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Pan T, Pei Z, Fang Z, Wang H, Zhu J, Zhang H, Zhao J, Chen W, Lu W. Uncovering the specificity and predictability of tryptophan metabolism in lactic acid bacteria with genomics and metabolomics. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2023; 13:1154346. [PMID: 36992687 PMCID: PMC10040830 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2023.1154346] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2023] [Accepted: 03/01/2023] [Indexed: 03/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Tryptophan is metabolized by microorganisms into various indole derivatives that have been proven to alleviate diseases and promote human health. Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) are a broad microbial concept, some of which have been developed as probiotics. However, the capacity of most LAB to metabolize tryptophan is unknown. In this study, the aim is to reveal the rule of tryptophan metabolism in LAB by multi-omics. The findings showed that LAB were rich in genes for tryptophan catabolism and that multiple genes were shared among LAB species. Although the number of their homologous sequences was different, they could still form the same metabolic enzyme system. The metabolomic analysis revealed that LAB were capable of producing a variety of metabolites. Strains belonging to the same species can produce the same metabolites and have similar yields. A few strains showed strain-specificity in the production of indole-3-lactic acid (ILA), indole-3-acetic acid, and 3-indolealdehyde (IAld). In the genotype-phenotype association analysis, the metabolites of LAB were found to be highly consistent with the outcomes of gene prediction, particularly ILA, indole-3-propionic acid, and indole-3-pyruvic acid. The overall prediction accuracy was more than 87% on average, which indicated the predictability of tryptophan metabolites of LAB. Additionally, genes influenced the concentration of metabolites. The levels of ILA and IAld were significantly correlated with the numbers of aromatic amino acid aminotransferase and amidase, respectively. The unique indolelactate dehydrogenase in Ligilactobacillus salivarius was the primary factor contributing to its large production of ILA. In summary, we demonstrated the gene distribution and production level of tryptophan metabolism in LAB and explored the correlation between genes and phenotypes. The predictability and specificity of the tryptophan metabolites in LAB were proven. These results provide a novel genomic method for the discovery of LAB with tryptophan metabolism potential and offer experimental data for probiotics that produce specific tryptophan metabolites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tong Pan
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China
- School of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China
| | - Zhangming Pei
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China
- School of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China
| | - Zhifeng Fang
- School of Food Science and Technology, Shihezi University, Shihezi, China
| | - Hongchao Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China
- School of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China
| | - Jinlin Zhu
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China
- School of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China
| | - Hao Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China
- School of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China
- National Engineering Research Center for Functional Food, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China
- (Yangzhou) Institute of Food Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, Yangzhou, China
| | - Jianxin Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China
- School of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China
- (Yangzhou) Institute of Food Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, Yangzhou, China
| | - Wei Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China
- School of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China
- National Engineering Research Center for Functional Food, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China
| | - Wenwei Lu
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China
- School of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China
- National Engineering Research Center for Functional Food, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China
- (Yangzhou) Institute of Food Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, Yangzhou, China
- International Joint Research Laboratory for Pharmabiotics & Antibiotic Resistance, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China
- *Correspondence: Wenwei Lu,
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Menon N, Richmond D, Rahman MR, Menon BRK. Versatile and Facile One-Pot Biosynthesis for Amides and Carboxylic Acids in E. coli by Engineering Auxin Pathways of Plant Microbiomes. ACS Catal 2022. [DOI: 10.1021/acscatal.1c04901] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Navya Menon
- The Warwick Integrative Synthetic Biology Centre, The University of Warwick, Coventry CV4 7AL, U.K
- Collaborative Teaching Laboratory, The University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, U.K
| | - Daniel Richmond
- The Warwick Integrative Synthetic Biology Centre, The University of Warwick, Coventry CV4 7AL, U.K
| | - Mohammad Rejaur Rahman
- The Warwick Integrative Synthetic Biology Centre, The University of Warwick, Coventry CV4 7AL, U.K
| | - Binuraj R. K. Menon
- The Warwick Integrative Synthetic Biology Centre, The University of Warwick, Coventry CV4 7AL, U.K
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth PO1 2DY, U.K
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3
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Lin H, Li Y, Hill RT. Microalgal and bacterial auxin biosynthesis: implications for algal biotechnology. Curr Opin Biotechnol 2021; 73:300-307. [PMID: 34619482 DOI: 10.1016/j.copbio.2021.09.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2021] [Revised: 09/03/2021] [Accepted: 09/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Optimization of microalgal growth and high-value metabolite production are key steps in microalgal mass culture for the algae industry. An emerging technology is the use of phytohormones, like indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), to promote microalgal growth. This requires an understanding of the biosynthesis of IAA in microalgae-bacteria associations and its function in regulating algal physiology and metabolite production. We review the current advances in understanding of microalgal and bacterial auxin biosynthesis and their implications for algal biotechnology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanzhi Lin
- Institute of Marine and Environmental Technology, University of Maryland Center for Environmental Science, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Yantao Li
- Institute of Marine and Environmental Technology, University of Maryland Center for Environmental Science, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Russell T Hill
- Institute of Marine and Environmental Technology, University of Maryland Center for Environmental Science, Baltimore, MD, USA.
