Aroma compound analysis of Piper nigrum and Piper guineense essential oils from Cameroon using solid-phase microextraction-gas chromatography, solid-phase microextraction-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and olfactometry

The role of current synthetic and possible plant and marine phytochemical compounds in the treatment of acne

Acne is a long-standing skin condition characterized by plugged hair follicles due to the accumulation of dead skin cells, sebum, and Propionibacterium acnes (P. acnes) bacteria, causing inflammation, and the formation of pimples or lesions. Acne was recognized in the ancient times by the ancient Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans. Since ancient times, folk medicine from different cultures have comprised herbal and natural products for the treatment of acne. Current acne medications include antibiotics, keratolytics, corticosteroids, in addition to hormonal therapy for women. However, these conventional drugs can cause some serious side effects. And therefore, seeking new safe treatment options from natural sources is essential. Plants can be a potential source of medicinal phytochemicals which can be pharmacologically active as antibacterial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, keratolytic and sebum-reducing. Organic acids, obtained from natural sources, are commonly used as keratolytics in dermatology and cosmetology. Most of the promising phytochemicals in acne treatment belong to terpenes, terpenoids, flavonoids, alkaloids, phenolic compounds, saponins, tannins, and essential oils. These can be extracted from leaves, bark, roots, rhizomes, seeds, and fruits of plants and may be incorporated in different dosage forms to facilitate their penetration through the skin. Additionally, medicinal compounds from marine sources can also contribute to acne treatment. This review will discuss the pathogenesis, types and consequences of acne, side effects of conventional treatment, current possible treatment options from natural sources obtained from research and folk medicine and possible applied dosage forms.

Solid-Phase Microextraction/Gas Chromatography-Time-of-Flight Mass Spectrometry Approach Combined with Network Pharmacology Analysis to Evaluate the Quality of Agarwood from Different Regions against Anxiety Disorder

Agarwood (Aquilaria malaccensis Lam.) is a resinous material from different geographical locations. The current evaluation of agarwood quality is usually based on its physical properties and chemical compounds, yet only a few studies have linked agarwood quality with its anxiolytic effect, as indicated by characteristic compounds. In this study, using solid-phase microextraction/gas chromatography-time-of-flight mass spectrometry (SPME/GC-TOFMS) and multivariate analysis, we found 116 significantly different compounds in agarwood samples from four locations in Southeast Asia with regard to their quality. Brunei and Nha Trang agarwood had abundant sesquiterpenoids, exhibiting notable pharmacological efficacy in relieving anxiety. Malaysian and Irian agarwood had abundant alcohols and aldehydes, qualifying them as high-quality spices. Compound-target-disease network and pathway enrichment analysis were further employed to predict 79 gene targets and 20 pathways associated with the anxiolytic effects based on the 62 sesquiterpenoids. The correlated relationships among the sesquiterpenoids and targets suggest that agarwood treats anxiety via multiple compounds acting on multiple targets. Varying levels of sesquiterpenes across agarwood groups might lead to differences in the anxiolytic effects via signaling pathways, such as neurotransmitter- and hormone-regulated pathways. Our study originally evaluates agarwood quality and its anxiolytic effect by linking the characteristic compounds to potential gene targets and pathways.

Assessment of Contact Toxicity and Repellent Effects of Essential Oils from Piper Plants Piper yunnanense and Piper boehmeriifolium against Three Stored-Product Insects

Storage is a crucial part during grain production for the massive spoilage caused by stored product insects. Essential oils (EOs) of plant origin have been highly recommended to combating insects which are biodegradable and safe mode of action. Hence, to make the fullest use of natural resources, essential oils of different parts from Piper yunnanense (the whole part, PYW; fruits, PYF; leaves, PYL) and Piper boehmeriifolium (leaves, PBL) were extracted by steam distillation method in the present study. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) characterization revealed bicyclogermacrene (PYW), γ-muurolene (PYF), δ-cadinene (PYL) and methyl 4,7,10,13,16,19-docosahexaenoate (PBL) as the principal compound of each essential oil. Sesquiterpene hydrocarbons were also recognized as the richest class accounting for 56.3 %-94.9 % of the total oil. Three storage pests, Tribolium castaneum, Lasioderma serricorne and Liposceis bostrychophila, were exposed to different concentrations of EOs to determine their insecticidal effects. All tested samples performed modest contact toxicity in contrast to a bioactive ingredient pyrethrin, among which the most substantial effects were observed in PYF EOs against T. castaneum (35.84 μg/adult), PBL EOs against L. serricorne (15.76 μg/adult) and PYW EOs against L. bostrychophila (57.70 μg/cm2 ). In terms of repellency tests, essential oils of PYF at 78.63 nL/cm2 demonstrated to have a remarkable repellence against T. castaneum at 2h and 4h post-exposure. The investigations indicate diverse variations in the chemical profiles and insecticidal efficacies of P. yunnanense and P. boehmeriifolium EOs, providing more experimental evidence for the use of the Piper plants.

Pesticide residue analysis in different spice samples by automatic µSPE clean-up workflow determination using LC-MS/MS

Spices such as paprika, curry, turmeric, dry chilli, and black pepper are grown in various geographic locations and widely used by consumers across the world. Pesticides applied during crop production practices could contaminate the produce, affecting the quality and posing a health risk for consumers. The complexity of the spice matrix and the wide range of target pesticides potentially present require special sample extraction and clean-up treatments to overcome matrix interference and ion suppression. In this study, sample extracts from spice matrices (paprika/curry/turmeric/dry chilli/black pepper) were cleaned up by an automated µSPE clean-up method for multi-residue analysis of pesticides using LC-MS/MS. The automated µSPE clean-up method involves pre-filled cartridges containing various sorbent materials suitable for numerous co-extractives and the automated clean-up process was carried out using an autosampler. The regulatory limit for pesticides in spices varies with type, with a low MRL of 0.05 mg kg-1 or higher for 99% of the analytes. At spiking concentrations of 0.05 and 0.1 mg kg-1, good recoveries between 70 and 120% with RSD values below 20% were achieved for more than 98% of the compounds. With automatic clean-up of samples that takes 5 min/sample, 20% increased output per day shows an important advantage achieved compared to manual clean-up.

