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Lv J, Chen YQ, Ding AM, Lei B, Yu J, Gao XM, Dai CB, Sun YH. Control of axillary bud growth in tobacco through toxin gene expression system. Sci Rep 2021; 11:17513. [PMID: 34471163 PMCID: PMC8410782 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-96976-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2021] [Accepted: 08/11/2021] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
The control of axillary bud development after removing the terminal buds (topping) of plants is a research hotspot, and the control of gene expression, like switching on and off, allows us to further study biological traits of interest, such as plant branching and fertility. In this study, a toxin gene control system for plants based on dexamethasone (DEX) induction was constructed, and the positive transgenic tobacco exhibited growth retardation in the application area (axillary bud). The expression level of the lethal Diphtheria toxin A (DTA) gene under different DEX concentrations at different application days was analyzed. The highest expression levels appeared at 5 days after the leaf injection of DEX. The DTA transcripts were induced by 5 µM DEX and peaked in response to 50 µM DEX at 5 days after leaf injection. Here, a chemical induction system, combined with a toxin gene, were used to successfully control the growth of tobacco axillary buds after topping. The DTA expression system under DEX induction was sensitive and efficient, therefore, can be used to control axillary bud growth and development in tobacco.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Lv
- Tobacco Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Qingdao, 266101, China
- Key Laboratory for Tobacco Gene Resources, State Tobacco Monopoly Administration, Qingdao, 266101, China
- Graduate School of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, 100081, China
| | - Ya-Qiong Chen
- Tobacco Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Qingdao, 266101, China
- Key Laboratory for Tobacco Gene Resources, State Tobacco Monopoly Administration, Qingdao, 266101, China
- Kunming Tobacco Monopoly Administration, Kunming, 650000, China
| | - An-Ming Ding
- Tobacco Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Qingdao, 266101, China
- Key Laboratory for Tobacco Gene Resources, State Tobacco Monopoly Administration, Qingdao, 266101, China
| | - Bo Lei
- Molecular Genetics Key Laboratory of China Tobacco, Guizhou Academy of Tobacco Science, Guiyang, 550081, China
| | - Jing Yu
- Molecular Genetics Key Laboratory of China Tobacco, Guizhou Academy of Tobacco Science, Guiyang, 550081, China
| | - Xiao-Ming Gao
- Tobacco Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Qingdao, 266101, China
- Key Laboratory for Tobacco Gene Resources, State Tobacco Monopoly Administration, Qingdao, 266101, China
| | - Chang-Bo Dai
- Tobacco Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Qingdao, 266101, China.
- Key Laboratory for Tobacco Gene Resources, State Tobacco Monopoly Administration, Qingdao, 266101, China.
| | - Yu-He Sun
- Tobacco Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Qingdao, 266101, China.
- Key Laboratory for Tobacco Gene Resources, State Tobacco Monopoly Administration, Qingdao, 266101, China.
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Saylor K, Gillam F, Lohneis T, Zhang C. Designs of Antigen Structure and Composition for Improved Protein-Based Vaccine Efficacy. Front Immunol 2020; 11:283. [PMID: 32153587 PMCID: PMC7050619 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.00283] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2019] [Accepted: 02/04/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Today, vaccinologists have come to understand that the hallmark of any protective immune response is the antigen. However, it is not the whole antigen that dictates the immune response, but rather the various parts comprising the whole that are capable of influencing immunogenicity. Protein-based antigens hold particular importance within this structural approach to understanding immunity because, though different molecules can serve as antigens, only proteins are capable of inducing both cellular and humoral immunity. This fact, coupled with the versatility and customizability of proteins when considering vaccine design applications, makes protein-based vaccines (PBVs) one of today's most promising technologies for artificially inducing immunity. In this review, we follow the development of PBV technologies through time and discuss the antigen-specific receptors that are most critical to any immune response: pattern recognition receptors, B cell receptors, and T cell receptors. Knowledge of these receptors and their ligands has become exceptionally valuable in the field of vaccinology, where today it is possible to make drastic modifications to PBV structure, from primary to quaternary, in order to promote recognition of target epitopes, potentiate vaccine immunogenicity, and prevent antigen-associated complications. Additionally, these modifications have made it possible to control immune responses by modulating stability and targeting PBV to key immune cells. Consequently, careful consideration should be given to protein structure when designing PBVs in the future in order to potentiate PBV efficacy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyle Saylor
- Department of Biological Systems Engineering, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, United States
| | - Frank Gillam
- Department of Biological Systems Engineering, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, United States
- Locus Biosciences, Morrisville, NC, United States
| | - Taylor Lohneis
- Department of Biological Systems Engineering, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, United States