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Li M, Guo R, Yu F, Chen X, Zhao H, Li H, Wu J. Indole-3-Acetic Acid Biosynthesis Pathways in the Plant-Beneficial Bacterium Arthrobacter pascens ZZ21. Int J Mol Sci 2018; 19:ijms19020443. [PMID: 29389906 PMCID: PMC5855665 DOI: 10.3390/ijms19020443] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2017] [Revised: 01/28/2018] [Accepted: 01/30/2018] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Arthrobacter pascens ZZ21 is a plant-beneficial, fluoranthene-degrading bacterial strain found in the rhizosphere. The production of the phytohormone indole-3-aectic acid (IAA) by ZZ21 is thought to contribute to its ability to promote plant growth and remediate fluoranthene-contaminated soil. Using genome-wide analysis combined with metabolomic and high-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS) analyses, we characterized the potential IAA biosynthesis pathways in A. pascens ZZ21. IAA production increased 4.5-fold in the presence of 200 mg·L−1 tryptophan in the culture medium. The transcript levels of prr and aldH, genes which were predicted to encode aldehyde dehydrogenases, were significantly upregulated in response to exogenous tryptophan. Additionally, metabolomic analysis identified the intermediates indole-3-acetamide (IAM), indole-3-pyruvic acid (IPyA), and the enzymatic reduction product of the latter, indole-3-lactic acid (ILA), among the metabolites of ZZ21, and subsequently also IAM, ILA, and indole-3-ethanol (TOL), which is the enzymatic reduction product of indole-3-acetaldehyde, by HPLC-MS. These results suggest that the tryptophan-dependent IAM and IPyA pathways function in ZZ21.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mengsha Li
- Soil Ecology Lab, College of Resources and Environmental Science, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, China.
| | - Rui Guo
- Soil Ecology Lab, College of Resources and Environmental Science, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, China.
| | - Fei Yu
- Soil Ecology Lab, College of Resources and Environmental Science, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, China.
| | - Xu Chen
- Soil Ecology Lab, College of Resources and Environmental Science, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, China.
| | - Haiyan Zhao
- College of Resources and Environmental Science, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, China.
| | - Huixin Li
- Soil Ecology Lab, College of Resources and Environmental Science, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, China.
| | - Jun Wu
- Soil Ecology Lab, College of Resources and Environmental Science, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, China.
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5
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Koul V, Adholeya A, Kochar M. Sphere of influence of indole acetic acid and nitric oxide in bacteria. J Basic Microbiol 2014; 55:543-53. [PMID: 24913042 DOI: 10.1002/jobm.201400224] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2014] [Accepted: 04/26/2014] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Bacterial biosynthesis of the phytohormone, indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) is well established and along with the diffusible gaseous molecule, nitric oxide (NO) is known to positively regulate the developmental processes of plant roots. IAA and NO act as signaling molecules in plant-microbe interactions as they modulate the gene expression in both, plants and microorganisms. Although IAA and NO may not be required for essential bacterial physiological processes, numerous studies point towards a crosstalk between IAA and NO in the rhizosphere. In this review, we describe various IAA and NO-responsive or sensing genes/proteins/regulators. There is also growing evidence for the interaction of IAA and NO with other plant growth regulators and the involvement of NO with the quorum sensing system in biofilm formation and virulence. This interactive network can greatly impact the host plant-microbe interactions in the soil. Coupled with this, the specialized σ(54) -dependent transcription observed in some of the IAA and NO-influenced genes can confer inducibility to these traits in bacteria and may allow the expression of IAA and NO-influenced microbial genes in nutrient limiting or changing environmental conditions for the benefit of plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vatsala Koul
- TERI Deakin Nanobiotechnology Centre, Biotechnology and Bioresources Division, The Energy and Resources Institute, Darbari Seth Block, India Habitat Centre, Lodhi Road, New Delhi, India
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Kulkarni GB, Sanjeevkumar S, Kirankumar B, Santoshkumar M, Karegoudar TB. Indole-3-acetic acid biosynthesis in Fusarium delphinoides strain GPK, a causal agent of Wilt in Chickpea. Appl Biochem Biotechnol 2013; 169:1292-305. [PMID: 23306880 DOI: 10.1007/s12010-012-0037-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2012] [Accepted: 12/17/2012] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Fusarium delphinoides (Ascomycota; Nectriaceae) is an indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) producing plant pathogen and a causal agent of wilt in chickpea. The IAA biosynthetic pathway in F. delphinoides strain GPK (FDG) was examined by analyzing metabolic intermediates and by feeding experiments. Gas chromatograph (GC) analysis of FDG culture filtrates showed the presence of metabolic intermediates of indole-3-pyruvic acid (IPyA), indole-3-acetamide (IAM), and tryptamine (TRA) pathways. The different IAA biosynthetic pathways were further confirmed by identifying the presence of different enzymes of these pathways. Substrate specificity study of aromatic amino acid aminotransferase revealed that the enzyme is highly specific for tryptophan (Trp) and α-ketoglutarate (α-kg) as amino group donor and acceptor, respectively. Furthermore, the concentration-dependent effect of exogenous IAA on fungal growth was established. Low concentration of exogenous IAA increases the fungal growth and at high concentration it decreases the growth of FDG.
