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Gurevich VV. Arrestins: A Small Family of Multi-Functional Proteins. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:6284. [PMID: 38892473 PMCID: PMC11173308 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25116284] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2024] [Revised: 05/24/2024] [Accepted: 05/31/2024] [Indexed: 06/21/2024] Open
Abstract
The first member of the arrestin family, visual arrestin-1, was discovered in the late 1970s. Later, the other three mammalian subtypes were identified and cloned. The first described function was regulation of G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) signaling: arrestins bind active phosphorylated GPCRs, blocking their coupling to G proteins. It was later discovered that receptor-bound and free arrestins interact with numerous proteins, regulating GPCR trafficking and various signaling pathways, including those that determine cell fate. Arrestins have no enzymatic activity; they function by organizing multi-protein complexes and localizing their interaction partners to particular cellular compartments. Today we understand the molecular mechanism of arrestin interactions with GPCRs better than the mechanisms underlying other functions. However, even limited knowledge enabled the construction of signaling-biased arrestin mutants and extraction of biologically active monofunctional peptides from these multifunctional proteins. Manipulation of cellular signaling with arrestin-based tools has research and likely therapeutic potential: re-engineered proteins and their parts can produce effects that conventional small-molecule drugs cannot.
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2
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Rigobello MP, Vianello F, Folda A, Roman C, Scutari G, Bindoli A. Differential effect of calcium ions on the cytosolic and mitochondrial thioredoxin reductase. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2006; 343:873-8. [PMID: 16564501 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2006.03.050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2006] [Accepted: 03/09/2006] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The effect of calcium ions has been studied on three different isoforms of thioredoxin reductase. The cytosolic (TrxR1), mitochondrial (TrxR2), and the Escherichia coli enzymes were examined and compared. In our condition, TrxR1 appears extremely sensitive to Ca2+ showing an IC50 of about 160 nM, while Ca2+ exerts only a weak inhibitory effect on the mitochondrial isoform. The thioredoxin reductase purified from E. coli is almost completely insensitive to calcium ions. Circular dichroism analysis of highly purified mitochondrial and cytosolic thioredoxin reductases reveals that Ca2+ induces conformational alterations that are particularly relevant only in the cytosolic isoform. These observations are discussed with reference to the physiological role and, in particular, to the regulatory functions of the thioredoxin system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Pia Rigobello
- Dipartimento di Chimica Biologica, Università di Padova, Viale G. Colombo 3, 35121 Padova, Italy
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3
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Pugh E, Lamb T. Chapter 5 Phototransduction in vertebrate rods and cones: Molecular mechanisms of amplification, recovery and light adaptation. HANDBOOK OF BIOLOGICAL PHYSICS 2000. [DOI: 10.1016/s1383-8121(00)80008-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 112] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
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4
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Peter Hofmann K, Heck M. Light-induced protein-protein interactions on the rod photoreceptor disc membrane. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1996. [DOI: 10.1016/s1874-5342(07)80006-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/29/2023]
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5
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Abstract
Transmembrane signal transductions in a variety of cell types that mediate signals as diverse as those carried by neurotransmitters, hormones, and sensory signals share basic biochemical mechanisms that include: (1) an extracellular perturbation (neurotransmitter, hormone, odor, light); (2) specific receptors; (3) coupling proteins, such as G proteins; and (4) effector enzymes or ion channels. Parallel to these amplification reactions, receptors are precisely inactivated by mechanisms that involve protein kinases and regulatory proteins called arrestins. The structure and functions of arrestins are the focus of this review.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Palczewski
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Washington, Seattle 98195
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6
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Barnes S. After transduction: response shaping and control of transmission by ion channels of the photoreceptor inner segments. Neuroscience 1994; 58:447-59. [PMID: 7513385 DOI: 10.1016/0306-4522(94)90072-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Photoreceptors convert the elements of the visual image into the elements of a neural image. This process involves well-studied molecular events occurring at the outer segment, but also employs important molecular events in the proximal regions of the photoreceptor, including the synaptic terminal, encompassed here as the inner segment. Integral to neural processing at this level in the visual system, the inner segment mechanisms modify the visual signal before transmission to second order cells at the photoreceptor output synapse. This commentary, emphasizing the author's own work, discusses biophysical properties of the ensemble of ion channels in the photoreceptor inner segment that shape the light response and enable its transmission. Examples that illustrate ion channels whose biophysical properties seem well suited for their roles in photoreceptor function include: h channels, cation-selective channels activated by hyperpolarization, which carry current that counteracts the strong hyperpolarizing influence of cGMP-gated channel closure accompanying bright light; Kx channels, carrying potassium current which shares the kinetic properties of the M-current found in many other cell types, which shape responses to dim light and set the dark resting potential; and Ca channels that regulate calcium influx to control Ca-gated channel activity and synaptic output, "re-transducing" the neural signal now into a chemical one. The role of chloride current, carried in Ca-activated Cl channels dependent on the unknown chloride equilibrium potential in photoreceptors, is also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Barnes
