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Szukiewicz D. Current Insights in Prolactin Signaling and Ovulatory Function. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:1976. [PMID: 38396659 PMCID: PMC10889014 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25041976] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2024] [Revised: 01/31/2024] [Accepted: 02/03/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Prolactin (PRL) is a pleiotropic hormone released from lactotrophic cells of the anterior pituitary gland that also originates from extrapituitary sources and plays an important role in regulating lactation in mammals, as well as other actions. Acting in an endocrine and paracrine/autocrine manner, PRL regulates the hypothalamic-pituitary-ovarian axis, thus influencing the maturation of ovarian follicles and ovulation. This review provides a detailed discussion of the current knowledge on the role of PRL in the context of ovulation and ovulatory disorders, particularly with regard to hyperprolactinemia, which is one of the most common causes of infertility in women. Much attention has been given to the PRL structure and the PRL receptor (PRLR), as well as the diverse functions of PRLR signaling under normal and pathological conditions. The hormonal regulation of the menstrual cycle in connection with folliculogenesis and ovulation, as well as the current classifications of ovulation disorders, are also described. Finally, the state of knowledge regarding the importance of TIDA (tuberoinfundibular dopamine), KNDγ (kisspeptin/neurokinin B/dynorphin), and GnRH (gonadotropin-releasing hormone) neurons in PRL- and kisspeptin (KP)-dependent regulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis in women is reviewed. Based on this review, a rationale for influencing PRL signaling pathways in therapeutic activities accompanying ovulation disorders is presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dariusz Szukiewicz
- Department of Biophysics, Physiology & Pathophysiology, Faculty of Health Sciences, Medical University of Warsaw, 02-004 Warsaw, Poland
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2
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Robles JP, Zamora M, Garcia-Rodrigo JF, Perez AL, Bertsch T, Martinez de la Escalera G, Triebel J, Clapp C. Vasoinhibin's Apoptotic, Inflammatory, and Fibrinolytic Actions Are in a Motif Different From Its Antiangiogenic HGR Motif. Endocrinology 2023; 165:bqad185. [PMID: 38057149 DOI: 10.1210/endocr/bqad185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2023] [Revised: 11/28/2023] [Accepted: 12/01/2023] [Indexed: 12/08/2023]
Abstract
Vasoinhibin, a proteolytic fragment of the hormone prolactin, inhibits blood vessel growth (angiogenesis) and permeability, stimulates the apoptosis and inflammation of endothelial cells, and promotes fibrinolysis. The antiangiogenic and antivasopermeability properties of vasoinhibin were recently traced to the HGR motif located in residues 46 to 48 (H46-G47-R48), allowing the development of potent, orally active, HGR-containing vasoinhibin analogues for therapeutic use against angiogenesis-dependent diseases. However, whether the HGR motif is also responsible for the apoptotic, inflammatory, and fibrinolytic properties of vasoinhibin has not been addressed. Here, we report that HGR-containing analogues are devoid of these properties. Instead, the incubation of human umbilical vein endothelial cells with oligopeptides containing the sequence HNLSSEM, corresponding to residues 30 to 36 of vasoinhibin, induced apoptosis, nuclear translocation of NF-κB, expression of genes encoding leukocyte adhesion molecules (VCAM1 and ICAM1) and proinflammatory cytokines (IL1B, IL6, and TNF), and adhesion of peripheral blood leukocytes. Also, intravenous or intra-articular injection of HNLSSEM-containing oligopeptides induced the expression of Vcam1, Icam1, Il1b, Il6, and Tnf in the lung, liver, kidney, eye, and joints of mice and, like vasoinhibin, these oligopeptides promoted the lysis of plasma fibrin clots by binding to plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1). Moreover, the inhibition of PAI-1, urokinase plasminogen activator receptor, or NF-κB prevented the apoptotic and inflammatory actions. In conclusion, the functional properties of vasoinhibin are segregated into 2 different structural determinants. Because apoptotic, inflammatory, and fibrinolytic actions may be undesirable for antiangiogenic therapy, HGR-containing vasoinhibin analogues stand as selective and safe agents for targeting pathological angiogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan Pablo Robles