Chemical Variability of Essential Oils from Corsican Hops and Highlighting Their Influence on Hops' Aroma

Essential oils from wild Corsican hops have never been described before. Following selective harvesting and extraction of plant material, chemical analysis was performed by GC-FID and GC-MS. Subsequent quantitative analysis demonstrated significant inter-stations variability due to pedoclimatic conditions. These singularities produce organoleptic differences, especially within Italian hops, which are the current benchmark for the Mediterranean hops' population. Corsican wild hops are no exception. Accordingly, three olfactive bouquets were identified by a panel of selected and trained sensory analysts: woody herbaceous ginger notes, herbaceous citrus notes, and common notes. These bouquets appeared to be correlated to pedoclimatic parameters mentioned earlier such as altitude and proximity to the sea. A very rare and appreciated bouquet was associated with high levels of zingiberene in hops growing at moderate altitude and relatively far from the coastline. This study shows the importance of growing sites and pedoclimatic conditions to produce hops with the desired organoleptic notes during the beer making process and provides detailed identification of essential oils from Corsican wild hops.

Exploiting the bioactive properties of essential oils and their potential applications in food industry

Fruits are an abundant source of minerals and nutrients. High nutritional value and easy-to-consume property have increased its demand. In a way to fulfil this need, farmers have increased production, thus making it available for consumers in various regions. This distribution of fruits to various regions deals with many associated problems like deterioration and spoilage. In a way, the common practices that are being used are stored at low temperatures, preservation with chemicals, and many more. Recently, edible coating has emerged as a promising preservation technique to combat the above-mentioned problems. Edible coating stands for coating fruits with bioactive compounds which maintains the nutritional characteristics of fruit and also enhances the shelf life. The property of edible coating to control moisture loss, solute movement, gas exchange, and oxidation makes it most suitable to use. Preservation is uplifted by maintaining the nutritional and physicochemical properties of fruits with the effectiveness of essential oils. The essential oil contains antioxidant, antimicrobial, flavor, and probiotic properties. The utilization of essential oil in the edible coating has increased the property of coating. This review includes the process of extraction, potential benefits and applications of essential oils in food industry.

Occurrence of Alkenylbenzenes in Plants: Flavours and Possibly Toxic Plant Metabolites

Alkenylbenzenes are naturally occurring secondary plant metabolites. While some of them are proven genotoxic carcinogens, other derivatives need further evaluation to clarify their toxicological properties. Furthermore, data on the occurrence of various alkenylbenzenes in plants, and especially in food products, are still limited. In this review, we tempt to give an overview of the occurrence of potentially toxic alkenylbenzenes in essential oils and extracts from plants used for flavoring purposes of foods. A focus is layed on widely known genotoxic alkenylbenzenes, such as safrole, methyleugenol, and estragole. However, essential oils and extracts that contain other alkenylbenzenes and are also often used for flavoring purposes are considered. This review may re-raise awareness of the need for quantitative occurrence data for alkenylbenzenes in certain plants but especially in final plant food supplements, processed foods, and flavored beverages as the basis for a more reliable exposure assessment of alkenylbenzenes in the future.

Volatile Metabolites of Piper eriopodon (Miq.) C.DC. from Northern Region of Colombia and Assessment of In Vitro Bioactivities of the Leaf Essential Oil

Piper eriopodon is one of the Piper species found in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, and the species has been reported with different compositions of their essential oils (EO). In this study, the volatile fractions/essential oil (by HS-SPME/SDE/MWHD-GC–MS/1H-NMR) of different parts from the plant were characterized, and assessments of the in vitro bio-properties of the leaf EO were conducted. The results indicated the following: (i) in the volatile fractions were β-caryophyllene (~23%)/myrcene (~20%) (inflorescences) and β-caryophyllene (~43%)/β-selinene (~20%) (leaves) using HS-SPME; myrcene (~31%)/β-pinene (~23%) (inflorescences), gibbilimbol B (~60%) (fruits) and gibbilimbol B (~46%)/β-caryophyllene (~11%) (leaves) through SDE; (ii) leaf EO contained gibbilimbol B (~72%), confirmed with 1H-NMR; (iii) the cytotoxic values (µg/mL) in erythrocytes/lymphocytes/Hep-2 were HC50: 115 ± 3 (eryth.), LC50: 71 ± 4 (lymph.) and LC50: 33 ± 2 (cell-line); (iv) the antibacterial susceptibilities (ϕ inh. zone, mm; 4–16 µg EO) were 22.5 ± 0.4–97 ± 4 (Staphylococcus aureus), 23 ± 2–77 ± 4 (Escherichia coli) and 17 ± 1–48 ± 3 (Listeria monocytogenes); (v) the TAA value was 2249 ± 130 mmol Trolox®/kg; (vi) the IC50 value was 13±1 µg/mL (AChE) with 20 ± 0–37 ± 6% repellency (2–4 h, Sitophilus zeamais). Thus, the EO of P. eriopodon leaves from northern Colombia could be a promising species for sustainable exploitation in the future due to its outstanding bioactivities.

A Narrative Review on the Bioactivity and Health Benefits of Alpha-Phellandrene

Aromatic essential oils play a significant role in pharmaceuticals, food additives, cosmetics, and perfumery. Essential oils mostly comprise aliphatic hydrocarbons, monoterpenoids, sesquiterpenoids and diterpenes. Plant extracts comprise a complex mixture of terpenes, terpenoids, aliphatic and phenol-derived aromatic components. Terpenes are a significant class of hydrocarbons with numerous health benefits. These biological functions of essential oil components are examined in vitro and in vivo studies. Some studies evaluated the properties and functions of α-phellandrene (α-PHE). Detailed evaluation to determine the functions of α-PHE over a spectrum of health care domains needs to be initiated. Its possible mechanism of action in a biological system could reveal the future opportunities and challenges in using α-PHE as a pharmaceutical candidate. The biological functions of α-PHE are reported, including anti-microbial, insecticidal, anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, wound healing, analgesic, and neuronal responses. The present narrative review summarizes the synthesis, biotransformation, atmospheric emission, properties, and biological activities of α-PHE. The literature review suggests that extended pre-clinical studies are necessary to develop α-PHE-based adjuvant therapeutic approaches.