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7
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Patten CL, Blakney AJC, Coulson TJD. Activity, distribution and function of indole-3-acetic acid biosynthetic pathways in bacteria. Crit Rev Microbiol 2012; 39:395-415. [PMID: 22978761 DOI: 10.3109/1040841x.2012.716819] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
The capacity to produce the phytohormone indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) is widespread among bacteria that inhabit diverse environments such as soils, fresh and marine waters, and plant and animal hosts. Three major pathways for bacterial IAA synthesis have been characterized that remove the amino and carboxyl groups from the α-carbon of tryptophan via the intermediates indolepyruvate, indoleacetamide, or indoleacetonitrile; the oxidized end product IAA is typically secreted. The enzymes in these pathways often catabolize a broad range of substrates including aromatic amino acids and in some cases the branched chain amino acids. Moreover, expression of some of the genes encoding key IAA biosynthetic enzymes is induced by all three aromatic amino acids. The broad distribution and substrate specificity of the enzymes suggests a role for these pathways beyond plant-microbe interactions in which bacterial IAA has been best studied.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cheryl L Patten
- Department of Biology, University of New Brunswick , Fredericton, New Brunswick , Canada
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8
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Biofilm-associated indole acetic acid producing bacteria and their impact in the proliferation of biofilm mats in solar salterns. Biologia (Bratisl) 2012. [DOI: 10.2478/s11756-012-0032-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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9
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Legault GS, Lerat S, Nicolas P, Beaulieu C. Tryptophan regulates thaxtomin A and indole-3-acetic acid production in Streptomyces scabiei and modifies its interactions with radish seedlings. PHYTOPATHOLOGY 2011; 101:1045-51. [PMID: 21521002 DOI: 10.1094/phyto-03-11-0064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
The virulence of Streptomyces scabiei, the causal agent of common scab, depends mainly on the production of the toxin thaxtomin A. S. scabiei also produces indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) but the role of this hormone in the interaction between pathogenic streptomycetes and plants has not yet been elucidated. Tryptophan is a biosynthetic precursor of both IAA and thaxtomin A. In this study, the effect of tryptophan on thaxtomin A and IAA production as well as its effect on the transcription of the corresponding biosynthetic genes in S. scabiei has been analyzed. In vitro IAA production depended on the availability of tryptophan. However, addition of this amino acid to the culture medium inhibited the biosynthesis of thaxtomin A. Expression of thaxtomin A biosynthetic genes nos and txtA were strongly repressed in the presence of tryptophan; however, modulation of the expression was not observed for the IAA biosynthetic genes iaaM and iaaH. The effects of an exogenous tryptophan supply on S. scabiei virulence were assessed on radish seedlings. Addition of tryptophan reduced symptoms on inoculated radish roots compared with seedlings grown in the absence of the bacterium, by way of inhibition of thaxtomin A production and increase of IAA biosynthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Geneviève S Legault
- Departement de Biologie, Universite de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, Quebec, Canada
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10
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Golubev SN, Muratova AY, Wittenmayer L, Bondarenkova AD, Hirche F, Matora LY, Merbach W, Turkovskaya OV. Rhizosphere indole-3-acetic acid as a mediator in the Sorghum bicolor-phenanthrene-Sinorhizobium meliloti interactions. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY AND BIOCHEMISTRY : PPB 2011; 49:600-608. [PMID: 21459011 DOI: 10.1016/j.plaphy.2011.03.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2010] [Accepted: 03/09/2011] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
We studied a model system consisting of Sorghum bicolor, phenanthrene, and an auxin-producing polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon-degrading Sinorhizobium meliloti strain to clarify whether rhizosphere indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) takes part in the plant-pollutant-bacteria interactions. Phenanthrene and S. meliloti treatments of sorghum contributed to a decrease in the rhizosphere IAA concentration and to phytohormone accumulation, respectively. Regression analysis showed significant correlations between alteration in root-zone IAA content and alterations in the root-surface area, exudation, and rhizosphere effects for culturable heterotrophic bacteria, the S. meliloti strain, and other phenanthrene degraders. According to the data obtained, phenanthrene degraders get an advantage over nondegradative rhizobacteria from IAA for rhizosphere colonization. An IAA-dependent increase in the root-surface area leads to improved sorghum growth under pollutant stress. The carbon flux from the roots is corrected by the auxin because of its influence on the exuding-surface area and on the intensity of secretion by the root cells. On the other hand, the rhizosphere IAA pool may be plant-regulated by means of alteration in carboxylate exudation and its influence on bacterial auxin production. A scenario for the IAA-mediated S. bicolor-phenanthrene-S. meliloti interactions is proposed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sergey N Golubev
- Institute of Biochemistry and Physiology of Plants and Microorganisms, Russian Academy of Sciences, 13 Prospekt Entuziastov, Saratov 410049, Russia.