- BioPharmaceutical Technology Department, GlaxoSmithKline, Rockville, MD, United States
| | - Chenming Zhang
- Department of Biological Systems Engineering, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, United States
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Dai LX, Yang J, Liu JM, Huang S, Wang BN, Li H, Yang J, Zhao ZY, Cao K, Li MY. Adenovirus-Mediated CRM197 Sensitizes Human Glioma Cells to Gemcitabine by the Mitochondrial Pathway. Cancer Biother Radiopharm 2018; 34:171-180. [PMID: 30585767 DOI: 10.1089/cbr.2017.2363] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE The cross-reacting material 197 (CRM197) is a mutation of the diphtheria toxin. The protein of CRM197 was used successfully for the therapy of various tumors in the recent studies. In this study, the recombinant adenoviruses containing the CRM197gene(AdCRM197) were used to enhance the cellar toxicity of gemcitabine in human glioma U87, U251, and H4 cells. PROCEDURES MTT assay and flow cytometric analysis were performed to test the apoptosis of the U87, U251 and H4 cells with the combined treatment of AdCRM197 plus gemcitabine. Western blotting analyses were carried out to detect the cell apoptosis of the mitochondrial pathway. And the xenograft nude mice were used to observe the enhanced antitumor effect of AdCRM197 in vivo. RESULTS AdCRM197 sensitizes human glioma cells to gemcitabine in vitro by the mitochondrial pathway. Tumor volume was inhibited and survival time was prolonged in the U251 or U87 xenografted nude mice with gemcitabine plus AdCRM197. The enhanced antitumor effect of AdCRM197 was also detected by the immunohistochemical analyses and TUNEL staining. CONCLUSION The authors found that AdCRM197 sensitized the human glioma to gemcitabine not only in vitro but also in vivo. They provide the first evidence that adenovirus-mediated CRM197 may be a potential chemosensitizing agent for the treatment of cancer. The diphtheria toxin is of great toxicity that even one molecule of diphtheria toxin is enough to kill one cell. However, because of the high toxicity, the diphtheria toxin would kill the packing cells when it is being packaged into the recombinant viruses. Therefore, the diphtheria toxin is hard to be used in the gene therapy for virus vectors. The cross-reacting material 197 (CRM197) is a mutation of the diphtheria toxin. Unlike DTA, CRM197 exhibit a weak toxicity. The week toxicity of CRM197 is a good feature for the virus packaging. In the present study, we used a recombinant adenovirus which carried a CRM197 gene (AdCRM197) to enhance the cellar toxicity of gemcitabine in human glioma cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lv-Xia Dai
- 1 Department of Microbiology, West China School of Basic Medical Sciences and Forensic Medicine, Sichuan University , Chengdu, China .,2 Department of Pathogen Biology, Chengdu Medical College , Chengdu, China
| | - Jing Yang
- 3 Department of Infectious Disease, Renmin Hospital, Hubei University of Medicine , Shiyan, China
| | - Jian-Min Liu
- 4 Department of Neurosurgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou University of Traditional Chinese Medicine , Guangzhou, China
| | - Sizhou Huang
- 2 Department of Pathogen Biology, Chengdu Medical College , Chengdu, China
| | - Bao-Ning Wang
- 1 Department of Microbiology, West China School of Basic Medical Sciences and Forensic Medicine, Sichuan University , Chengdu, China
| | - Hong Li
- 5 West China Second University Hospital, Sichuan University , Chengdu, China
| | - Jie Yang
- 6 Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chengdu Medical College , Chengdu, China
| | - Zhong-Yi Zhao
- 1 Department of Microbiology, West China School of Basic Medical Sciences and Forensic Medicine, Sichuan University , Chengdu, China
| | - Kang Cao
- 2 Department of Pathogen Biology, Chengdu Medical College , Chengdu, China
| | - Ming-Yuan Li
- 1 Department of Microbiology, West China School of Basic Medical Sciences and Forensic Medicine, Sichuan University , Chengdu, China
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Malito E, Bursulaya B, Chen C, Surdo PL, Picchianti M, Balducci E, Biancucci M, Brock A, Berti F, Bottomley MJ, Nissum M, Costantino P, Rappuoli R, Spraggon G. Structural basis for lack of toxicity of the diphtheria toxin mutant CRM197. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2012; 109:5229-34. [PMID: 22431623 PMCID: PMC3325714 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1201964109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
CRM197 is an enzymatically inactive and nontoxic form of diphtheria toxin that contains a single amino acid substitution (G52E). Being naturally nontoxic, CRM197 is an ideal carrier protein for conjugate vaccines against encapsulated bacteria and is currently used to vaccinate children globally against Haemophilus influenzae, pneumococcus, and meningococcus. To understand the molecular basis for lack of toxicity in CRM197, we determined the crystal structures of the full-length nucleotide-free CRM197 and of CRM197 in complex with the NAD hydrolysis product nicotinamide (NCA), both at 2.0-Å resolution. The structures show for the first time that the overall fold of CRM197 and DT are nearly identical and that the striking functional difference between the two proteins can be explained by a flexible active-site loop that covers the NAD binding pocket. We present the molecular basis for the increased flexibility of the active-site loop in CRM197 as unveiled by molecular dynamics simulations. These structural insights, combined with surface plasmon resonance, NAD hydrolysis, and differential scanning fluorimetry data, contribute to a comprehensive characterization of the vaccine carrier protein, CRM197.
