Characterization of the TyrR Regulon in the Rhizobacterium Enterobacter ludwigii UW5 Reveals Overlap with the CpxR Envelope Stress Response

The TyrR transcription factor controls the expression of genes for the uptake and biosynthesis of aromatic amino acids in Escherichia coli In the plant-associated and clinically significant proteobacterium Enterobacter ludwigii UW5, the TyrR orthologue was previously shown to regulate genes that encode enzymes for synthesis of the plant hormone indole-3-acetic acid and for gluconeogenesis, indicating a broader function for the transcription factor. This study aimed to delineate the TyrR regulon of E. ludwigii by comparing the transcriptomes of the wild type and a tyrR deletion strain. In E. ludwigii, TyrR positively or negatively regulates the expression of over 150 genes. TyrR downregulated expression of envelope stress response regulators CpxR and CpxP through interaction with a DNA binding site in the intergenic region between divergently transcribed cpxP and cpxR Repression of cpxP was alleviated by tyrosine. Methyltransferase gene dmpM, which is possibly involved in antibiotic synthesis, was strongly activated in the presence of tyrosine and phenylalanine by TyrR binding to its promoter region. TyrR also regulated expression of genes for aromatic catabolism and anaerobic respiration. Our findings suggest that the E. ludwigii TyrR regulon has diverged from that of E. coli to include genes for survival in the diverse environments that this bacterium inhabits and illustrate the expansion and plasticity of transcription factor regulons.IMPORTANCE Genome-wide RNA sequencing revealed a broader regulatory role for the TyrR transcription factor in the ecologically versatile bacterium Enterobacter ludwigii beyond that of aromatic amino acid synthesis and transport that constitute the role of the TyrR regulon of E. coli In E. ludwigii, a plant symbiont and human gut commensal, the TyrR regulon is expanded to include genes that are beneficial for plant interactions and response to stresses. Identification of the genes regulated by TyrR provides insight into the mechanisms by which the bacterium adapts to its environment.

Regulation of indole-3-acetic acid biosynthesis by branched-chain amino acids in Enterobacter cloacae UW5

The soil bacterium Enterobacter cloacae UW5 produces the rhizosphere signaling molecule indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) via the indolepyruvate pathway. Expression of indolepyruvate decarboxylase, a key pathway enzyme encoded by ipdC, is upregulated by the transcription factor TyrR in response to aromatic amino acids. Some members of the TyrR regulon may also be controlled by branched-chain amino acids and here we show that expression from the ipdC promoter and production of IAA are downregulated by valine, leucine and isoleucine. Regulation of the IAA synthesis pathway by both aromatic and branched-chain amino acids suggests a broader role for this pathway in bacterial physiology, beyond plant interactions.

The TyrR transcription factor regulates the divergent akr-ipdC operons of Enterobacter cloacae UW5

The TyrR transcription factor regulates genes involved in the uptake and biosynthesis of aromatic amino acids in Enterobacteriaceae. Genes may be positively or negatively regulated depending on the presence or absence of each aromatic amino acid, all three of which function as cofactors for TyrR. In this report we detail the transcriptional control of two divergently transcribed genes, akr and ipdC, by TyrR, elucidated by promoter fusion expression assays and electrophoretic mobility shift assays to assess protein-DNA interactions. Expression of both genes was shown to be controlled by TyrR via interactions with two TyrR boxes located within the akr-ipdC intergenic region. Expression of ipdC required TyrR bound to the proximal strong box, and is strongly induced by phenylalanine, and to a lesser extent by tryptophan and tyrosine. Down-regulation of akr was reliant on interactions with the weak box, and may also require a second, as yet unidentified protein for further repression. Tyrosine enhanced repression of akr. Electrophoretic mobility shift assays demonstrated that TyrR interacts with both the strong and weak boxes, and that binding of the weak box in vitro requires an intact adjacent strong box. While the strong box shows a high degree of conservation with the TyrR binding site consensus sequence, the weak box has atypical spacing of the two half sites comprising the palindromic arms. Site-directed mutagenesis demonstrated sequence-specific interaction between TyrR and the weak box. This is the first report of TyrR-controlled expression of two divergent protein-coding genes, transcribed from independent promoters. Moreover, the identification of a predicted aldo-keto reductase as a member of the TyrR regulon further extends the function of the TyrR regulon.

