 1284644 DOI: 10.1038/ng0992-80] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Pallid is one of 12 independent murine mutations with a prolonged bleeding time that are models for human platelet storage pool deficiencies in which several intracellular organelles are abnormal. We have mapped the murine gene for protein 4.2 (Epb4.2) to chromosome 2 where it co-localizes with pallid. Southern blot analyses suggest that pallid is a mutation in the Epb4.2 gene. Northern blot analyses demonstrate a smaller than normal Epb4.2 transcript in affected pallid tissues, such as kidney and skin. This is the first gene defect to be associated with a platelet storage pool deficiency, and may allow the identification of a novel structure or biological pathway that influences granulogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- R A White
- Division of Hematology/Oncology, Children's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts
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