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Affiliation(s)
- Enrico Malito
- Genomics Institute of the Novartis Research Foundation, 10675 John Jay Hopkins Drive, San Diego, CA 92121
- Novartis Vaccines and Diagnostics, Via Fiorentina 1, 53100 Siena, Italy
| | - Badry Bursulaya
- Genomics Institute of the Novartis Research Foundation, 10675 John Jay Hopkins Drive, San Diego, CA 92121
| | - Connie Chen
- Genomics Institute of the Novartis Research Foundation, 10675 John Jay Hopkins Drive, San Diego, CA 92121
- Joint Center for Structural Genomics, Genomics Institute of the Novartis Research Foundation, 10675 John Jay Hopkins Drive, San Diego, CA 92121
| | - Paola Lo Surdo
- Novartis Vaccines and Diagnostics, Via Fiorentina 1, 53100 Siena, Italy
| | - Monica Picchianti
- Novartis Vaccines and Diagnostics, Via Fiorentina 1, 53100 Siena, Italy
- Department of Evolutionary Biology, University of Siena, Via Aldo Moro 2, 53100 Siena, Italy
| | - Enrico Balducci
- School of Biosciences and Biotechnologies, University of Camerino, via Gentile III da Varano, 62032 Camerino, Italy; and
| | - Marco Biancucci
- Novartis Vaccines and Diagnostics, Via Fiorentina 1, 53100 Siena, Italy
- Department of Chemistry, University of Siena, Via A. De Gasperi 2, 53100 Siena, Italy
| | - Ansgar Brock
- Genomics Institute of the Novartis Research Foundation, 10675 John Jay Hopkins Drive, San Diego, CA 92121
| | - Francesco Berti
- Novartis Vaccines and Diagnostics, Via Fiorentina 1, 53100 Siena, Italy
| | | | - Mikkel Nissum
- Novartis Vaccines and Diagnostics, Via Fiorentina 1, 53100 Siena, Italy
| | - Paolo Costantino
- Novartis Vaccines and Diagnostics, Via Fiorentina 1, 53100 Siena, Italy
| | - Rino Rappuoli
- Novartis Vaccines and Diagnostics, Via Fiorentina 1, 53100 Siena, Italy
| | - Glen Spraggon
- Genomics Institute of the Novartis Research Foundation, 10675 John Jay Hopkins Drive, San Diego, CA 92121
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Stefan A, Conti M, Rubboli D, Ravagli L, Presta E, Hochkoeppler A. Overexpression and purification of the recombinant diphtheria toxin variant CRM197 in Escherichia coli. J Biotechnol 2011; 156:245-52. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiotec.2011.08.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2011] [Revised: 06/20/2011] [Accepted: 08/15/2011] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
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6
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Chen KC, Kim J, Li X, Lee B. Modeling recombinant immunotoxin efficacies in solid tumors. Ann Biomed Eng 2008; 36:486-512. [PMID: 18183487 DOI: 10.1007/s10439-007-9425-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2007] [Accepted: 12/12/2007] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Effectiveness of cancer therapy is improved by the use of recombinant immunotoxins (RITs) that target membrane proteins unique to malignant tumor cells. Although RIT antitumor activity in vivo can always be improved with larger doses, clinical restriction on the dose toleration makes it critical to explore how RIT antitumor activity can be maximized without resorting to dose elevation. In this work, a mathematical model was developed to explore functional correlations between the properties of several recombinant immunotoxins and their antitumor efficacies in vivo. Simulations were compared with experimental data of human tumor xenografts grown on nude mice to assess parameters critical to optimal antitumor activity. We dissected out or held constant as many parameters of the model as possible to investigate the effect of the remaining parameters on the behavior of the system as a whole. Empirical correlations between immunotoxin binding affinity and the target binding site density were obtained for several recombinant immunotoxins targeting either human A431 carcinoma or CD46 Burkitt's lymphoma. Simulations reinforced the idea of binding site barrier for drug diffusion and suggested that optimal antitumor activity was achieved when the binding affinity is logarithmically dependent on the target binding site density.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin C Chen
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, FAMU-FSU College of Engineering, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, 32310, USA.