- Instituto de Neurobiología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), Querétaro 76230, México
- VIAN Therapeutics, Inc., San Francisco, CA 94107, USA
| | - Magdalena Zamora
- Instituto de Neurobiología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), Querétaro 76230, México
| | - Jose F Garcia-Rodrigo
- Instituto de Neurobiología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), Querétaro 76230, México
| | - Alma Lorena Perez
- Instituto de Neurobiología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), Querétaro 76230, México
| | - Thomas Bertsch
- Laboratory Medicine and Transfusion Medicine, Institute for Clinical Chemistry, Nuremberg General Hospital & Paracelsus Medical University, Nuremberg 90419, Germany
| | | | - Jakob Triebel
- Laboratory Medicine and Transfusion Medicine, Institute for Clinical Chemistry, Nuremberg General Hospital & Paracelsus Medical University, Nuremberg 90419, Germany
| | - Carmen Clapp
- Instituto de Neurobiología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), Querétaro 76230, México
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3
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Zhang L, Cai C, Liu X, Zhang X, An Z, Zhou E, Li J, Li Z, Li W, Sun G, Li G, Kang X, Han R, Jiang R. Multi-Stage Transcriptome Analysis Revealed the Growth Mechanism of Feathers and Hair Follicles during Induction Molting by Fasting in the Late Stage of Egg Laying. BIOLOGY 2023; 12:1345. [PMID: 37887055 PMCID: PMC10603888 DOI: 10.3390/biology12101345] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2023] [Revised: 09/21/2023] [Accepted: 10/13/2023] [Indexed: 10/28/2023]
Abstract
Induced molting is a common method to obtain a new life in laying hens, in which periodic changes in feathers are the prominent feature. Nevertheless, its precise molecular mechanism remains unclear. In this study, feather and hair follicle samples were collected during fasting-induced physiological remodeling for hematoxylin-eosin staining, hormone changes and follicle traits, and transcriptome sequencing. Feather shedding was observed in F13 to R25, while newborns were observed in R3 to R32. Triiodothyronine and tetraiodothyronine were significantly elevated during feather shedding. The calcium content was significantly higher, and the ash content was significantly lower after the changeover. The determination of hair follicle traits revealed an increasing trend in pore density and a decrease in pore diameter after the resumption of feeding. According to RNA-seq results, several core genes were identified, including DSP, CDH1, PKP1, and PPCKB, which may have an impact on hair follicle growth. The focus was to discover that starvation may trigger changes in thyroid hormones, which in turn regulate feather molting through thyroid hormone synthesis, calcium signaling, and thyroid hormone signaling pathways. These data provide a valuable resource for the analysis of the molecular mechanisms underlying the cyclical growth of hair follicles in the skin during induced molting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lujie Zhang
- The Shennong Laboratory, Zhengzhou 450002, China; (L.Z.); (C.C.); (X.L.); (W.L.); (G.S.); (G.L.); (X.K.)
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450046, China; (X.Z.); (Z.A.); (E.Z.); (J.L.); (Z.L.)
| | - Chunxia Cai
- The Shennong Laboratory, Zhengzhou 450002, China; (L.Z.); (C.C.); (X.L.); (W.L.); (G.S.); (G.L.); (X.K.)
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450046, China; (X.Z.); (Z.A.); (E.Z.); (J.L.); (Z.L.)
| | - Xinxin Liu
- The Shennong Laboratory, Zhengzhou 450002, China; (L.Z.); (C.C.); (X.L.); (W.L.); (G.S.); (G.L.); (X.K.)