Changes in the genomes and methylomes of three Salmonella enterica serovars after long-term storage in ground black pepper

Low moisture foods (LMFs) have traditionally been recognized as safe for consumption, as most bacteria require higher water content to grow. However, outbreaks due to LMF foods are increasing, and the microbial pathogen Salmonella enterica is frequently implicated. S. enterica can survive in LMFs for years, but few serovars have been studied, and the mechanisms which underlie this longevity are not well understood. Here, we determine that S. enterica serovars S. Tennessee, S. Anatum, and S. Reading but not S. Oranienburg can survive in the ground black pepper for 6 years. S. Reading was not previously associated with any LMF. Using both Illumina and Pacific Biosciences sequencing technologies, we also document changes in the genomes and methylomes of the surviving serovars over this 6-year period. The three serovars acquired a small number of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) including seven substitutions (four synonymous, two non-synonymous, and one substitution in a non-coding region), and two insertion-deletions. Nine distinct N6-methyladenine (m6A) methylated motifs across the three serovars were identified including five which were previously known, G^m6ATC, CAG^m6AG, BATGC^m6AT, CRT^m6AYN⁶CTC, and CC^m6AN⁷TGAG, and four novel serovar-specific motifs, GRT^m6AN⁸TTYG, GA^m6ACN⁷GTA, GAA m^6ACY, and CAA^m6ANCC. Interestingly, the BATGCAT motif was incompletely methylated (35–64% sites across the genome methylated), suggesting a possible role in gene regulation. Furthermore, the number of methylated BATGC^m6AT motifs increased after storage in ground black pepper for 6 years from 475 to 657 (S. Tennessee), 366 to 608 (S. Anatum), and 525 to 570 (S. Reading), thus warranting further study as an adaptive mechanism. This is the first long-term assessment of genomic changes in S. enterica in a low moisture environment, and the first study to examine the methylome of any bacteria over a period of years, to our knowledge. These data contribute to our understanding of S. enterica survival in LMFs, and coupled with further studies, will provide the information necessary to design effective interventions which reduce S. enterica in LMFs and maintain a healthy, safe food supply.

Effects of Cabya (Piper retrofractum Vahl.) Fruit Developmental Stage on VOCs

The differences in VOCs can affect the flavor and medicinal value of cabya, and the flavor changes that occur in stages as the fruit develops are currently unknown. In order to investigate the influence of the developmental stage on the aroma composition of cabya essential oil, VOCs at each of the four developmental stages were analyzed by steam distillation (SD) extraction combined with GC-MS detection. The similarities and differences in fruit composition among the developmental stages were evaluated using hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA) and principal component analysis (PCA). A total of 60 VOCs, mainly alcohols, alkenes and alkanes, were identified across all of the developmental stages. The most acidic substances were detected in phase A and have a high medicinal value. There was no significant difference between the B and C phases, and the alcohols in those phases mainly promoted terpenoid synthesis in the D phase. Constituents during the D phase were mainly alkenes, at 57.14%, which contributed significantly to the aroma of the essential oil. PCA and HCA both were able to effectively differentiate the cabya fruit developmental stages based on the SD-GC-MS data. In summary, this study investigated the flavor variation characteristics and the diversity of VOCs in cabya fruits at different developmental stages, and its findings can provide a reference for developing essential oil products for different uses and determining appropriate stages for harvesting cabya resources.

Pulsatile Controlled Release and Stability Evaluation of Polymeric Particles Containing Piper nigrum Essential Oil and Preservatives

Considerable efforts have been spent on environmentally friendly particles for the encapsulation of essential oils. Polymeric particles were developed to encapsulate the essential oil from Piper nigrum based on gelatin and poly-ε-caprolactone (PCL) carriers. Gas Chromatography ((Flame Ionization Detection (GC/FID) and Mass Spectrometry (GC/MS)), Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM), Nanoparticle Tracking Analysis (NTA), Confocal Laser Scanning Microscopy (CLSM), Attenuated Total Reflectance-Fourier-transform Infrared Spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR), and Ultraviolet-Visible (UV-VIS) spectroscopy were used for the full colloidal system characterization. The essential oil was mainly composed of β-caryophyllene (~35%). The stability of the encapsulated systems was evaluated by Encapsulation Efficiency (EE%), electrical conductivity, turbidity, pH, and organoleptic properties (color and odor) after adding different preservatives. The mixture of phenoxyethanol/isotialzoni-3-one (PNE system) resulted in enhanced stability of approximately 120 and 210 days under constant handling and shelf-life tests, respectively. The developed polymeric system presented a similar controlled release in acidic, neutral, or basic pH, and the release curves suggested a pulsatile release mechanism due to a complexation of essential oil in the PCL matrix. Our results showed that the developed system has potential as an alternative stable product and as a controlling agent, due to the pronounced bioactivity of the encapsulated essential oil.

Myristicin and Elemicin: Potentially Toxic Alkenylbenzenes in Food

Alkenylbenzenes represent a group of naturally occurring substances that are synthesized as secondary metabolites in various plants, including nutmeg and basil. Many of the alkenylbenzene-containing plants are common spice plants and preparations thereof are used for flavoring purposes. However, many alkenylbenzenes are known toxicants. For example, safrole and methyleugenol were classified as genotoxic carcinogens based on extensive toxicological evidence. In contrast, reliable toxicological data, in particular regarding genotoxicity, carcinogenicity, and reproductive toxicity is missing for several other structurally closely related alkenylbenzenes, such as myristicin and elemicin. Moreover, existing data on the occurrence of these substances in various foods suffer from several limitations. Together, the existing data gaps regarding exposure and toxicity cause difficulty in evaluating health risks for humans. This review gives an overview on available occurrence data of myristicin, elemicin, and other selected alkenylbenzenes in certain foods. Moreover, the current knowledge on the toxicity of myristicin and elemicin in comparison to their structurally related and well-characterized derivatives safrole and methyleugenol, especially with respect to their genotoxic and carcinogenic potential, is discussed. Finally, this article focuses on existing data gaps regarding exposure and toxicity currently impeding the evaluation of adverse health effects potentially caused by myristicin and elemicin.