- Lions' Sight Centre, University of Calgary, Faculty of Medicine, Alberta, Canada
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7
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Huppertz B, Bauer PJ. Na(+)-Ca2+,K+ exchange in bovine retinal rod outer segments: quantitative characterization of normal and reversed mode. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA 1994; 1189:119-26. [PMID: 8292615 DOI: 10.1016/0005-2736(94)90056-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Ca2+ homeostasis of bovine retinal rod outer segments is maintained through Na(+)-Ca2+,K+ exchangers and cGMP-gated channels in the plasma membrane. It has recently been demonstrated that both proteins are associated. This novel finding allowed us to investigate quantitatively normal and reversed mode Na(+)-Ca2+,K+ exchange in rod outer segment membrane vesicles and reconstituted proteoliposomes both containing exchangers in rightside-out and inside-out orientations. Addition of Na+ activated both normal and reversed mode exchange; if, however, initially Ca2+ from vesicles containing inside-out oriented exchangers has been released by activation of the associated channels, only normal mode exchange was observed upon addition of Na+. Using this approach, the fractions of vesicles containing rightside-out and inside-out oriented exchangers were about similar in these vesicle preparations. Normal and reversed mode exchange had similar Na+ concentrations of about 70 mM for half maximal activation (in the presence of 115 mM K+) and cooperativity parameters, nHill, of about 2.0. Furthermore, both modes were electrogenic, and showed only little Na(+)-Ca2+,K+ exchange in the absence of K+. The two modes of exchange differed, however, in the maximal exchange rate, the normal mode being about twice as fast as the reversed mode.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Huppertz
- Institut für Biologische Informationsverarbeitung, Forschungszentrum Jülich, Germany
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8
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Schaad NC, Parfitt A, Russell JT, Schaffner AE, Korf HW, Klein DC. Single-cell [Ca2+]i analysis and biochemical characterization of pinealocytes immobilized with novel attachment peptide preparation. Brain Res 1993; 614:251-6. [PMID: 8394187 DOI: 10.1016/0006-8993(93)91042-q] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Single-cell image analysis of rat pinealocytes has been difficult because they do not attach readily to coated or uncoated surfaces and typically adhere in clusters to fibroblast-like cells. In the present report, a new method for the rapid attachment of rat pinealocytes is described. Cells were prepared using papain digestion and density centrifugation and then were placed on coverslips or slides coated with PepTite-2000, a preparation containing the attachment peptide sequence Arg-Gly-Asp. Cells immobilized with this preparation responded to norepinephrine treatment with an increase in cyclic AMP and melatonin production. Single-cell analysis of Fura-2-loaded cells revealed that norepinephrine increased [Ca2+]i. This development makes it possible to conduct routine single-cell image analysis and other studies of freshly isolated rat pinealocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- N C Schaad
- Section on Neuroendocrinology, National Institute of Child Health and Human Development National Institutes of Health Bethesda, MD 20892
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9
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Kawamura S. Molecular aspects of photoreceptor adaptation in vertebrate retina. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF NEUROBIOLOGY 1993; 35:43-86. [PMID: 8463064 DOI: 10.1016/s0074-7742(08)60568-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- S Kawamura
- Department of Physiology, Keio University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
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10
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Abstract
Arrestin is supposed to be involved in uncoupling receptor-mediated second messenger cascades. Clones encoding proteins homologous to arrestin have been isolated from antennal cDNA libraries of Locusta migratoria and Heliothis virescens. Based on the size and several characteristic motifs, the two proteins are considered as members of different arrestin subfamilies. One of the subtypes, which has also been found in Drosophila, lacks the regulatory acidic C-terminal. The putative site of interaction with phosphorylated receptors, a cationic region in the primary structure, is conserved in all identified arrestins from locust to human.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Raming
- Institute of Zoophysiology, University of Stuttgart-Hohenheim, F.R.G
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11
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Koch KW. Calcium as modulator of phototransduction in vertebrate photoreceptor cells. Rev Physiol Biochem Pharmacol 1993; 125:149-92. [PMID: 7984873 DOI: 10.1007/bfb0030910] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- K W Koch
- Institut für Biologische Informationsverarbeitung, Forschungszentrum Jülich, Germany
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12
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Affiliation(s)
- P A Hargrave
- Department of Ophthalmology, School of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville 32610