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7
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Katayama H, Kusaka Y, Yokota H, Akao T, Kojima M, Nakamura O, Mekada E, Mizuki E. Parasporin-1, a Novel Cytotoxic Protein from Bacillus thuringiensis, Induces Ca2+ Influx and a Sustained Elevation of the Cytoplasmic Ca2+ Concentration in Toxin-sensitive Cells. J Biol Chem 2007; 282:7742-52. [PMID: 17204466 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m611382200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Parasporin-1 is a novel non-insecticidal inclusion protein from Bacillus thuringiensis that is cytotoxic to specific mammalian cells. In this study, we investigated the effects of parasporin-1 on toxin-sensitive cell lines to elucidate the cytotoxic mechanism of parasporin-1. Parasporin-1 is not a membrane pore-forming toxin as evidenced by measurements of lactate dehydrogenase release, propidium iodide penetration, and membrane potential in parasporin-1-treated cells. Parasporin-1 decreased the level of cellular protein and DNA synthesis in parasporin-1-sensitive HeLa cells. The earliest change observed in cells treated with this toxin was a rapid elevation of the intracellular free-Ca(2+) concentration; increases in the intracellular Ca(2+) levels were observed 1-3 min following parasporin-1 treatment. Using four different cell lines, we found that the degree of cellular sensitivity to parasporin-1 was positively correlated with the size of the increase in the intracellular Ca(2+) concentration. The toxin-induced elevation of the intracellular Ca(2+) concentration was markedly decreased in low-Ca(2+) buffer and was not observed in Ca(2+)-free buffer. Accordingly, the cytotoxicity of parasporin-1 decreased in the low-Ca(2+) buffer and was restored by the addition of Ca(2+) to the extracellular medium. Suramin, which inhibits trimeric G-protein signaling, suppressed both the Ca(2+) influx and the cytotoxicity of parasporin-1. In parasporin-1-treated HeLa cells, degradation of pro-caspase-3 and poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase was observed. Furthermore, synthetic caspase inhibitors blocked the cytotoxic activity of parasporin-1. These results indicate that parasporin-1 activates apoptotic signaling in these cells as a result of the increased Ca(2+) level and that the Ca(2+) influx is the first step in the pathway that underlies parasporin-1 toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hideki Katayama
- Biotechnology and Food Research Institute, Fukuoka Industrial Technology Center, Aikawa, Kurume, Fukuoka 839-0861, Japan.