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11
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Gross H, Loper JE. Genomics of secondary metabolite production by Pseudomonas spp. Nat Prod Rep 2009; 26:1408-46. [PMID: 19844639 DOI: 10.1039/b817075b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 390] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Harald Gross
- Institute for Pharmaceutical Biology, Nussallee 6, 53115, Bonn, Germany.
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12
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Kurosawa N, Hirata T, Suzuki H. Characterization of putative tryptophan monooxygenase from Ralstonia solanasearum. J Biochem 2009; 146:23-32. [DOI: 10.1093/jb/mvp040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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13
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Spaepen S, Vanderleyden J, Remans R. Indole-3-acetic acid in microbial and microorganism-plant signaling. FEMS Microbiol Rev 2007; 31:425-48. [PMID: 17509086 DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-6976.2007.00072.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 777] [Impact Index Per Article: 45.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Diverse bacterial species possess the ability to produce the auxin phytohormone indole-3-acetic acid (IAA). Different biosynthesis pathways have been identified and redundancy for IAA biosynthesis is widespread among plant-associated bacteria. Interactions between IAA-producing bacteria and plants lead to diverse outcomes on the plant side, varying from pathogenesis to phyto-stimulation. Reviewing the role of bacterial IAA in different microorganism-plant interactions highlights the fact that bacteria use this phytohormone to interact with plants as part of their colonization strategy, including phyto-stimulation and circumvention of basal plant defense mechanisms. Moreover, several recent reports indicate that IAA can also be a signaling molecule in bacteria and therefore can have a direct effect on bacterial physiology. This review discusses past and recent data, and emerging views on IAA, a well-known phytohormone, as a microbial metabolic and signaling molecule.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stijn Spaepen
- Department of Microbial and Molecular Systems, Centre of Microbial and Plant Genetics, Heverlee, Belgium
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14
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Maor R, Haskin S, Levi-Kedmi H, Sharon A. In planta production of indole-3-acetic acid by Colletotrichum gloeosporioides f. sp. aeschynomene. Appl Environ Microbiol 2004; 70:1852-4. [PMID: 15006816 PMCID: PMC368304 DOI: 10.1128/aem.70.3.1852-1854.2004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The plant pathogenic fungus Colletotrichum gloeosporioides f. sp. aeschynomene utilizes external tryptophan to produce indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) through the intermediate indole-3-acetamide (IAM). We studied the effects of tryptophan, IAA, and IAM on IAA biosynthesis in fungal axenic cultures and on in planta IAA production by the fungus. IAA biosynthesis was strictly dependent on external tryptophan and was enhanced by tryptophan and IAM. The fungus produced IAM and IAA in planta during the biotrophic and necrotrophic phases of infection. The amounts of IAA produced per fungal biomass were highest during the biotrophic phase. IAA production by this plant pathogen might be important during early stages of plant colonization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rudy Maor
- Department of Plant Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Ramat-Aviv, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
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15
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Van Onckelen H, Prinsen E, Inzé D, Rüdeisheim P, Van Lijsebettens M, Follin A, Schell J, Van Montagu M, De Greef J. AgrobacteriumT-DNA gene1codes for tryptophan 2-monooxygenase activity in tobacco crown gall cells. FEBS Lett 2001. [DOI: 10.1016/0014-5793(86)80436-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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16
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Abstract
Attempts to develop a desirable reduced fat Cheddar cheese are impeded by a propensity for flavor defects such as meaty-brothy, putrid, fecal, and unclean off-flavors in these products. Recent studies suggest aromatic amino acid catabolism of starter, adjunct, and nonstarter lactic acid bacteria significantly impact off-flavor development. The objective of this study was to delineate pathways for catabolism of tryptophan (Trp) in Brevibacterium linens, a cheese flavor adjunct, and to determine the potential for this organism to contribute to this defect. Growth and production of aromatic compounds from Trp by B. linens BL2 were compared in two incubated conditions (laboratory and a cheese-like environment). A chemically defined medium was used to determine the cellular enzymes and metabolites involved in Trp catabolism. Trp was converted to kynurenine, anthranilic acid, and three unknown compounds in laboratory conditions. The accumulation of other unknown compounds in the culture supernatant in laboratory conditions indicated that B. linens BL2 degraded Trp by various routes. Up to 65% of Trp was converted to anthranilic acid via the anthranilic acid pathway. To assess this potential before cheese making, the