Indole-3-acetic acid in plant-microbe interactions

Indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) is an important phytohormone with the capacity to control plant development in both beneficial and deleterious ways. The ability to synthesize IAA is an attribute that many bacteria including both plant growth-promoters and phytopathogens possess. There are three main pathways through which IAA is synthesized; the indole-3-pyruvic acid, indole-3-acetamide and indole-3-acetonitrile pathways. This chapter reviews the factors that effect the production of this phytohormone, the role of IAA in bacterial physiology and in plant-microbe interactions including phytostimulation and phytopathogenesis.

Activity, distribution and function of indole-3-acetic acid biosynthetic pathways in bacteria

The capacity to produce the phytohormone indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) is widespread among bacteria that inhabit diverse environments such as soils, fresh and marine waters, and plant and animal hosts. Three major pathways for bacterial IAA synthesis have been characterized that remove the amino and carboxyl groups from the α-carbon of tryptophan via the intermediates indolepyruvate, indoleacetamide, or indoleacetonitrile; the oxidized end product IAA is typically secreted. The enzymes in these pathways often catabolize a broad range of substrates including aromatic amino acids and in some cases the branched chain amino acids. Moreover, expression of some of the genes encoding key IAA biosynthetic enzymes is induced by all three aromatic amino acids. The broad distribution and substrate specificity of the enzymes suggests a role for these pathways beyond plant-microbe interactions in which bacterial IAA has been best studied.

A plant growth-promoting pseudomonad is closely related to the Pseudomonas syringae complex of plant pathogens

Pseudomonas putida GR12-2 is well known as a plant growth-promoting rhizobacterium; however, phylogenetic analysis using the 16S rRNA gene and four housekeeping genes indicated that this strain forms a monophyletic group with the Pseudomonas syringae complex, which is composed of several species of plant pathogens. On the basis of these sequence analyses, we suggest that P. putida GR12-2 be redesignated as P. syringae GR12-2. To compare the ecological roles of P. syringae GR12-2 with its close relatives P. syringae pathovar (pv.) tomato DC3000 and P. syringae pv. syringae B728a, we investigated their ability to cause disease and promote plant growth. When introduced on tobacco or tomato leaves, P. syringae GR12-2 was unable to elicit a hypersensitive response or cause disease, which are characteristic responses of P. syringae DC3000 and B728a, nor were type III secretion system genes required for virulence detected in P. syringae GR12-2 by PCR or DNA hybridization. In contrast to P. syringae GR12-2, neither of the phytopathogens was able to promote root growth when inoculated onto canola seeds. Although commensals and nonpathogens have been reported among the strains of the P. syringae complex, P. syringae GR12-2 is a mutualist and a phytostimulator.

Changes in denitrifier abundance, denitrification gene mRNA levels, nitrous oxide emissions, and denitrification in anoxic soil microcosms amended with glucose and plant residues

In agricultural cropping systems, crop residues are sources of organic carbon (C), an important factor influencing denitrification. The effects of red clover, soybean, and barley plant residues and of glucose on denitrifier abundance, denitrification gene mRNA levels, nitrous oxide (N(2)O) emissions, and denitrification rates were quantified in anoxic soil microcosms for 72 h. nosZ gene abundances and mRNA levels significantly increased in response to all organic carbon treatments over time. In contrast, the abundance and mRNA levels of Pseudomonas mandelii and closely related species (nirS(P)) increased only in glucose-amended soil: the nirS(P) guild abundance increased 5-fold over the 72-h incubation period (P < 0.001), while the mRNA level significantly increased more than 15-fold at 12 h (P < 0.001) and then subsequently decreased. The nosZ gene abundance was greater in plant residue-amended soil than in glucose-amended soil. Although plant residue carbon-to-nitrogen (C:N) ratios varied from 15:1 to 30:1, nosZ gene and mRNA levels were not significantly different among plant residue treatments, with an average of 3.5 x 10(7) gene copies and 6.9 x 10(7) transcripts g(-1) dry soil. Cumulative N(2)O emissions and denitrification rates increased over 72 h in both glucose- and plant-tissue-C-treated soil. The nirS(P) and nosZ communities responded differently to glucose and plant residue amendments. However, the targeted denitrifier communities responded similarly to the different plant residues under the conditions tested despite changes in the quality of organic C and different C:N ratios.