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450046, China; (X.Z.); (Z.A.); (E.Z.); (J.L.); (Z.L.)
| | - Xiaoran Zhang
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450046, China; (X.Z.); (Z.A.); (E.Z.); (J.L.); (Z.L.)
| | - Zhiyuan An
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450046, China; (X.Z.); (Z.A.); (E.Z.); (J.L.); (Z.L.)
| | - Enyou Zhou
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450046, China; (X.Z.); (Z.A.); (E.Z.); (J.L.); (Z.L.)
| | - Jianzeng Li
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450046, China; (X.Z.); (Z.A.); (E.Z.); (J.L.); (Z.L.)
| | - Zhuanjian Li
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450046, China; (X.Z.); (Z.A.); (E.Z.); (J.L.); (Z.L.)
| | - Wenting Li
- The Shennong Laboratory, Zhengzhou 450002, China; (L.Z.); (C.C.); (X.L.); (W.L.); (G.S.); (G.L.); (X.K.)
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450046, China; (X.Z.); (Z.A.); (E.Z.); (J.L.); (Z.L.)
| | - Guirong Sun
- The Shennong Laboratory, Zhengzhou 450002, China; (L.Z.); (C.C.); (X.L.); (W.L.); (G.S.); (G.L.); (X.K.)
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450046, China; (X.Z.); (Z.A.); (E.Z.); (J.L.); (Z.L.)
| | - Guoxi Li
- The Shennong Laboratory, Zhengzhou 450002, China; (L.Z.); (C.C.); (X.L.); (W.L.); (G.S.); (G.L.); (X.K.)
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450046, China; (X.Z.); (Z.A.); (E.Z.); (J.L.); (Z.L.)
| | - Xiangtao Kang
- The Shennong Laboratory, Zhengzhou 450002, China; (L.Z.); (C.C.); (X.L.); (W.L.); (G.S.); (G.L.); (X.K.)
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450046, China; (X.Z.); (Z.A.); (E.Z.); (J.L.); (Z.L.)
| | - Ruili Han
- The Shennong Laboratory, Zhengzhou 450002, China; (L.Z.); (C.C.); (X.L.); (W.L.); (G.S.); (G.L.); (X.K.)
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450046, China; (X.Z.); (Z.A.); (E.Z.); (J.L.); (Z.L.)
| | - Ruirui Jiang
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450046, China; (X.Z.); (Z.A.); (E.Z.); (J.L.); (Z.L.)
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Al-Karagholi MAM, Kalatharan V, Ghanizada H, Gram C, Dussor G, Ashina M. Prolactin in headache and migraine: A systematic review of clinical studies. Cephalalgia 2023; 43:3331024221136286. [PMID: 36718026 DOI: 10.1177/03331024221136286] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To systemically review clinical studies investigating the role of prolactin and its receptors in headache and migraine. BACKGROUND Migraine prevalence is more common in women compared to men. As prolactin is a crucial regulator of the hypothalamus-pituitary-gonadal axis, prolactin and its receptors might contribute to signaling mechanisms underlying migraine. METHODS In this systematic review, we searched PubMed and EMBASE with the terms: prolactin, hyperprolactinemia, macroprolactinemia, hypoprolactinemia, migraine, headache, head pain and trigeminal pain pathway for clinical studies investigating prolactin signaling in headache and migraine. Two reviewers independently screened 841 articles for population, intervention, comparison, outcome, and study design. Studies were restricted to the English language and were excluded if they had a nonexperimental methodology. RESULTS Nineteen clinical studies met the inclusion criteria and were included in the qualitative and quantitative analysis. The main findings were that serum prolactin levels were found to be higher in individuals with migraine compared to healthy controls, and prolactinomas (prolactin-secreting pituitary adenomas) were correlated with higher incidence of headache in otherwise healthy individuals and migraine attacks in individuals with migraine. CONCLUSION Considerable evidence suggests a key role of prolactin and its receptors in migraine pathophysiology. Further randomized and placebo-controlled clinical studies targeting prolactin signaling are needed to further clarify influences of prolactin in migraine attack initiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammad Al-Mahdi Al-Karagholi
- Danish Headache Center, Department of Neurology, Rigshospitalet- Glostrup, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Glostrup, Denmark
| | - Veberka Kalatharan
- Danish Headache Center, Department of Neurology, Rigshospitalet- Glostrup, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Glostrup, Denmark
| | - Hashmat Ghanizada
- Danish Headache Center, Department of Neurology, Rigshospitalet- Glostrup, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Glostrup, Denmark
| | - Christian Gram