Antibacterial Activity of Black Pepper Essential Oil Nanoemulsion Formulated by Emulsion Phase Inversion Method

Black pepper essential oil has been proved to inhibit the growth of microorganisms in many recent studies. However, free essential oils are often lipophilic and difficult to use in food products. The nanoemulsion has some advantages such as good dispersion, long-term stability, and transparency. In our study, the Emulsion Phase Inversion method was utilized to formulate black pepper essential oil nanoemulsion. After 6 months, the nanoemulsion retained the droplet size about 18 nm and there was a rise in polydispersity index from 0.087 to 0.608. Besides, concentrations of important components (α-pinene, β-pinene, D-limonene, 3-carene, and β-caryophyllene) in the BPEO phase of nanoemulsion were similar to pure essential oil. This study was also showed that Escherichia coli and Salmonella enterica were sensitive to black pepper essential oil nanoemulsion than free essential oil. Minimal Inhibitory Concentrations of nanoemulsion for E. coli and S. enterica (137 and 273 µg/mL, respectively) were higher than those of free essential oil (547 µg/mL). In addition, nanoemulsion inhibited these bacterial growth on pork samples. When utilizing nanoemulsion as a meat preservative, meat samples, which contained nanoemulsions, observed significantly lower aerobic microbial counts than control samples.

Antinociceptive and chondroprotective effects of prolonged β-caryophyllene treatment in the animal model of osteoarthritis: Focus on tolerance development

Osteoarthritis (OA) is a chronic joint disease in which cartilage degeneration leads to chronic pain. The endocannabinoid system has attracted attention as an emerging drug target for OA. However, the therapeutic potential of cannabinoids is limited by psychoactive side-effects related to CB1 activation and tolerance development for analgesic effects. β-Caryophyllene (BCP) is a low-efficacy natural agonist of CB2 and a common constituent of human diet with well-established anti-inflammatory properties. The results presented herein show the anti-nociceptive and chondroprotective potential of BCP in an animal model of OA induced by intra-articular injection of monoiodoacetate (MIA). Behavioural assessment included pressure application measurement and kinetic weight bearing tests. Histological assessment of cartilage degeneration was quantified using OARSI scoring. Experiments established the dose-response effects of BCP and pharmacological mechanisms of the antinociceptive action dependent on CB2 and opioid receptors. Chronic BCP treatment was able to hamper cartilage degeneration without producing tolerance for the analgesic effects. The data presented herein show that BCP is able to produce both acute and prolonged antinociceptive and chondroprotective effects. Together with the safety profile and legal status of BCP, these results indicate a novel and promising disease-modifying strategy for treating OA.

Authenticating wild Piper species (peppers) originating from islands in the Indian Ocean on the basis of morphological, genetic and chemical characteristics

As demand for pepper is rising to unprecedented levels, gaps in our knowledge are underlined by our inability to reliably distinguish the different species, in particular in the south-western Indian Ocean; this hampers the possibility of developing their economic potential and protect them efficiently. The aim of this study was to characterise two species of Piper (piperaceae) from Madagascar and one from Réunion Island via a multidisciplinary approach combining botany, genetics and chemistry and to propose authentication keys. Morphometric analyses were carried out on 22 quantitative and qualitative descriptors of the leaf and infructescence. Genetic analyses were conducted through DNA extraction, amplification by PCR and sequencing. Chemical analyses used spectrophotometric and chromatographic methods to determine concentrations in piperine and essential oil and describe the chemotypes of the sampled individuals. Our tri-disciplinary approach showed that the three peppers studied are very different from Piper nigrum L. Réunionese Piper borbonense and M3 Malagasy pepper clearly differ from the M1 Malagasy morphotype. Piper borbonense and M3 pepper appear to be closely related; a distinction could possibly be made at the variety (var.) or form (fa.) level on the basis of morphometry and according to piperine content for chemistry.

Rapid geographical indication of peppercorn seeds using corona discharge mass spectrometry

With increasing demands for more rapid and practical analyses, various techniques of ambient ionization mass spectrometry have gained significant interest due to the speed of analysis and abundance of information provided. Herein, an ambient ionization technique that utilizes corona discharge was applied, for the first time, to analyze and categorize whole seeds of black and white peppers from different origins. This setup requires no solvent application nor gas flow, thus resulting in a very simple and rapid analysis that can be applied directly to the sample without any prior workup or preparation. Combined with robust data pre-processing and subsequent chemometric analyses, this analytical method was capable of indicating the geographical origin of each pepper source with up to 98% accuracies in all sub-studies. The simplicity and speed of this approach open up the exciting opportunity for onsite analysis without the need for a highly trained operator. Furthermore, this methodology can be applied to a variety of spices and herbs, whose geographical indication or similar intellectual properties are economically important, hence it is capable of creating tremendous impact in the food and agricultural industries.

Chemical composition, antioxidant activities and antibacterial activities of essential oil from Erythrina caffra Thunb. growing in South Africa

INTRODUCTION

Essential oils from plants are recognized as one of the most promising secondary metabolites for the development of cheap and safer drugs. While Erythrina caffra has been prominently used in folk medicine for the treatment of microbial infections, there is dearth of information on the pharmacological effectiveness and chemical composition of its essential oil. The study, therefore, aimed at identifying the chemical composition and biological activities of the essential oil of Erythrina caffra.

METHODS

In this study, the essential oil was extracted with all-glass Clevenger. The antioxidant activities of the essential oil and antibacterial susceptibility assay by agar well diffusion techniques were assessed while GC-MS analysis was performed to identify the chemical constituents of the essential oil.

RESULTS

The study showed that the radical scavenging activity of the essential oil increases as the concentration of the essential oil increases. All bacterial isolates were susceptible to essential oil with the exception of Salmonella typhimurium and Pseudomonas aeruginosa producing inhibition zones ranging between 22 ± 1.3 and 35 ± 2.1 mm in the susceptible isolates. The GC-MS chromatogram indicated there are 35 bioactive compounds in the essential oil and Caryophyllene oxide (53.54%), [1S-(1α,7α,8aβ)]-1,2,3,5,6,7,8,8a-octa-1 - hydro-1,8a-dimethyl-7-(1-methylethenyl)-Naphthalene (7.81%), Kauran-18-al (6.49%), 10,10-Dimethyl-2,6-dimethylenebicy clo[7.2.0]undecan-5.beta.-ol (5.83%), 10s,11s-Himachala-3(12),4-diene (4.51%), Caryophyllene (3.65%) and 1- Hexanol (3.31%) were the most prominent compounds.

CONCLUSION

Excessive production of free radicals or reactive oxygen species (ROS) causes oxidative stress and disease. Oxidative stress resulting from imbalance between excessive generation of free radicals and inadequate antioxidant defense system has been linked to pathogenesis of many diseases. The essential oil of E. caffra stem bark extract possess antimicrobial and good antioxidant activities and its rich level of phytochemicals can be used as either dietary or complementary agents.