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8
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Lee JW, Cho E, Aghaian E, Aghaian E, Der J, Wisnieski BJ. Characterization of a cloned temperature-sensitive construct of the diphtheria toxin A domain. Biochemistry 2005; 44:2555-65. [PMID: 15709768 DOI: 10.1021/bi048317p] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Our goal was to determine how the DTM mutant construct of the A domain of diphtheria toxin (DTx) causes temperature-sensitive effects in Drosophila and yeast [Bellen, H. J., D'Evelyn, D., Harvey, M., Elledge, S. J. (1992) Development 114, 787-796]. Because DTM fortuitously bears the same point mutation as found in the A chain of CRM197, an ADP-ribosyltransferase (ADPrT)-deficient form of DTx, we hypothesized that the dramatic low-temperature-sensitive effects did not stem from ADP-ribosylation of elongation factor 2 (EF-2). To rule out acquisition of ADPrT activity at low temperatures, we assayed mutant forms of the A domain of DTx produced by in vitro transcription/translation and found that DTM has no ability to ADP-ribosylate EF-2 at 18 or 30 degrees C. Because the DTM gene results in a protein with a 23-amino acid missense carboxy-terminal extension, we also constructed a form without this extension. Assays for nuclease activity revealed that nuclease activity comigrated with the two distinguishable E. coli-cloned mutant proteins DTM and DTM-23, regardless of whether electrophoresis was conducted under denaturing or nondenaturing conditions in gels embedded with DNA. Studies with CRM197 showed that Ca(2+) and Mg(2+) promote single-strand DNA nicks, whereas Mn(2+) promotes double-strand DNA breaks. Evidence that the cation-dependent nuclease and NAD-dependent ADPrT enzymic sites are distinct is that NAD protected only the A domain of DTx from proteolytic cleavage, whereas DNA protected the A domains of both DTx and CRM197. We conclude that the nuclease activity of DTM is responsible for the temperature-sensitive effects associated with its expression in both yeast and Drosophila.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason W Lee
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Molecular Genetics, Molecular Biology Institute, and Jonsson Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095, USA
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9
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Tchorbanov AI, Dimitrov JD, Vassilev TL. Optimization of casein-based semisynthetic medium for growing of toxigenicCorinebacterium diphtheriaein a fermenter. Can J Microbiol 2004; 50:821-6. [PMID: 15644896 DOI: 10.1139/w04-061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Diphtheria toxin is produced by growing Corinebacterium diphtheriae either in a semisynthetic casein-based medium or in the Pope–Lingood meat extract based medium. The World Health Organization advises the use of the semisynthetic one, as it has important advantages. Data on the composition of casein-based media and their ability to support high toxin production are not freely available. Important factors affecting toxin production during C. diphtheriae cultivation are the pH of the culture medium and the concentration of casein hydrolysate and of Fe2+. We established that the optimal pH for toxin production is 7.2. The highest yield of toxin was obtained using a casein hydrolysate concentration of 35.0 g/L and a Fe2+concentration of 0.05–0.41 µg/mL. Under these conditions, diphtheria toxin with higher purity and yield compared with the batches obtained using the meat-based medium of Pope–Lingood was produced.Key words: diphtheria toxin, diphtheria toxoid, cultivation, semisynthetic medium.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrey I Tchorbanov
- Stefan Angelov Institute of Microbiology, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, 1113 Sofia, Bulgaria.
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10
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Collier RJ. Understanding the mode of action of diphtheria toxin: a perspective on progress during the 20th century. Toxicon 2001; 39:1793-803. [PMID: 11595641 DOI: 10.1016/s0041-0101(01)00165-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 228] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Diphtheria toxin is one of the most extensively studied and well understood bacterial toxins. Ever since its discovery in the late 1800's this toxin has occupied a central focus in the field of toxinology. In this review, I present a chronology of major discoveries that led to our current understanding of the structure and activity of diphtheria toxin.
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Affiliation(s)
- R J Collier
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, Harvard Medical School, 200 Longwood Avenue, Boston, MA 02115, USA.
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Kusano I, Kageyama A, Tamura T, Oda T, Muramatsu T. Enhancement of diphtheria toxin-induced apoptosis in Vero cells by combination treatment with brefeldin A and okadaic acid. Cell Struct Funct 2001; 26:279-88. [PMID: 11831360 DOI: 10.1247/csf.26.279] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
In the present study, we compared the abilities of ricin and diphtheria toxin to induce apoptosis in Vero cells. The cytolysis and DNA fragmentation by ricin paralleled its protein synthesis inhibitory activity. However, unlike ricin, diphtheria toxin could induce neither cytolysis nor DNA fragmentation in Vero cells up to very high concentration, in spite of the fact that Vero cells were even more sensitive to protein synthesis inhibition by diphtheria toxin than ricin. Interestingly, coexistence of brefeldin A (BFA) and okadaic acid (OA) significantly enhanced diphtheria toxin-mediated cytolysis and DNA fragmentation without affecting the activity of protein synthesis inhibition. Ammonium chloride almost completely abolished the ability of diphtheria toxin to induce apoptosis in the presence of BFA and OA as well as the protein synthesis inhibitory activity. The mutant CRM 197, which does not catalyze the ADP ribosylation of elongation factor-2 (EF-2), failed to induce apoptosis in Vero cells even in the presence of BFA and OA. Thus, translocation of diphtheria toxin into the cytosol and subsequent enzymatic inactivation of EF-2 may be necessary steps to induce apoptosis. Taken together our results suggest that protein synthesis inhibition by toxins is not sufficient to induce apoptosis, and underlying mechanisms of apoptosis induction may be distinct between ricin and diphtheria toxin. Since a morphological change in the Golgi complex was observed in Vero cells treated with BFA and OA, modulation of the Golgi complex by these reagents may be partly responsible for enhanced apoptosis induction by diphtheria toxin.