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Gurevich V, Benovic J. Cell-free expression of visual arrestin. Truncation mutagenesis identifies multiple domains involved in rhodopsin interaction. J Biol Chem 1992. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(19)36700-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
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14
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Ghalayini A, Anderson R. Activation of bovine rod outer segment phospholipase C by arrestin. J Biol Chem 1992. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(19)37139-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
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15
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Abstract
Among the many calcium-binding proteins in the nervous system, parvalbumin, calbindin-D28K and calretinin are particularly striking in their abundance and in the specificity of their distribution. They can be found in different subsets of neurons in many brain regions. Although it is not yet known whether they play a 'triggering' role like calmodulin, or merely act as buffers to modulate cytosolic calcium transients, they are valuable markers of neuronal subpopulations for anatomical and developmental studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- K G Baimbridge
- Physiology Dept, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
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Affiliation(s)
- L Lagnado
- Department of Neurobiology, Sherman Fairchild Science Center, Stanford University School of Medicine, California 94305
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Palczewski K, Riazance-Lawrence JH, Johnson WC. Structural properties of arrestin studied by chemical modification and circular dichroism. Biochemistry 1992; 31:3902-6. [PMID: 1567843 DOI: 10.1021/bi00131a003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
A unique conformation of arrestin is crucial for its interaction with phosphorylated photolyzed rhodopsin. Conformational changes in arrestin were investigated using chemical modification and circular dichroism. We studied the kinetics of sulfhydryl modification of bovine arrestin in order to determine whether its conformation is altered by the presence of ligands or salts at different ionic strengths. We found that all three cysteines (stoichiometry was 2.7 +/- 0.06 3-carboxy-4-nitrophenyl sulfide (NbS)/arrestin) are accessible for modification by NbS2. Under pseudo-first-order conditions (30-100-fold excess of NbS2 over arrestin), the modifications of the 3 cysteines are indistinguishable. At higher concentrations of NbS2 (150-300-fold excess), the pseudo-first-order plot is not linear, and the reaction can be resolved into two processes that involve two classes of sulfhydryl groups. Addition of CaCl2, MgCl2, inorganic phosphate, MgATP, or MgGTP had little effect on the rate of modification of the cysteine residues; however, heparin and inositol hexakisphosphate, which have been shown to induce conformational changes in arrestin, block modification of one sulfhydryl group of arrestin and accelerate the modification of the remaining two. Analysis of CD spectra revealed that arrestin has virtually no alpha-helical structure, about 40% beta-structure, about 18% beta-turns, and about 40% other structure. The CD spectrum for arrestin did not change in the presence of heparin. These studies suggest that arrestin exists in equilibrium between two or more conformational states. However, it is proposed that conversion between these conformations occur without altering significantly the secondary structure of arrestin.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Palczewski
- R. S. Dow Neurological Sciences Institute of Good Samaritan Hospital and Medical Center, Portland, Oregon 97209
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18
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Abstract
A flash of light initiates a cascade of biochemical reactions inside vertebrate photoreceptor cells, culminating in hydrolysis of intracellular cyclic GMP and hyperpolarization of the cell. The cell recovers by shutting down this cascade and resynthesizing cGMP. Many of the reactions responsible for the excitation and recovery phases of the photoresponse have been identified. Here I review some characteristics of the proteins that participate in these reactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- J B Hurley
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of Washington, Seattle 98195
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19
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Stiemer RH, Westenfelder U, Gausepohl H, Mirshahi M, Gundt A, Frank RW, Männel DN. A common epitope on human tumor necrosis factor alpha and the autoantigen ‘S-antigen/arrestin’ induces TNF-α production. J Autoimmun 1992; 5:15-26. [PMID: 1373060 DOI: 10.1016/s0896-8411(05)80048-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
A common epitope on S-antigen (arrestin), a potent autoantigen inducing experimental autoimmune uveoretinitis (EAU), and on human tumor necrosis factor alpha (hTNF alpha) was revealed using two monoclonal antibodies to S-antigen which inhibit EAU induction. The minimal common sequence for monoclonal antibody recognition is GVxLxD in the S-antigen/hTNF alpha amino acid sequences. Peptides containing this sequence motif exhibited monocyte activating capacity similar to the autocrine stimulatory capacity of hTNF alpha itself. In the S-antigen this activity was located from residue 40 to 50, corresponding to the peptide PVDGVVLVDPE (epitope S2). In hTNF alpha, the monocyte activating capacity correlated to residue 31 to 53, corresponding to the peptide RRANALLANGVELRDNQLVVPSE (peptide RRAN). The identified regions define common functional structures in the autoantigen and in the hTNF alpha molecule. The data suggest a regulatory function of this particular structure in TNF alpha expression and in autoimmunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- R H Stiemer
- Laboratoire d'Immunopathologie de l'Oeil, INSERM U86, Paris, France
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20