cells were incubated in cheese-like conditions (15 degrees C, pH 5.2, no sugar source, 4% NaCl). Trp was not utilized by BL2 incubated in this condition. Enzyme studies using cell-free extracts of cells incubated in laboratory conditions and assayed at optimal and nonoptimal enzyme assay conditions revealed Trp transaminase (EC 2.6.1.27) was active before enzymes of the anthranilic acid pathway were detected. The products of Trp transaminase activity were not, however, found in the culture supernatant, indicating these intermediates were not exported nor accumulated by the cells. Enzymes assayed in nonoptimal conditions had considerably lower enzyme activities than found in laboratory incubation conditions. Based on these results, we hypothesize that these enzymes are not likely to be involved in the formation of compounds associated with off-flavors in Cheddar cheese.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Ummadi
- Center for Microbe Detection and Physiology, Department of Nutrition and Food Sciences, Utah State University, Logan, 84322-8700, USA
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17
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Goethals K, Vereecke D, Jaziri M, Van Montagu M, Holsters M. Leafy gall formation by Rhodococcus fascians. ANNUAL REVIEW OF PHYTOPATHOLOGY 2001; 39:27-52. [PMID: 11701858 DOI: 10.1146/annurev.phyto.39.1.27] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Rhodococcus fascians infects a wide range of plants, initiating the formation of leafy galls that consist of centers of shoot amplification and shoot growth inhibition. R. fascians is an epiphyte but it also can establish endophytic populations. Bacterial signals involved in symptom development initiate de novo cell division and shoot meristem formation in differentiated tissues. The R. fascians signals exert activities that are distinct from mere cytokinin effects, and the evidence points to a process that adopted cytokinin biosynthetic enzymes to form derivatives with unique activity. Genes implicated in leafy gall formation are located on a linear plasmid and are subject to a highly controlling, complex regulatory network, integrating autoregulatory compounds and environmental signals. Leafy galls are considered as centers with specific metabolic features, a niche where populations of R. fascians experience a selective advantage. Such "metabolic habitat modification" might be universal for gall-inducing bacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Goethals
- Vakgroep Moleculaire Genetica & Departement of Plantengenetica, Vlaams Interuniversitair Instituut voor Biotechnologie (VIB), Universiteit Gent, K.L. Ledeganckstraat 35, B-9000 Gent, Belgium.
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18
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Lambrecht M, Okon Y, Vande Broek A, Vanderleyden J. Indole-3-acetic acid: a reciprocal signalling molecule in bacteria-plant interactions. Trends Microbiol 2000; 8:298-300. [PMID: 10878760 DOI: 10.1016/s0966-842x(00)01732-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 142] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- M Lambrecht
- F.A. Janssens Laboratory of Genetics, Faculty of Agricultural and Applied Biological Sciences, K.U. Leuven, Kardinaal Mercierlaan 92, B-3001 Heverlee, Belgium
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19
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Gummalla S, Broadbent JR. Tryptophan Catabolism by Lactobacillus casei and Lactobacillus helveticus Cheese Flavor Adjuncts. J Dairy Sci 1999. [DOI: 10.3168/jds.s0022-0302(99)75448-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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20
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Zakharova EA, Shcherbakov AA, Brudnik VV, Skripko NG, Bulkhin NS, Ignatov VV. Biosynthesis of indole-3-acetic acid in Azospirillum brasilense. Insights from quantum chemistry. EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF BIOCHEMISTRY 1999; 259:572-6. [PMID: 10092839 DOI: 10.1046/j.1432-1327.1999.00033.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Quantum chemical methods AM1 and PM3 and chromatographic methods were used to qualitatively characterize pathways of bacterial production of indole-3-acetic acid (IAA). The standard free energy changes (delta G(o)'sum) for the synthesis of tryptophan (Trp) from chorismic acid via anthranilic acid and indole were calculated, as were those for several possible pathways for the synthesis of IAA from Trp, namely via indole-3-acetamide (IAM), indole-3-pyruvic acid (IPyA), and indole-3-acetonitrile (IAN). The delta G(o)'sum for Trp synthesis from chorismic acid was -402 (-434) kJ.mol-1 (values in parentheses were calculated by PM3). The delta G(o)'sum for IAA synthesis from Trp were -565 (-548) kJ.mol-1 for the IAN pathway, -481 (-506) kJ.mol-1 for the IAM pathway, and -289 (-306) kJ.mol-1 for the IPyA pathway. By HPLC analysis, the possibility was assessed that indole, anthranilic acid, and Trp might be utilized as precursors for IAA synthesis by Azospirillum brasilense strain Sp 245. The results indicate that there is a high motive force for Trp synthesis from chorismic acid and for IAA synthesis from Trp, and make it unlikely that anthranilic acid and indole act as the precursors to IAA in a Trp-independent pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- E A Zakharova
- Institute of Biochemistry and Physiology of Plants and Microorganisms, Russian Academy of Sciences, Saratov, Russia.