- Danish Headache Center, Department of Neurology, Rigshospitalet- Glostrup, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Glostrup, Denmark
| | - Gregory Dussor
- School of Behavioral and Brain Sciences, Center for Advanced Pain Studies, The University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, USA
| | - Messoud Ashina
- Danish Headache Center, Department of Neurology, Rigshospitalet- Glostrup, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Glostrup, Denmark.,Danish Headache Knowledge Center on Headache Disorders, Rigshospitalet - Glostrup, Glostrup, Denmark
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5
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Chatterjee D, Jacob RS, Ray S, Navalkar A, Singh N, Sengupta S, Gadhe L, Kadu P, Datta D, Paul A, Arunima S, Mehra S, Pindi C, Kumar S, Singru P, Senapati S, Maji SK. Co-aggregation and secondary nucleation in the life cycle of human prolactin/galanin functional amyloids. eLife 2022; 11:73835. [PMID: 35257659 PMCID: PMC8993219 DOI: 10.7554/elife.73835] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2021] [Accepted: 03/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Synergistic-aggregation and cross-seeding by two different proteins/peptides in the amyloid aggregation are well evident in various neurological disorders including Alzheimer’s disease. Here, we show co-storage of human Prolactin (PRL), which is associated with lactation in mammals, and neuropeptide galanin (GAL) as functional amyloids in secretory granules (SGs) of the female rat. Using a wide variety of biophysical studies, we show that irrespective of the difference in sequence and structure, both hormones facilitate their synergic aggregation to amyloid fibrils. Although each hormone possesses homotypic seeding ability, a unidirectional cross-seeding of GAL aggregation by PRL seeds and the inability of cross seeding by mixed fibrils suggest tight regulation of functional amyloid formation by these hormones for their efficient storage in SGs. Further, the faster release of functional hormones from mixed fibrils compared to the corresponding individual amyloid, suggests a novel mechanism of heterologous amyloid formation in functional amyloids of SGs in the pituitary. The formation of plaques of proteins called ‘amyloids’ in the brain is one of the hallmark characteristics of both Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s disease, but amyloids can form in many tissues and organs, often disrupting normal activity. A lot of the research into amyloids has focused on their role in disease, but it turns out that amyloids can also appear in healthy tissues. For example, some protein hormones form amyloids that act as storage depots, helping cells to release the hormone when it is needed. Normally, amyloids are made mostly of a single type of protein or protein fragment associated with a particular disease like Alzheimer's. Often, this type of amyloid promotes plaque formation in other proteins, which aggravates other diseases (for example, the amyloids that form in Alzheimer’s can lead to Parkinson’s disease or type II diabetes getting worse).The plaques start growing from small amyloid fragments called seeds. In mixed amyloids – amyloids made of two types of proteins – seeds made of one protein can trigger the formation of amyloids of the other protein. This raises the question, is this true for hormones? The body often releases more than one hormone at a time from the same tissue; for example, the pituitary gland releases prolactin and galanin simultaneously. However, these hormones have completely different structures, so whether they can form a mixed amyloid is unclear. To answer this question, Chatterjee et al. first determined that, within the pituitary gland of female rats, prolactin and galanin could be found together in the same cells, forming mixed amyloids. To understand out how this happens, Chatterjee et al. tried seeding new amyloids using either prolactin or galanin. This revealed that only prolactin seeds were able to trigger the formation of galanin amyloids. Chatterjee et al. also found that the mixed amyloids could release the hormones faster than amyloids made from either protein alone. Together, these results suggest that the collaboration between these two proteins may help maintain hormone balance in the body. Problems with hormone storage and release lead to various human diseases, including prolactinoma. Understanding amyloid storage depots could reveal new ways to control hormone levels. Further research could also help to explain more about well-studied diseases linked to amyloids, like Alzheimer's.