Medical food development by dietetic management of the endocannabinoid system through dietary sources of β-caryophyllene

Objective: To research the biological impact on the endocannabinoid system (ECS) from dietary sources of [Formula: see text]-caryophyllene (BCP). This will encompass pre-clinical and clinical research for BCP. The bioavailability of BCP will be explored, focusing on bioavailability improvement. This research will establish if there is justification to warrant the development of a medical food for supporting the ECS through dietetic supplementation of BCP.

Methods: Research and review papers were identified through the search engines Google Scholar, PubMed, and ScienceDirect. Main keywords included [Formula: see text]-caryophyllene, endocannabinoid system, dietary cannabinoids, cannabinoid type-2 receptor, and bioavailability.

Results: The human body is limited in the digestion of BCP from food. This is because BCP is poorly absorbed in the gut. Everyone has different underlying endocannabinoid efficiency and most people do not have the full potential of supporting their ECS through diet.

Conclusion: A medical food can be developed to use BCP with a delivery system, so that the bioactive food cannabinoid is readily absorbed. This will deliver dietary support to the ECS, that otherwise would be available from food.

This review provides insight into the efficacy of using BCP in medical foods as dietary support for the ECS. Supporting the ECS can assist in maintaining homeostasis, regulating immune function, pain intensity, inflammatory markers, sleep patterns, mood, appetite, and stress susceptibility.

In silico assisted identification of peppery aroma compound 'rotundone' backbone genes from black pepper

Rotundone, an oxygenated sesquiterpene compound, responsible for the peppery aroma. The importance of the rotundone in the flavor industry warrants search for the precursor genes in plants. We report in this study, the first on the identification of rotundone backbone genes viz., α-guaiene synthase & α-guaiene oxidase in black pepper. We identified the precursor genes of rotundone using berry transcriptome profiling. The metabolite profiling using head space mass spectrometry showed the presence of the direct precursor compounds for rotundone biosynthesis in black pepper berries. The identification of the genes & compounds of the guaiene skeleton is expected to help in bioprospecting of black pepper varieties & also in recombinant production of the aroma compound.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma[Formula: see text]Identification of rotundone backbone genes & precursor compounds from Piper nigrum.

Secondary Metabolic Profile as a Tool for Distinction and Characterization of Cultivars of Black Pepper (Piper nigrum L.) Cultivated in Pará State, Brazil

This study evaluated the chemical compositions of the leaves and fruits of eight black pepper cultivars cultivated in Pará State (Amazon, Brazil). Hydrodistillation and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry were employed to extract and analyze the volatile compounds, respectively. Sesquiterpene hydrocarbons were predominant (58.5-90.9%) in the cultivars "Cingapura", "Equador", "Guajarina", "Iaçará", and "Kottanadan", and "Bragantina", "Clonada", and "Uthirankota" displayed oxygenated sesquiterpenoids (50.6-75.0%). The multivariate statistical analysis applied using volatile composition grouped the samples into four groups: γ-Elemene, curzerene, and δ-elemene ("Equador"/"Guajarina", I); δ-elemene ("Iaçará"/"Kottanadan"/"Cingapura", II); elemol ("Clonada"/"Uthirankota", III) and α-muurolol, bicyclogermacrene, and cubebol ("Bragantina", IV). The major compounds in all fruit samples were monoterpene hydrocarbons such as α-pinene, β-pinene, and limonene. Among the cultivar leaves, phenolics content (44.75-140.53 mg GAE·g^-1 FW), the enzymatic activity of phenylalanine-ammonia lyase (20.19-57.22 µU·mL^-1), and carotenoids (0.21-2.31 µg·mL^-1) displayed significant variations. Due to black pepper's susceptibility to Fusarium infection, a molecular docking analysis was carried out on Fusarium protein targets using each cultivar's volatile components. F. oxysporum endoglucanase was identified as the preferential protein target of the compounds. These results can be used to identify chemical markers related to the susceptibility degree of black pepper cultivars to plant diseases prevalent in Pará State.

Discovery of Natural Product-Based Fungicides (II): Semisynthesis and Biological Activity of Sarisan Attached 3-Phenylisoxazolines as Antifungal Agents

Many phytopathogenic fungi cause severe damage to crop yields. In continuation of our research aimed at the discovery and development of natural products-based fungicides, a series of thirty-one sarisan attached 3-phenylisoxazolines were synthesized and evaluated for their antifungal activities against five phytopathogenic fungi (B. cinerea, C. lagenarium, A. solani, F. solani, and F. graminearum). Among all title sarisan derivatives, compounds IV2, IV14 and IV23 showed potent antifungal activity against some phytopathogenic fungi. In particular, compound IV2 exhibited a broad-spectrum and more potent antifungal activity against A. solani, F. solani, and F. graminearum than the commercial fungicide Hymexazol. In addition, compounds IV2, IV14 and IV23 also displayed relative low toxicity on normal NRK-52E cells. This work will give some insights into the development of sarisan derivatives as new fungicide candidates in plant protection.

Chemical analysis and classification of black pepper (Piper nigrum L.) based on their country of origin using mass spectrometric methods and chemometrics

The current study applied gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS), and thermal desorption direct analysis in real-time mass spectrometry (TD-DART-MS) methods to the analysis of black pepper (Piper nigrum L.) samples from different countries. The black pepper powder samples were analyzed directly by TD-DART-MS without any extraction, but for GC-MS and LC-MS methods, a methanol extraction procedure was employed before the analysis. Various compounds, such as piperamides and terpenes, were detected. Partial least squares-discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) was used to classify black pepper samples based on their origins. Total ion mass spectrum (TMS) data profiles from GC-MS, LC-MS, and TD-DART-MS methods were constructed and evaluated for the performance of classification. A cubic-root data transformation was tested in the data preprocessing and found to be effective for improving the classification rates. The average classification rates of PLS-DA models with GC-MS-cubic-root-TMS, LC-MS-cubic-root-TMS, and DART-MS-cubic-root-TMS data representations were 94.1 ± 0.6%, 87.7 ± 0.6%, and 97.0 ± 0.3% respectively, for 100-time bootstrapped-Latin-partition cross-validation. This study presents for the first time the analysis of plant-based food materials by using TD-DART-MS, and it has been demonstrated as a simple and high-throughput method for classification studies.