Overexpression of hns in the plant growth-promoting bacterium Enterobacter cloacae UW5 increases root colonization

AIMS

Plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) introduced into soil often do not compete effectively with indigenous micro-organisms for plant colonization. The aim of this study was to identify novel genes that are important for root colonization by the PGPR Enterobacter cloacae UW5.

METHODS AND RESULTS

A library of transposon mutants of Ent. cloacae UW5 was screened for mutants with altered ability to colonize canola roots using a thermal asymmetric interlaced (TAIL)-PCR-based approach. A PCR fragment from one mutant was reproducibly amplified at greater levels from genomic DNA extracted from mutant pools recovered from seedling roots 6 days after seed inoculation compared to that from the cognate inoculum cultures. Competition assays confirmed that the purified mutant designated Ent. cloacae J28 outcompetes the wild-type strain on roots but not in liquid cultures. In Ent. cloacae J28, the transposon is inserted upstream of the hns gene. Quantitative RT-PCR showed that transposon insertion increased expression of hns on roots.

CONCLUSIONS

These results indicate that increased expression of hns in Ent. cloacae enhances competitive colonization of roots.

SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY

A better understanding of the genes involved in plant colonization will contribute to the development of PGPR that can compete more effectively in agricultural soils.

Aromatic amino acid-dependent expression of indole-3-pyruvate decarboxylase is regulated by TyrR in Enterobacter cloacae UW5

The plant growth-promoting rhizobacterium Enterobacter cloacae UW5 synthesizes the plant growth hormone indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) via the indole-3-pyruvate pathway utilizing the enzyme indole-3-pyruvate decarboxylase that is encoded by ipdC. In this bacterium, ipdC expression and IAA production occur in stationary phase and are induced by an exogenous source of tryptophan, conditions that are present in the rhizosphere. The aim of this study was to identify the regulatory protein that controls the expression of ipdC. We identified a sequence in the promoter region of ipdC that is highly similar to the recognition sequence for the Escherichia coli regulatory protein TyrR that regulates genes involved in aromatic amino acid transport and metabolism. Using a tyrR insertional mutant, we demonstrate that TyrR is required for IAA production and for induction of ipdC transcription. TyrR directly induces ipdC expression, as was determined by real-time quantitative reverse transcription-PCR, by ipdC promoter-driven reporter gene activity, and by electrophoretic mobility shift assays. Expression increases in response to tryptophan, phenylalanine, and tyrosine. This suggests that, in addition to its function in plant growth promotion, indolepyruvate decarboxylase may be important for aromatic amino acid uptake and/or metabolism.

An integrated approach to functional genomics: construction of a novel reporter gene fusion library for Sinorhizobium meliloti

As a means of investigating gene function, we developed a robust transcription fusion reporter vector to measure gene expression in bacteria. The vector, pTH1522, was used to construct a random insert library for the Sinorhizobium meliloti genome. pTH1522 replicates in Escherichia coli and can be transferred to, but cannot replicate in, S. meliloti. Homologous recombination of the DNA fragments cloned in pTH1522 into the S. meliloti genome generates transcriptional fusions to either the reporter genes gfp(+) and lacZ or gusA and rfp, depending on the orientation of the cloned fragment. Over 12,000 fusion junctions in 6,298 clones were identified by DNA sequence analysis, and the plasmid clones were recombined into S. meliloti. Reporter enzyme activities following growth of these recombinants in complex medium (LBmc) and in minimal medium with glucose or succinate as the sole carbon source allowed the identification of genes highly expressed under one or more growth condition and those expressed at very low to background levels. In addition to generating reporter gene fusions, the vector allows Flp recombinase-directed deletion formation and gene disruption, depending on the nature of the cloned fragment. We report the identification of genes essential for growth on complex medium as deduced from an inability to recover recombinants from pTH1522 clones that carried fragments internal to gene or operon transcripts. A database containing all the gene expression activities together with a web interface showing the precise locations of reporter fusion junctions has been constructed (www.sinorhizobium.org).