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Soto-Urzua L, Xochinua-Corona YG, Flores-Encarnacion M, Baca BE. Purification and properties of aromatic amino acid aminotransferases from Azospirillum brasilense UAP 14 strain. Can J Microbiol 1996; 42:294-8. [PMID: 8868238 DOI: 10.1139/m96-043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
The purification and characterization of AAT1, one of two aromatic amino acid aminotransferase (EC 2.6.1.57) in Azospirillum brasilense, is described. Purified AAT1 had a subunit mass of 33 kDa and a nondenatured molecular mass of 66 kDa, suggesting a dimeric structure. Other properties include a pI of 5.04, an optimum temperature of 45 degrees C, and optimum pH of 8.5. AAT1 utilized all aromatic amino acids, the L-tryptophan derivatives such as L-5-methyl tryptophan and L-flour-tryptophan, and L-histidine. The apparent Km values for L-tyrosine, L-phenylalanine, and L-tryptophan were 0.19, 0.43, and 1.05 mM, respectively. The enzyme was competive inhibited by indole-3-pyruvic acid with a Ki of 0.17 mM.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Soto-Urzua
- Centro de Investigaciones Microbiológicas, Universidad Autónoma, de Puebla, México
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Abstract
Production of the phytohormone indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) is widespread among bacteria that inhabit the rhizosphere of plants. Several different IAA biosynthesis pathways are used by these bacteria, with a single bacterial strain sometimes containing more than one pathway. The level of expression of IAA depends on the biosynthesis pathway; the location of the genes involved, either on chromosomal or plasmid DNA, and their regulatory sequences; and the presence of enzymes that can convert active, free IAA into an inactive, conjugated form. The role of bacterial IAA in the stimulation of plant growth and phytopathogenesis is considered.
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Affiliation(s)
- C L Patten
- Department of Biology, University of Waterloo, ON, Canada.
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Abstract
The plant hormones, auxins and cytokinins, are involved in several stages of plant growth and development such as cell elongation, cell division, tissue differentiation, and apical dominance. The biosynthesis and the underlying mechanism of auxins and cytokinins action are subjects of intense investigation. Not only plants but also microorganisms can synthesize auxins and cytokinins. The role of phytohormone biosynthesis by microorganisms is not fully elucidated: in several cases of pathogenic fungi and bacteria these compounds are involved in pathogenesis on plants; auxin and cytokinin production may also be involved in root growth stimulation by beneficial bacteria and associative symbiosis. The genetic mechanism of auxin biosynthesis and regulation by Pseudomonas, Agrobacterium, Rhizobium, Bradyrhizobium, and Azospirillum, are well studied; in these bacteria several physiological effects have been correlated to the bacterial phytohormones biosynthesis. The pathogenic bacteria Pseudomonas and Agrobacterium produce indole-3-acetic acid via the indole-3-acetamide pathway, for which the genes are plasmid borne. However, they do possess also the indole-3-pyruvic acid pathway, which is chromosomally encoded. In addition, they have genes that can conjugate free auxins or hydrolyze conjugated forms of auxins and cytokinins. In Agrobacterium there are also several genes, located near the auxin and cytokinin biosynthetic genes, that are involved in the regulation of auxins and cytokinins sensibility of the transformed plant tissue. Symbiotic bacteria Rhizobium and Bradyrhizobium synthesize indole-3-acetic acid via indole-3-pyruvic acid; also the genetic determinants for the indole-3-acetamide pathway have been detected, but their activity has not been demonstrated. In the plant growth-promoting bacterium Azospirillum, as in Agrobacterium and Pseudomonas, both the indole-3-pyruvic acid and the indole-3-acetamide pathways are present, although in Azospirillum the indole-3-pyruvic acid pathway is of major significance. In addition, biochemical evidence for a tryptophan-independent indole-3-acetic acid pathway in Azospirillum has been presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Costacurta
- F.A. Janssens Laboratory of Genetics, KU Leuven, Heverlee, Belgium
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24
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Method for the determination of indole-3-acetic acid and related compounds of l-tryptophan catabolism in soils. J Chromatogr A 1993. [DOI: 10.1016/0021-9673(93)87039-o] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Tinland B, Kares C, Herrmann A, Otten L. 35S-beta-glucuronidase gene blocks biological effects of cotransferred iaa genes. PLANT MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 1991; 16:853-64. [PMID: 1859868 DOI: 10.1007/bf00015077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2023]
Abstract