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Affiliation(s)
- I Kusano
- Division of Biochemistry, Faculty of Fisheries, Nagasaki University, Japan
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13
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Pushnova EA, Zhu YS. Quantitative restriction fragment length polymorphism: a procedure for quantitation of diphtheria toxin gene CRM197 allele. Anal Biochem 1998; 260:24-9. [PMID: 9648648 DOI: 10.1006/abio.1998.2682] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Here we present an assay for quantitation of a particular gene allele in DNA mixtures by means of restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) in combination with polymerase chain reaction (PCR). We applied the quantitative RFLP principle for estimation of the relative amount of diphtheria toxin gene CRM197 allele in Corynebacterium diphtheriae culture DNA samples. The procedure is based on PCR-mediated generation of an artificial AluI restriction site specifically with the CRM197 DNA template. After AluI digestion of the PCR product and polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis of the restriction fragments, the percentage of CRM197 template in the initial DNA sample was determined by scanning a gel negative. The method was shown to give a linear response when applied to template mixtures containing different amounts of CRM197 reference template. For samples where non-CRM197 DNA was detected by AluI RFLP, we designed a further allele-specific PCR assay to determine whether the non-CRM197 template portion was the wild-type toxin gene allele.
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Affiliation(s)
- E A Pushnova
- Chiron Corporation, Emeryville, California 94608-2916, USA
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14
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Wenning LA, Yazdi PT, Murphy RM. Quantitative analysis of protein synthesis inhibition and recovery in CRM107 immunotoxin-treated HeLa cells. Biotechnol Bioeng 1998; 57:484-96. [PMID: 10099226 DOI: 10.1002/(sici)1097-0290(19980220)57:4<484::aid-bit13>3.0.co;2-c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Previously a mathematical model was proposed that quantitatively related protein synthesis inhibition kinetics of antitransferrin receptor-gelonin immunotoxins to the cellular trafficking of the targeting agent. That work is here extended to describe protein synthesis inhibition kinetics of immunotoxins containing the diphtheria toxin mutant CRM107. CRM107 differs from gelonin in both translocation and ribosomal inactivation mechanisms. Targeting agents used were antitransferrin monoclonal antibodies 5E9 and OKT9, OKT9Fab, and transferrin. CRM107 conjugates inhibited protein synthesis at substantially lower concentrations than gelonin conjugates; this effect was attributed to substantially higher translocation rates for CRM107. However, under certain conditions, CRM107 immunotoxin-treated cells were able to recover completely; this behavior was never observed with gelonin immunotoxins. To quantitatively capture this phenomenon, extracellular and cytosolic degradation of the toxin as well as growth-related recovery from toxin-induced damage were incorporated into the mathematical model. Translocation and cytosolic degradation rate constants were determined for each immunotoxin. Unlike the gelonin conjugates, the translocation rate of CRM107 conjugates depended on the targeting molecule. This provided indirect evidence that CRM107 remains disulfide linked to the targeting agent for at least part of the translocation process. Although the CRM107 conjugates all had higher translocation rates and inhibited protein synthesis at lower concentrations than the gelonin conjugates, the cells' ability to recover from protein synthesis inhibition at low immunotoxin concentrations limits the utility of CRM107 conjugates for targeted cell killing.