RpoS-regulated genes of Escherichia coli identified by random lacZ fusion mutagenesis

RpoS is a conserved alternative sigma factor that regulates the expression of many stress response genes in Escherichia coli. The RpoS regulon is large but has not yet been completely characterized. In this study, we report the identification of over 100 RpoS-dependent fusions in a genetic screen based on the differential expression of an operon-lacZ fusion bank in rpoS mutant and wild-type backgrounds. Forty-eight independent gene fusions were identified, including several in well-characterized RpoS-regulated genes, such as osmY, katE, and otsA. Many of the other fusions mapped to genes of unknown function or to genes that were not previously known to be under RpoS control. Based on the homology to other known bacterial genes, some of the RpoS-regulated genes of unknown functions are likely important in nutrient scavenging.

Microarray analysis of RpoS-mediated gene expression in Escherichia coli K-12

The alternative sigma factor RpoS controls the expression of many stationary-phase genes in Escherichia coli and other bacteria. Though the RpoS regulon is a large, conserved system that is critical for adaptation to nutrient deprivation and other stresses, it remains incompletely characterized. In this study, we have used oligonucleotide arrays to delineate the transcriptome that is controlled by RpoS during entry into stationary phase of cultures growing in rich medium. The expression of known RpoS-dependent genes was confirmed to be regulated by RpoS, thus validating the use of microarrays for expression analysis. The total number of positively regulated stationary-phase genes was found to be greater than 100. More than 45 new genes were identified as positively controlled by RpoS. Surprisingly, a similar number of genes were found to be negatively regulated by RpoS, and these included almost all genes required for flagellum biosynthesis, genes encoding enzymes of the TCA cycle, and a physically contiguous group of genes located in the Rac prophage region. Negative regulation by RpoS is thus much more extensive than has previously been recognized, and is likely to be an important contributing factor to the competitive growth advantage of rpoS mutants reported in previous studies.

Positive selection for loss of RpoS function in Escherichia coli

Though RpoS, an alternative sigma factor, is required for survival and adaptation of Escherichia coli under stress conditions, many strains have acquired independent mutations in the rpoS gene. The reasons for this apparent selective loss and the nature of the selective agent are not well understood. In this study, we found that some wild type strains grow poorly in succinate minimal media compared with isogenic strains carrying defined RpoS null mutations. Using an rpoS+ strain harboring an operon lacZ fusion to the highly-RpoS dependent osmY promoter as an indicator strain, we tested if this differential growth characteristic could be used to selectively isolate mutants that have lost RpoS function. All isolated (Suc+) mutants exhibited attenuated beta-galactosidase expression on indicator media suggesting a loss in either RpoS or osmY promoter function. Because all Suc+ mutants were also defective in catalase activity, an OsmY-independent, RpoS-regulated function, it was likely that RpoS activity was affected. To confirm this, we sequenced PCR-amplified products containing the rpoS gene from 20 independent mutants using chromosomal DNA as a template. Sequencing and alignment analyses confirmed that all isolated mutants possessed mutated alleles of the rpoS gene. Types of mutations detected included single or multiple base deletions, insertions, and transversions. No transition mutations were identified. All identified point mutations could, under selection for restoration of beta-galactosidase, revert to rpoS+. Revertible mutation of the rpoS gene can thus function as a genetic switch that controls expression of the regulon at the population level. These results may also help to explain why independent laboratory strains have acquired mutations in this important regulatory gene.

Controlled expression of an rpoS antisense RNA can inhibit RpoS function in Escherichia coli

We show that an inducible rpoS antisense RNA complementary to the rpoS message can inhibit expression of RpoS in both exponential and stationary phases and can attenuate expression of the rpoS regulon in Escherichia coli. Plasmids containing rpoS antisense DNA expressed under the control of the T7lac promoter and T7 RNA polymerase were constructed, and expression of the rpoS antisense RNA was optimized in the pET expression system. rpoS antisense RNA levels could be manipulated to effectively control the expression of RpoS and RpoS-dependent genes. RpoS expression was inhibited by the expression of rpoS antisense RNA in both exponential and stationary phases in E. coli. RpoS-dependent catalase HPII was also downregulated, as determined by catalase activity assays and with native polyacrylamide gels stained for catalase. Induced RpoS antisense expression also reduced the level of RpoS-dependent glycogen synthesis. These results demonstrate that controlled expression of antisense RNA can be used to attenuate expression of a regulator required for the expression of host adaptation functions and may offer a basis for designing effective antimicrobial agents.