Evaluating Quality Parameters, the Metabolic Profile, and Other Typical Features of Selected Commercial Extra Virgin Olive Oils from Brazil

The production of extra virgin olive oil (EVOO) in Brazil developed quite recently, and information on commercial Brazilian EVOO's typical features is very scarce. In just one of the previously published works on Brazilian olive oil, the assessed samples were commercially available. In this study, a comprehensive characterization of EVOO samples acquired at local stores (at Rio de Janeiro and Rio Grande do Sul, from the two most prevalent cultivars, Arbequina and Koroneiki) was carried out considering the most relevant quality parameters, antioxidant capacity, oxidative stability, total phenolic content, fatty acid composition, and minor component metabolic profiling. The latter included: (1) the determination of individual phenolic compounds (belonging to four diverse chemical classes) and triterpenic acids by means of a powerful multi-class reversed-phase LC-MS method; (2) the quantitative profiling of tocopherols, phytosterols, and pigments by normal-phase LC-DAD/fluorescence; and (3) the quantitative appraisal of the volatile pattern of the oils by solid-phase microextraction (SPME)-gas chromatography (GC)-MS. By applying these methods, the concentrations of approximately 70 minor compounds were determined in commercial EVOOs from Brazil. To the best of our knowledge, the content of a very large number of phenolic compounds of those determined in the current report (mainly secoiridoids), the three triterpenic acids (maslinic, betulinic, and oleanolic acids), and the individual chlorophyll derivatives had not been previously evaluated in Brazilian EVOOs. The present work provides a broad picture of the compositional profile and other parameters of relevance of selected commercial Brazilian EVOOs available on local markets, describing their typicity and most particular features, some of which are known to have potential impacts on consumers' health.

Electrophysiological Responses of the Beech Leaf-Mining Weevil, Orchestes fagi, to Seasonally-Variant Volatile Organic Compounds Emitted by American Beech, Fagus grandifolia

The beech leaf-mining weevil, Orchestes fagi, is a common pest of European beech, Fagus sylvatica, and has recently become established in Nova Scotia, Canada where it similarly infests American beech, F. grandifolia. We collected volatile organic compounds (VOCs) emitted by F. grandifolia leaves at five developmental stages over one growing season and simultaneously analyzed them for volatile emissions and O. fagi antennal response using gas chromatography-electroantennographic detection (GC-EAD). Volatile profiles changed significantly throughout the growing season, shifting from primarily β-caryophyllene, methyl jasmonate, and simple monoterpene emissions to dominance of the bicyclic monoterpene sabinene during maturity. Two VOCs dominant during bud burst, (R)-(+)-limonene and geranyl-p-cymene, may be of biological relevance due to the highly specific oviposition period of O. fagi at this stage though antennal responses were inconclusive. Senescence showed a decrease in blend complexity with an increase in (Z)-3-hexenyl acetate and (Z)-3-hexen-1-ol as well as a resurgence of α-terpinene and geranyl-p-cymene. We present a novel electroantennal preparation for O. fagi. Antennae of both male and female O. fagi responded to the majority of detectable peaks for host volatiles presented via GC-EAD. Females displayed greater overall sensitivities and less specificity to host volatiles and it is hypothesized that this translates to more generalist olfaction than males. It is clear that olfactory cues are important physiologically though their implications on behaviour are still unknown. The results presented in this study provide a baseline and tools on which to connect the complex and highly time-specific phenology of both F. grandifolia and the destructive pest O. fagi through which olfactory-based lures can be investigated for monitoring systems.

Plant Natural Sources of the Endocannabinoid (E)-β-Caryophyllene: A Systematic Quantitative Analysis of Published Literature

(E)-β-caryophyllene (BCP) is a natural sesquiterpene hydrocarbon present in hundreds of plant species. BCP possesses several important pharmacological activities, ranging from pain treatment to neurological and metabolic disorders. These are mainly due to its ability to interact with the cannabinoid receptor 2 (CB2) and the complete lack of interaction with the brain CB1. A systematic analysis of plant species with essential oils containing a BCP percentage > 10% provided almost 300 entries with species belonging to 51 families. The essential oils were found to be extracted from 13 plant parts and samples originated from 56 countries worldwide. Statistical analyses included the evaluation of variability in BCP% and yield% as well as the statistical linkage between families, plant parts and countries of origin by cluster analysis. Identified species were also grouped according to their presence in the Belfrit list. The survey evidences the importance of essential oil yield evaluation in support of the chemical analysis. The results provide a comprehensive picture of the species with the highest BCP and yield percentages.

Biosynthetic pathways and metabolic engineering of spice flavors

Historically, spices have played an important economic role, due to their large applications and unique flavor. The supply and cost of spice materials and their corresponding natural products are often affected by environmental, geopolitical and climatic conditions. Secondary metabolite composition, including certain flavor compounds in spice plants, is recognized and considered closely related to plant classification. Both genes and enzymes involved in the biosynthesis of spice flavors are constantly identified, which provides insight into metabolic engineering of flavor compounds (i.e. aroma and pungent compounds) from spice plants. In this review, a systematic meta-analysis was carried out based on a comprehensive literature survey of the flavor profiles of 36 spice plants from nine families. We also reviewed typical biosynthetic pathways and metabolic engineering of most representative aroma and pungent compounds that may assist in the future study of spice plants as biosynthetic factories facing a new challenge in creating spice products.

Analysis of Chemical Composition and Assessment of Antioxidant, Cytotoxic and Synergistic Antibacterial Activities of Essential Oils from Different Plant Parts of Piper boehmeriifolium

The essential oils (EOs) from leaves, stems, and whole plant of Piper boehmeriifolium were analyzed using GC/FID and GC/MS. The main constituents of P. boehmeriifolium EOs were β-caryophyllene, caryophyllene oxide, β-elemene, spathulenol, germacrene D, β-selinene, and neointermedeol. The antioxidant potential of the EOs were determined using DPPH^• , ABTS^•+ and FRAP assays. In ABTS^•+ assay, the leaf oil exhibited a remarkable activity with an IC₅₀ value of 7.36 μg/mL almost similar to BHT (4.06 μg/mL). Furthermore, the antibacterial activity of the oils as well as their synergistic potential with conventional antibiotics were evaluated using microdilution and Checkerboard assays. The results revealed that the oils from different parts of P. boehmeriifolium inhibited the growth of all tested bacteria and the minimum inhibitory concentrations were determined to be 0.078 - 1.250 mg/mL. In combination with chloramphenicol or streptomycin, the oils showed significant synergistic antibacterial effects in most cases. Besides, the results of MTT assay indicated that the oil of the whole plant exhibited significant cytotoxic activities on human hepatocellular carcinoma cells (HepG2) and human breast cancer cells (MCF-7). In summary, the P. boehmeriifolium oils could be regarded as a prospective source for pharmacologically active compounds.