The iaaM and iaaH genes of Agrobacterium tumefaciens and Agrobacterium rhizogenes play an important role in crown gall and hairy root disease. The iaaM gene codes for tryptophan monooxygenase which converts tryptophan into indole-3-acetamide (IAM). IAM is converted into the auxin indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) by indoleacetamide hydrolase, encoded by the iaaH gene. In functional studies on the activity of the iaa genes of the TB region of the A. tumefaciens biotype III strain Tm4, the frequently used 35S-beta-glucuronidase (35S-UidA or GUS) marker gene was found to inhibit IAA synthesis and root induction encoded by the TB iaa genes. To exert this inhibition, the 35S-UidA gene must be cotransferred with the iaaH gene. The 35S promoter alone is sufficient to cause the inhibitory effect.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Tinland
- Institut de Biologie Moléculaire des Plantes, Strasbourg, France
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Molecular characterization and expression analysis of the anthranilate synthase gene of Pseudomonas syringae subsp. savastanoi. J Bacteriol 1991; 173:463-71. [PMID: 1987141 PMCID: PMC207034 DOI: 10.1128/jb.173.2.463-471.1991] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
The trpE gene, which encodes the large component of the enzyme anthranilate synthase, was isolated from a Pseudomonas syringae subsp. savastanoi (P. savastanoi) cosmid library. Cosmids that complemented an Escherichia coli trpE mutation contained a gene whose product is 86% homologous at the deduced amino acid level to TrpE of Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Pseudomonas putida. Amino acid sequence comparison with other TrpE sequences revealed the existence of conserved regions between the procaryotic and eucaryotic polypeptide sequences analyzed, regions that might be of functional importance. We also report on studies on the expression pattern of this gene. We analyzed the promoter activity of a trpE::lacZ transcriptional fusion, the relative amount of trpE steady-state mRNA, and the activity of anthranilate synthase from cells grown in minimal medium with or without exogenously added tryptophan and in complete medium. We concluded that under the conditions tested, expression of the trpE gene of P. savastanoi is independent of the concentration of tryptophan in the culture medium. Implications of such an expression pattern on the virulence of this bacterium are discussed.
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Gaffney TD, da Costa e Silva O, Yamada T, Kosuge T. Indoleacetic acid operon of Pseudomonas syringae subsp. savastanoi: transcription analysis and promoter identification. J Bacteriol 1990; 172:5593-601. [PMID: 2120185 PMCID: PMC526870 DOI: 10.1128/jb.172.10.5593-5601.1990] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Expression of the indoleacetic acid (iaa) operon, which contributes to the virulence of the phytopathogenic bacterium Pseudomonas syringae subsp. savastanoi, was monitored by using broad-host-range lacZ reporter gene plasmids. A combination of translational (gene) fusions and transcriptional (operon) fusions of P. syringae subsp. savastanoi sequences to lacZ allowed localization of the iaa operon promoter. RNA recovered from P. syringae subsp. savastanoi strains was mapped with iaa operon-specific probes to precisely locate the transcription initiation site. When transcripts from an iaaM::lacZ fusion in Escherichia coli were analyzed, an identical transcription initiation site was observed. The DNA sequence of the iaa operon promoter closely resembled the consensus E. coli promoter sequence. We detected an active, constitutive level of indoleacetic acid biosynthetic gene expression during bacterial growth under a variety of conditions in the absence of host plant influence.
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Affiliation(s)
- T D Gaffney
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of California, Davis 95616
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Kares C, Prinsen E, Van Onckelen H, Otten L. IAA synthesis and root induction with iaa genes under heat shock promoter control. PLANT MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 1990; 15:225-36. [PMID: 2129423 DOI: 10.1007/bf00036909] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
We have devised a heat shock-inducible indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) synthesis system for plant cells, which is based on the iaa genes of the Agrobacterium tumefaciens T-DNA and the heat shock promoter hsp70 of Drosophila melanogaster. Two DNA constructs were tested: one contains the iaaM gene linked to the hsp70 promoter (hsp70-iaaM) and encodes the production of indoleacetamide (IAM), the other contains hsp70-iaaM and the wild-type iaaH gene which codes for the conversion of IAM into IAA (hsp70-iaaM/iaaH). Heat shock-controlled IAM and IAA synthesis was tested on two levels: biochemically by measuring IAM and IAA levels in Kalanchoe stem segments infected with the two constructs, and morphologically by IAA-dependent root formation on Kalanchoe plants, on carrot discs and on tobacco leaf fragments. At both levels the responses were found to be controlled by the heat shock promoter. IAM levels of segments infected with hsp70-iaaM increased 6-fold upon heat shock induction to 240 pmol IAM per stem segment. The accumulation of IAA in segments infected with hsp70-iaaM/iaaH and heat-shocked was found to be more variable, possibly due to IAA transport and metabolism. Heat shock treatment of Kalanchoe plants and tobacco leaf fragments infected with hsp70-iaaM/iaaH led to a strong increase in root formation. On carrot discs, heat shock-specific root induction was also demonstrated, but the responses differed between individual carrots.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Kares