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Organisciak DT, Xie A, Wang HM, Jiang YL, Darrow RM, Donoso LA. Adaptive changes in visual cell transduction protein levels: effect of light. Exp Eye Res 1991; 53:773-9. [PMID: 1783015 DOI: 10.1016/0014-4835(91)90113-s] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Long-term environmental light-mediated changes in visual cell transduction proteins were studied to assess the influence of rearing environment on their levels and their potential effects on intense light-induced retinal damage. The levels of rhodopsin, S-antigen and the alpha subunit of transducin were measured in whole eye detergent extracts, retinal homogenates or rod outer segments isolated from rats reared in weak cyclic light or darkness, and following a change in rearing environment. Rats changed from weak cyclic light to darkness had 22% more rhodopsin per eye than cyclic-light rats after 12-14 days in the new environment. Western trans-blot analysis of retinal proteins from these dark-maintained animals contained 65% higher levels of immunologically detectable alpha transducin; S-antigen levels were approximately 45% lower than in cyclic-light rats. In rats changed from the dark environment to weak cyclic light, rhodopsin levels decreased by 18% during a comparable period; retinal alpha transducin was 35% lower, S-antigen was 30% higher. At various times after the change in rearing environment, some rats were exposed to intense visible light to determine their susceptibility to retinal damage. Two weeks after an 8-hr exposure, cyclic-light reared rats had rhodopsin levels only 10% lower than control (2.1 nmol per eye). However, rhodopsin was 75% lower when cyclic-light rats were maintained in darkness for 2 weeks before intense light. For animals originally reared in darkness, rhodopsin was 78% lower following 8 hr of intense light, whereas only 30% rhodopsin loss occurred in dark-reared rats after previous maintenance for 2 weeks in weak cyclic-light.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)
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Affiliation(s)
- D T Organisciak
- Department of Biochemistry, Wright State University, Dayton, OH 45435
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21
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Abstract
A mathematical model is presented that obeys a strong form of Weber's law--over a range of adapting and stimulus intensities, equal contrast stimuli evoke identical responses. To account for the strong Weber's law, the adaptive stage in the proposed model employs a "delayed" reverse reaction along with a power-law input. It is suggested that this Weber's law mechanism is responsible for a slow, voltage-uncorrelated component of adaptation in the vertebrate photoreceptor. A plausible biochemical mechanism is the G-protein cycle with phosphorylation of photoactivated photopigment (and binding of arrestin to the phosphorylated photopigment) as the adaptive process. In an Appendix, features of the general model and implications of a specific biochemical model are examined by computer simulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- S M Dawis
- Laboratory of Biophysics, Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10021-6399
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22
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Breitman M, Tsuda M, Usukura J, Kikuchi T, Zucconi A, Khoo W, Shinohara T. Expression of S-antigen in retina, pineal gland, lens, and brain is directed by 5'-flanking sequences. J Biol Chem 1991. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(18)98645-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
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Abstract
In the past several years there has been great progress in the understanding of the phototransduction process in retinal photoreceptors. Recently, this knowledge has expanded and we now understand the mechanism of background light adaptation in these cells and the role that calcium has to play.
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Affiliation(s)
- K W Yau
- Department of Neuroscience, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21205
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24
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Williams MA, Mangini NJ. Immunolocalization of arrestin (S-antigen) in rods of pearl mutant and wild-type mice. Curr Eye Res 1991; 10:457-62. [PMID: 1889230 DOI: 10.3109/02713689109001752] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
The pearl mutant mouse is hypopigmented and exhibits a significantly elevated dark-adapted (DA) threshold in comparison to the congenic wild-type mouse. The primary cause of the elevated DA threshold is not known. The subcellular immunolocalization of arrestin/S-antigen reflects the state of adaptation of rod photoreceptors. In this study, quantitative immunoelectron microscopy was used to examine the subcellular distribution of arrestin in wild-type and pearl rods as a function of light exposure. The goal was to determine whether arrestin distribution within rods of pearl and wild-type mice responds to background luminance in a comparable manner. The level of arrestin immunolabeling in DA (unilluminated) rods of pearl retinas was indistinguishable from that measured in wild-type rods. By contrast, arrestin immunolabeling in light-adapted (LA) pearl rod outer segments (ROS) was significantly greater than in wild-type LA ROS. Relative to DA ROS, arrestin labeling density increased 1.6 fold in wild-type ROS following light adaptation, as compared to a 4 fold increase in pearl ROS. These data suggest that although arrestin levels in DA pearl rods are indistinguishable from that of DA wild-type rods, net changes in arrestin immunolocalization in response to light exposure reflect the effects of the pearl mutation at the level of the rod outer segment. The possible implication of this finding is discussed in view of the proposed role of arrestin in the down-regulation of the enzymatic cascade of phototransduction.
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Affiliation(s)
- M A Williams
- Department of Biological Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907
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