Natural Product-Based Fungicides Discovery: Design, Synthesis and Antifungal Activities of Some Sarisan Analogs Containing 1,3,4-Oxadiazole Moieties

A series of sarisan analogs containing 1,3,4-oxadiazole moieties were synthesized by iodine-mediated oxidative cyclization and screened in vitro for their antifungal activities at 50 μg/mL against five phytopathogenic fungi such as Valsa mali, Curvularia lunata, Alternaria alternate, Fusarium solani and Fusarium graminearum. 1,3,4-Oxadiazole derivatives 7e, 7p, 7r, 7t and 7u exhibited potent and a broad spectrum of antifungal activities against at least three phytopathogenic fungi at the concentration of 50 μg/mL. Especially, compound 7r displayed more potent antifungal activities against five phytopathogenic fungi than the positive control hymexazol. The EC₅₀ of 7r against V. mali, C. lunata and A. alternate were 12.6, 14.5 and 17.0 μg/mL, respectively. Additionally, some interesting results of structure-activity relationships (SARs) were also observed.

Antioxidant activity and quality attributes of white chocolate incorporated with Cinnamomum burmannii Blume essential oil

White chocolate is often considered as an unhealthy product with low phenolic content and antioxidant activity since it does not contain cocoa liquor. In this study, investigation on the phytochemical composition of cinnamon essential oil as well as its potential use to improve the antioxidant activity of white chocolate were carried out. The effect of the essential oil incorporation on the quality attributes of white chocolate was also examined. The results show that cinnamon essential oil was rich in cinnamaldehyde and exhibited antioxidant activity. The incorporation of cinnamon essential oil at a level of 0.1% (w/w) increased the antioxidant activity of the white chocolate more than twofold without significant effect on its hardness, melting properties and colour. However, a slight alteration on the flow behaviour of the white chocolate was observed. This study clearly shows that natural cinnamon essential oil could be an alternative to synthetic additives in foods to improve their antioxidant activity.

Recent advances in the synthesis of gem-dimethylcyclobutane natural products

Covering: January 2000 to July 2018 gem-Dimethylcyclobutanes are a common motif found in a multitude of natural products, and thus these structures have captivated synthetic chemists for years. However, until the turn of the century, most synthetic efforts relied upon the use of widely available terpenes, such as pinene or caryophyllene, that already contain the gem-dimethylcyclobutane motif. This approach limits the scope of molecules that can be accessed readily. This review highlights recent syntheses in which the gem-dimethylcyclobutane is assembled via de novo approaches. An outlook on the future of this research area is also provided.

Analysis of Volatile Constituents in Platostoma palustre (Blume) Using Headspace Solid-Phase Microextraction and Simultaneous Distillation-Extraction

Hsian-tsao (Platostoma palustre Blume) is a traditional Taiwanese food. It is admired by many consumers, especially in summer, because of its aroma and taste. This study reports the analysis of the volatile components present in eight varieties of Hsian-tsao using headspace solid-phase microextraction (HS-SPME) and simultaneous distillation-extraction (SDE) coupled with gas chromatography (GC) and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC/MS). HS-SPME is a non-heating method, and the results show relatively true values of the samples during flavor isolation. However, it is a kind of headspace analysis that has the disadvantage of a lower detection ability to relatively higher molecular weight compounds; also, the data are not quantitative, but instead are used for comparison. The SDE method uses distillation 2 h for flavor isolation; therefore, it quantitatively identifies more volatile compounds in the samples while the samples withstand heating. Both methods were used in this study to investigate information about the samples. The results showed that Nongshi No. 1 had the highest total quantity of volatile components using HS-SPME, whereas SDE indicated that Taoyuan Mesona 1301 (TYM1301) had the highest volatile concentration. Using the two extraction methods, 120 volatile components were identified. Fifty-six volatile components were identified using HS-SPME, and the main volatile compounds were α-pinene, β-pinene, and limonene. A total of 108 volatile components were identified using SDE, and the main volatile compounds were α-bisabolol, β-caryophyllene, and caryophyllene oxide. Compared with SDE, HS-SPME sampling extracted a significantly higher amount of monoterpenes and had a poorer detection of less volatile compounds, such as sesquiterpenes, terpene alcohols, and terpene oxide.

Efficacy of a Combination of N-Palmitoylethanolamide, Beta-Caryophyllene, Carnosic Acid, and Myrrh Extract on Chronic Neuropathic Pain: A Preclinical Study

Neuropathic pain (NP) is a common public health problem that poses a major challenge to basic scientists and health-care providers. NP is a complex problem with an unclear etiology and an often-inadequate response to current medications. Despite the high number of drugs available, their limited pharmacological efficacy and side effects hamper their chronic use. Thus, the search for novel treatments is a priority. In addition to pharmaceuticals, natural extracts and food supplements are often used to help treating patients with NP. One such supplement is Noxiall^®, a commercially available combination of N-Palmitoylethanolamide (PEA), beta-caryophyllene; carnosic acid and myrrh. Here, we compare the efficacy of Noxiall^® to that of the medications gabapentin and pregabalin in the NP model of chronic constriction injury (CCI) using sciatic nerve ligation in mouse. Following CCI, mice developed a significant increase in mechanical allodynia and thermal hyperalgesia. Results showed that administration of either Noxiall^®, pregabalin, or gabapentin significantly attenuated mechanical allodynia. The magnitude of the Noxiall^® effect was comparable to that of gabapentin or pregabalin. In addition, co-administration of non-effective doses of pregabalin and Noxiall^® resulted in a significant decrease in NP, suggesting an additive efficacy. Noxiall^® was efficacious also in reducing CCI-induced thermal hyperalgesia. These findings support the rationale of using natural remedies in conjunction with classical pharmacological agents to treat chronic NP.