Role of Pseudomonas putida indoleacetic acid in development of the host plant root system

Many plant-associated bacteria synthesize the phytohormone indoleacetic acid (IAA). While IAA produced by phytopathogenic bacteria, mainly by the indoleacetamide pathway, has been implicated in the induction of plant tumors, it is not clear whether IAA synthesized by beneficial bacteria, usually via the indolepyruvic acid pathway, is involved in plant growth promotion. To determine whether bacterial IAA enhances root development in host plants, the ipdc gene that encodes indolepyruvate decarboxylase, a key enzyme in the indolepyruvic acid pathway, was isolated from the plant growth-promoting bacterium Pseudomonas putida GR12-2 and an IAA-deficient mutant constructed by insertional mutagenesis. The canola seedling primary roots from seeds treated with wild-type P. putida GR12-2 were on average 35 to 50% longer than the roots from seeds treated with the IAA-deficient mutant and the roots from uninoculated seeds. In addition, exposing mung bean cuttings to high levels of IAA by soaking them in a suspension of the wild-type strain stimulated the formation of many, very small, adventitious roots. Formation of fewer roots was stimulated by treatment with the IAA-deficient mutant. These results suggest that bacterial IAA plays a major role in the development of the host plant root system.

Regulation of indoleacetic acid production in Pseudomonas putida GR12-2 by tryptophan and the stationary-phase sigma factor RpoS

The phytohormone indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) accumulates in the culture medium of the plant growth-promoting bacterium Pseudomonas putida GR12-2 only when grown in the presence of exogenous tryptophan, suggesting that expression of indolepyruvate decarboxylase, a key enzyme in the IAA biosynthesis pathway in this bacterium, may be regulated by tryptophan. To test this hypothesis, we isolated the promoter region for the ipdc gene encoding indolepyruvate decarboxylase by inverse polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and inserted it upstream of the bioluminescent reporter gene luxAB on a plasmid in P. putida GR12-2. Activity of the ipdc promoter, measured by quantifying light production, increased fivefold in the presence of L-tryptophan, confirming that ipdc expression is induced by tryptophan. In addition, transcription of ipdc is regulated by the stationary phase sigma factor RpoS: the ipdc promoter contains a sequence similar to the RpoS recognition sequence, and transformation of P. putida GR12-2 with a plasmid carrying rpoS under the control of a constitutive promoter induced promoter activity before the onset of stationary phase when RpoS is not normally produced and prolonged a higher level of transcription at the later stages of the cell cycle.

Isolation and characterization of an antifreeze protein with ice nucleation activity from the plant growth promoting rhizobacterium Pseudomonas putida GR12-2

An antifreeze protein secreted to the growth medium by the plant growth promoting rhizobacterium Pseudomonas putida GR12-2 was purified to apparent homogeneity. The purified protein has a molecular mass of 164 ± 15 kDa and an isoelectric point of 5.3, contains both carbohydrate and lipid moieties, and is relatively rich in glycine and alanine. The properties of the purified antifreeze protein are similar to the properties previously reported for bacterial ice-nucleation proteins. In fact, the purified antifreeze protein also displays a low level of ice-nucleation activity. Removal of approximately 92 kDa of carbohydrate from the 164-kDa antifreeze glycoprotein did not noticeably alter the antifreeze activity of the molecule, although it did diminish the ice-nucleation activity. This is the first report of an antifreeze protein that also is active as an ice-nucleation protein.Key words: antifreeze protein, plant growth promoting rhizobacteria, freezing tolerance, ice-nucleation protein.

Bacterial biosynthesis of indole-3-acetic acid

Production of the phytohormone indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) is widespread among bacteria that inhabit the rhizosphere of plants. Several different IAA biosynthesis pathways are used by these bacteria, with a single bacterial strain sometimes containing more than one pathway. The level of expression of IAA depends on the biosynthesis pathway; the location of the genes involved, either on chromosomal or plasmid DNA, and their regulatory sequences; and the presence of enzymes that can convert active, free IAA into an inactive, conjugated form. The role of bacterial IAA in the stimulation of plant growth and phytopathogenesis is considered.