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Affiliation(s)
- L A Wenning
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, USA
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Recombinant hybrid toxin with dual enzymatic activities. Potential use in preparing highly effective immunotoxins. J Biol Chem 1994. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(17)41994-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
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Rybak S, Saxena S, Ackerman E, Youle R. Cytotoxic potential of ribonuclease and ribonuclease hybrid proteins. J Biol Chem 1991. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(18)54841-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
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17
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Sung C, Wilson D, Youle R. Comparison of protein synthesis inhibition kinetics and cell killing induced by immunotoxins. J Biol Chem 1991. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(18)98658-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022] Open
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Cabiaux V, Phalipon A, Wattiez R, Falmagne P, Ruysschaert JM, Kaczorek M. Expression of a biologically active diphtheria toxin fragment B in Escherichia coli. Mol Microbiol 1988; 2:339-46. [PMID: 3135463 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2958.1988.tb00037.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
The toxB gene of Corynebacterium diphtheriae bacteriophage beta encoding the B fragment of diphtheria toxin was cloned into an inducible expression vector. When expressed in Escherichia coli, fragment B was not proteolysed and was indistinguishable, by immunological criteria, from wild-type C. diphtheriae-derived fragment B. Soluble fragment B was partially purified from the cytoplasm by saline precipitation steps and was shown to compete with the wild-type diphtheria toxin for binding to receptors of sensitive eukaryotic cells. A complete diphtheria toxin was reconstituted by formation of the disulphide bridge between purified fragment A and recombinant fragment B, which migrates at the expected Mr on Western blots and which was able to block protein synthesis by ADP-ribosylation of elongation factor-2, thereby indicating that the recombinant fragment B had retained its biological activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- V Cabiaux
- Laboratoire de Chimie Physique des Macromolécules aux Interfaces, Université Libre de Bruxelles, Belgium
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19
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Affiliation(s)
- J W Marsh
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology, National Institute of Mental Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892
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Bigio M, Rossi R, Nucci D, Antoni G, Rappuoli R, Ratti G. Conformational changes in diphtheria toxoids. Analysis with monoclonal antibodies. FEBS Lett 1987; 218:271-6. [PMID: 2439381 DOI: 10.1016/0014-5793(87)81060-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Monoclonal antibodies (Mab) were raised against CRM197, a non-toxic mutant of diphtheria toxin (DT). The ability of four Mabs to bind DT and the six functional mutants CRM197, CRM176, CRM228, CRM1001, CRM45 and CRM30 was assessed by immunoblotting and by a radioimmunoassay in which the protein antigen in solution competes with labeled CRM197 for the Mab binding site. The results show that the peptides recognized by Mab11.3, Mab53 and Mab23 are accessible in the mutant molecules in solution but not when they are part of the native DT structure, which could therefore be described for this purpose as 'closed' in contrast with an 'open' conformation of CRM197, CRM176 and CRM228. In particular, the behaviour of Mab53 indicates that the single amino acid substitutions in the A fragments of CRM197 and CRM176 also affect the conformation of their B fragments.
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21
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Lewis MS, Youle RJ. Ricin subunit association. Thermodynamics and the role of the disulfide bond in toxicity. J Biol Chem 1986. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(18)67281-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022] Open
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22
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Lai CY. Bacterial protein toxins with latent ADP-ribosyl transferases activities. ADVANCES IN ENZYMOLOGY AND RELATED AREAS OF MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 1986; 58:99-140. [PMID: 3012972 DOI: 10.1002/9780470123041.ch3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
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23
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Batt C, Follettie M, Shin H, Yeh P, Sinskey A. Genetic engineering of coryneform bacteria. Trends Biotechnol 1985. [DOI: 10.1016/0167-7799(85)90033-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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24
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Mekada E, Uchida T. Binding properties of diphtheria toxin to cells are altered by mutation in the fragment A domain. J Biol Chem 1985. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(17)38999-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
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Rappuoli R, Ratti G, Perugini M, Marsili I. Production of Large Quantities of Diphtheria Toxoid CRM45. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1985. [DOI: 10.1038/nbt0285-161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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27
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A comparative study of ricin and diphtheria toxin-antibody-conjugate kinetics on protein synthesis inactivation. J Biol Chem 1984. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(18)90889-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
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Eidels L, Ross LL, Hart DA. Diphtheria toxin-receptor interaction: a polyphosphate-insensitive diphtheria toxin-binding domain. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1982; 109:493-9. [PMID: 7181930 DOI: 10.1016/0006-291x(82)91748-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
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30
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Youle R, Neville D. Kinetics of protein synthesis inactivation by ricin-anti-Thy 1.1 monoclonal antibody hybrids. Role of the ricin B subunit demonstrated by reconstitution. J Biol Chem 1982. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(19)68077-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 147] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
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31
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Neville DM, Youle RJ. Monoclonal antibody-ricin or ricin A chain hybrids: kinetic analysis of cell killing for tumor therapy. Immunol Rev 1982; 62:75-91. [PMID: 7042541 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-065x.1982.tb00390.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