Piper Species: A Comprehensive Review on Their Phytochemistry, Biological Activities and Applications

Piper species are aromatic plants used as spices in the kitchen, but their secondary metabolites have also shown biological effects on human health. These plants are rich in essential oils, which can be found in their fruits, seeds, leaves, branches, roots and stems. Some Piper species have simple chemical profiles, while others, such as Piper nigrum, Piper betle, and Piper auritum, contain very diverse suites of secondary metabolites. In traditional medicine, Piper species have been used worldwide to treat several diseases such as urological problems, skin, liver and stomach ailments, for wound healing, and as antipyretic and anti-inflammatory agents. In addition, Piper species could be used as natural antioxidants and antimicrobial agents in food preservation. The phytochemicals and essential oils of Piper species have shown strong antioxidant activity, in comparison with synthetic antioxidants, and demonstrated antibacterial and antifungal activities against human pathogens. Moreover, Piper species possess therapeutic and preventive potential against several chronic disorders. Among the functional properties of Piper plants/extracts/active components the antiproliferative, anti-inflammatory, and neuropharmacological activities of the extracts and extract-derived bioactive constituents are thought to be key effects for the protection against chronic conditions, based on preclinical in vitro and in vivo studies, besides clinical studies. Habitats and cultivation of Piper species are also covered in this review. In this current work, available literature of chemical constituents of the essential oils Piper plants, their use in traditional medicine, their applications as a food preservative, their antiparasitic activities and other important biological activities are reviewed.

A review on conventional and biotechnological approaches in white pepper production

White pepper is the dried seeds obtained from pepper berries (Piper nigrum L.) after the removal of the pericarp. It has been widely used as seasoning and condiments in food preparation. Globally, white pepper fetches a higher price compared to black pepper due to its lighter colour, preferable milder flavour and pungency. Increasing global demand of the spice outpaced the supply as the conventional production method used is laborious, lengthy and also not very hygienic. The most common conventional method is water retting but can also include pit soil, chemical, boiling, steaming and mechanical methods. The introduction of a biotechnological approach has gained a lot of interest, as it is a more rapid, convenient and hygienic method of producing white pepper. This technique involves the application of microorganisms and/or enzymes. This review highlights both conventional and latest biotechnological processes of white pepper production. © 2018 Society of Chemical Industry.

Transcriptome analysis of the curry tree (Bergera koenigii L., Rutaceae) during leaf development

The curry tree (Bergera koenigii L.) is a widely cultivated plant used in South Asian cooking. Next-generation sequencing was used to generate the transcriptome of the curry leaf to detect changes in gene expression during leaf development, such as those genes involved in the production of oils which lend the leaf its characteristic taste, aroma, and medicinal properties. Using abundance estimation (RSEM) and differential expression analysis, genes that were significantly differentially expressed were identified. The transcriptome was annotated with BLASTx using the non-redundant (nr) protein database, and Gene Ontology (GO) terms were assigned based on the top BLAST hit using Blast2GO. Lastly, functional enrichment of the assigned GO terms was analyzed for genes that were significantly differentially expressed. Of the most enriched GO categories, pathways involved in cell wall, membrane, and lignin synthesis were found to be most upregulated in immature leaf tissue, possibly due to the growth and expansion of the leaf tissue. Terpene synthases, which synthesize monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes, which comprise much of the curry essential oil, were found to be significantly upregulated in mature leaf tissue, suggesting that oil production increases later in leaf development. Enzymes involved in pigment production were also significantly upregulated in mature leaves. The findings were based on computational estimates of gene expression from RNA-seq data, and further study is warranted to validate these results using targeted techniques, such as quantitative PCR.

α-Phellandrene enhances the immune response and resistance against Vibrio alginolyticus in white shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei)

Innate immunity and resistance against Vibrio alginolyticus in white shrimp, Litopenaeus vannamei, that received α-phellandrene were examined. The results indicated that the percent survival of shrimp receiving 4, 8, and 12 μg g^-1 α-phellandrene was significantly higher than that of control shrimp after 72 h (p < 0.05). In a separate experiment, the phenoloxidase (PO), respiratory bursts, superoxide dismutase (SOD), and phagocytic and lysozyme activity of L. vannamei receiving 8 and 12 μg g^-1 α-phellandrene were significantly higher than those of the other groups upon challenge with V. alginolyticus at 24-60, 36-60, 12-60, 12-72 and 48-72 h, respectively. However, no significant differences in the total haemocyte counts (THC) of L. vannamei receiving any dose of α-phellandrene and of control shrimp were observed at 12-72 h. The expression (mRNA transcripts) of the immune genes prophenoloxidase (proPO), LPS- and β-1,3-glucan-binding protein (LGBP) and peroxinectin (PE) of shrimp receiving α-phellandrene at 8 and 12 μg g^-1 significantly increased after challenge with V. alginolyticus for 72 h (p < 0.05). We conclude that the immune ability and resistance against V. alginolyticus infection increased in L. vannamei receiving >4 μg g^-1 α-phellandrene. These results indicated that α-phellandrene plays an important role in the innate immunity of white shrimp.

HS-SPME analysis of the volatiles profile of water celery (Apium nodiflorum), a wild vegetable with increasing culinary interest

Water celery (Apium nodiflorum) is a wild plant traditionally harvested in some Mediterranean areas for being consumed raw. Despite its appreciated organoleptic properties, the aromatic profile of the fresh vegetable remains to be studied. In the present study, volatile compounds from five wild populations were extracted by the headspace-solid phase microextraction technique, analysed by gas cromatography-mass spectrometry, and compared to related crops. The wild species had a high number of aromatic compounds. It was rich in monoterpenes (49.2%), sesquiterpenes (39.4%) and phenylpropanoids (9.6%), with quantitative differences among populations, in absolute terms and relative abundance. On average, germacrene D was the main compound (16.6%), followed by allo-ocimene (11.9%) and limonene (11.1%). Only in one population, the levels of limonene were greater than those of germacrene D. Among phenylpropanoids, dillapiol displayed the highest levels, and co-occurred with myristicin in all populations except one. These differences may have a genetic component, which would indicate the possibility of establishing selection programmes for the development of water celery as a crop adapted to different market preferences. On the other hand, comparison with related crops revealed some similarities among individual volatiles present in the different crops, which would be responsible of the common aroma notes. However, water celery displayed a unique profile, which was in addition quantitatively richer than others. Thus, this differentiation may promote the use of water celery as a new crop.