- Institut de Biologie Moléculaire des Plantes du C.N.R.S., Strasbourg, France
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Palm CJ, Gaffney T, Kosuge T. Cotranscription of genes encoding indoleacetic acid production in Pseudomonas syringae subsp. savastanoi. J Bacteriol 1989; 171:1002-9. [PMID: 2644217 PMCID: PMC209694 DOI: 10.1128/jb.171.2.1002-1009.1989] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Indoleacetic acid (IAA) production by the plant pathogen Pseudomonas syringae subsp. savastanoi is essential for tumor formation on olive and oleander. The bacterium produces IAA from tryptophan in reactions catalyzed by tryptophan monooxygenase and indoleacetamide hydrolase. The genetic determinants are, respectively, iaaM and iaaH. In oleander isolates, the genes encoding the IAA biosynthetic enzymes are located on a plasmid; in olive isolates, the genes occur on the chromosome. The IAA genes from the oleander isolate strain EW2009 are located within a 4-kilobase (kb) segment of the 52-kb plasmid pIAA1. Escherichia coli strains harboring a recombinant plasmid, pCJP3, which contains this 4-kb fragment, excreted IAA into culture media, and crude cell extracts had both tryptophan monooxygenase and indoleacetamide hydrolase activity. In vitro coupled transcription-translation of pCJP3 demonstrated that this fragment coded for proteins of 62 and 47 kilodaltons which correspond to tryptophan monooxygenase and indoleacetamide hydrolase, respectively. Expression of these genes was dependent upon a vector promoter in pCJP3. However, in the absence of a vector promoter, E. coli containing recombinant plasmids with additional pIAA1 DNA in front of iaaM had high levels of tryptophan monooxygenase. Northern (RNA) hybridization experiments verified that iaaM and iaaH are cotranscribed as a portion of a ca. 4- to 5-kb transcript in vivo. Southern hybridization experiments with IAA plasmids from different oleander strains of P. syringae subsp. savastanoi revealed that all IAA plasmids contained a region of at least 10 kb of homology, with the IAA genes at one end. Repetitive DNA and a copy of IS51 were found at the end of this region of homology.
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Affiliation(s)
- C J Palm
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of California, Davis 95616
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Ernstsen A, Sandberg G, Crozier A, Wheeler CT. Endogenous indoles and the biosynthesis and metabolism of indole-3-acetic acid in cultures of Rhizobium phaseoli. PLANTA 1987; 171:422-428. [PMID: 24227443 DOI: 10.1007/bf00398689] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/1987] [Accepted: 02/26/1987] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Gas chromatography-mass spectrometric analyses of purified extracts from cultures of Rhizobium phaseoli wild-type strain 8002, grown in a non-tryptophan-supplemented liquid medium, demonstrated the presence of indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), indole-3-ethanol (IEt), indole-3-aldehyde and indole-3-methanol (IM). In metabolism studies with (3)H-, (14)C- and (2)H-labelled substrates the bacterium was shown to convert tryptophan to IEt, IAA and IM; IEt to IAA and IM; and IAA to IM. Indole-3-acetamide (IAAm) could not be detected as either an endogenous constituent or a metabolite of [(3)H]tryptophan nor did cultures convert [(14)C]IAAm to IAA. Biosynthesis of IAA in R. phaseoli, thus, involves a different pathway from that operating in Pseudomonas savastanio and Agrobacterium tumefaciens-induced crown-gall tumours.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Ernstsen
- Department of Forest Genetics and Plant Physiology, The Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, S-901 83, Umeå, Sweden
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Glass NL, Kosuge T. Cloning of the gene for indoleacetic acid-lysine synthetase from Pseudomonas syringae subsp. savastanoi. J Bacteriol 1986; 166:598-603. [PMID: 3084452 PMCID: PMC214646 DOI: 10.1128/jb.166.2.598-603.1986] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
The phytopathogen Pseudomonas syringae subsp. savastanoi incites the production of galls on olive and oleander plants. Gall formation is dependent on bacterial production of the phytohormone indoleacetic acid (IAA). The genetic determinants for IAA synthesis are located on a plasmid (pIAA) and are organized in an operon in oleander strains of the bacterium. P. syringae subsp. savastanoi further converts IAA to an amino acid conjugate, 3-indole-acetyl-epsilon-L-lysine (IAA-lysine). The gene for IAA-lysine synthetase (iaaL) was found on the IAA plasmid by screening pIAA deletion mutants for the ability to convert IAA to IAA-lysine. The iaaL locus was then cloned in the vector pUC8 from a bank of P. syringae subsp. savastanoi EW2009 plasmid DNA to construct recombinant plasmid pLG87. The specific activity of IAA-lysine synthetase in Escherichia coli transformed with pLG87 was 47 times higher than that of the enzyme extract from P. syringae subsp. savastanoi. The direction of transcription of the iaaL gene was determined to be opposite to that of the IAA operon. The location of the iaaL gene on pIAA1 was mapped by Tn5 insertion mutagenesis to a 2.5-kilobase-pair fragment 2 kilobase pairs from the IAA operon.
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