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32
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Heagy W, Neville DM. Kinetics of protein synthesis inactivation by diphtheria toxin in toxin-resistant L cells. Evidence for a low efficiency receptor-mediated transport system. J Biol Chem 1981. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(18)42964-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
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34
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Proia R, Eidels L, Hart D. Diphtheria toxin:receptor interaction. Characterization of the receptor interaction with the nucleotide-free toxin, the nucleotide-bound toxin, and the B-fragment of the toxin. J Biol Chem 1981. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(19)69356-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
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35
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Spence J, Merrill M, Pitot H. Role of insulin, glucose, and cyclic GMP in the regulation of glucokinase in cultured hepatocytes. J Biol Chem 1981. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(19)69847-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
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36
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Youle R, Neville D. Receptor-mediated transport of the hybrid protein ricin-diphtheria toxin fragment A with subsequent ADP-ribosylation of intracellular elongation factor II. J Biol Chem 1979. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(19)86634-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022] Open
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Oeltmann T, Heath E. A hybrid protein containing the toxic subunit of ricin and the cell-specific subunit of human chorionic gonadotropin. II. Biologic properties. J Biol Chem 1979. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(17)34162-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
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40
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A hybrid protein containing the toxic subunit of ricin and the cell-specific subunit of human chorionic gonadotropin. I. Synthesis and characterization. J Biol Chem 1979. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(17)34161-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
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41
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Neville DM, Chang TM. Receptor-Mediated Protein Transport into Cells. Entry Mechanisms for Toxins, Hormones, Antibodies, Viruses, Lysosomal Hydrolases, Asialoglycoproteins, and Carrier Proteins. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1978. [DOI: 10.1016/s0070-2161(08)60834-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/29/2023]
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42
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Artificial hybrid protein containing a toxic protein fragment and a cell membrane receptor-binding moiety in a disulfide conjugate. II. Biochemical and biologic properties of diphtheria toxin fragment A-S-S-human placental lactogen. J Biol Chem 1977. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(17)40686-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
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43
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Beugnier N, Zanen J. Diphtheria toxin: the effect of nitration and reductive methylation on enzymatic activity and toxicity. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA 1977; 490:225-34. [PMID: 65185 DOI: 10.1016/0005-2795(77)90123-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Diphtheria toxin is rapidly inactivated upon reaction with tetranitromethane. inactivation is partially prevented in the presence of the substrate NAD. The loss of enzymatic activity and of toxicity is concomitant with the modification of one tyrosyl residue per molecule, located in the fragment A. Completely inactivated toxin (more than 5 nitrotyrosines per molecule) is a good toxin antagonist for HeLa cells binding sites indicating that the integrity of its fragment B is preserved. Methylation of lysyl residues leads to a decrease of toxicity and enzymatic activity but only after the modification of about 20 lysines per molecule. This methylated toxin however can still bind NAD and seems to possess a functional fragment B. Enzymatic site of diphtheria toxin fragment A seems thus to contain one essential tyrosyl residue implicated in the binding of NAD and at least one lysine not implicated in this dinucleotide binding.
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44
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45
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Rates of different steps involved in the inhibition of protein synthesis by the toxic lectins abrin and ricin. J Biol Chem 1976. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(17)33345-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022] Open
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46
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Bennett V, Mong L, Cuatrecasas P. Mechanism of activation of adenylate cyclase by Vibrio cholerae enterotoxin. Relations to the mode of activation by hormones. J Membr Biol 1975; 24:107-29. [PMID: 172636 DOI: 10.1007/bf01868618] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The influence of Vibrio cholerae enterotoxin (choleragen) on the response of adenylate cyclase to hormones and GTP, and on the binding of 125I-labeled glucagon to membranes, has been examined primarily in rat adipocytes, but also in guinea pig ileal mucosa and rat liver. Incubation of fat cells with choleragen converts adenylate cyclase to a GTP-responsive state; (-)-isoproterenol has a similar effect when added directly to membranes. Choleragen also increases by two- to fivefold the apparent affinity of (-)-isoproterenol, ACTH, glucagon, and vasoactive intestinal polypeptide for the activation of adenylate cyclase. This effect on vasoactive intestinal polypeptide action is also seen with the enzyme of guinea pig ileal mucosa; the toxin-induced sensitivity to VIP may be relevant in the pathogenesis of cholera diarrhea. The apparent affinity of binding of 125I-labeled glucagon is increased about 1.5- to twofold in choleragen-treated liver and fat cell membranes. The effects of choleragen on the response of adenylate cyclase to hormones are independent of protein synthesis, and they are not simply a consequence to protracted stimulation of the enzyme in vivo or during preparation of the membranes. Activation of cyclase in rat erythrocytes by choleragen is not impaired by agents which disrupt microtubules or microfilaments, and it is still observed in cultured fibroblasts after completely suppressing protein synthesis with diphtheria toxin. Choleragen does not interact directly with hormone receptor sites. Simple occupation of the choleragen binding sites with the analog, choleragenoid, does not lead to any of the biological effects of the toxin.
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