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Affiliation(s)
- Debdeep Chatterjee
- Department of Biosciences and Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai, India
| | - Reeba S Jacob
- Department of Biosciences and Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai, India
| | - Soumik Ray
- Department of Biosciences and Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai, India
| | - Ambuja Navalkar
- Department of Biosciences and Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai, India
| | - Namrata Singh
- Department of Biosciences and Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai, India
| | - Shinjinee Sengupta
- Department of Biosciences and Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai, India
| | - Laxmikant Gadhe
- Department of Biosciences and Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai, India
| | - Pradeep Kadu
- Department of Biosciences and Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai, India
| | - Debalina Datta
- Department of Biosciences and Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai, India
| | - Ajoy Paul
- Department of Biosciences and Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai, India
| | - Sakunthala Arunima
- Department of Biosciences and Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai, India
| | - Surabhi Mehra
- Department of Biosciences and Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai, India
| | - Chinmai Pindi
- Department of Biotechnology, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai, India
| | - Santosh Kumar
- School of Biological Sciences, National Institute of Science Education and Research, Bhubaneswar, India
| | - Praful Singru
- School of Biological Sciences, National Institute of Science Education and Research, Bhubaneswar, India
| | - Sanjib Senapati
- Department of Biotechnology, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai, India
| | - Samir K Maji
- Department of Biosciences and Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai, India
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Robles JP, Zamora M, Siqueiros-Marquez L, Adan-Castro E, Ramirez-Hernandez G, Nuñez FF, Lopez-Casillas F, Millar RP, Bertsch T, Martínez de la Escalera G, Triebel J, Clapp C. The HGR motif is the antiangiogenic determinant of vasoinhibin: implications for a therapeutic orally active oligopeptide. Angiogenesis 2022; 25:57-70. [PMID: 34097181 PMCID: PMC8813873 DOI: 10.1007/s10456-021-09800-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2021] [Accepted: 05/17/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The hormone prolactin acquires antiangiogenic and antivasopermeability properties after undergoing proteolytic cleavage to vasoinhibin, an endogenous prolactin fragment of 123 or more amino acids that inhibits the action of multiple proangiogenic factors. Preclinical and clinical evidence supports the therapeutic potential of vasoinhibin against angiogenesis-related diseases including diabetic retinopathy, peripartum cardiomyopathy, rheumatoid arthritis, and cancer. However, the use of vasoinhibin in the clinic has been limited by difficulties in its production. Here, we removed this barrier to using vasoinhibin as a therapeutic agent by showing that a short linear motif of just three residues (His46-Gly47-Arg48) (HGR) is the functional determinant of vasoinhibin. The HGR motif is conserved throughout evolution, its mutation led to vasoinhibin loss of function, and oligopeptides containing this sequence inhibited angiogenesis and vasopermeability with the same potency as whole vasoinhibin. Furthermore, the oral administration of an optimized cyclic retro-inverse vasoinhibin heptapeptide containing HGR inhibited melanoma tumor growth and vascularization in mice and exhibited equal or higher antiangiogenic potency than other antiangiogenic molecules currently used as anti-cancer drugs in the clinic. Finally, by unveiling the mechanism that obscures the HGR motif in prolactin, we anticipate the development of vasoinhibin-specific antibodies to solve the on-going challenge of measuring endogenous vasoinhibin levels for diagnostic and interventional purposes, the design of vasoinhibin antagonists for managing insufficient angiogenesis, and the identification of putative therapeutic proteins containing HGR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan Pablo Robles
- Instituto de Neurobiología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), Querétaro, México
| | - Magdalena Zamora
- Instituto de Neurobiología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), Querétaro, México
| | | | - Elva Adan-Castro
- Instituto de Neurobiología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), Querétaro, México
| | | | - Francisco Freinet Nuñez
- Instituto de Neurobiología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), Querétaro, México
| | - Fernando Lopez-Casillas
- Instituto de Fisiología Celular, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), México City, México
| | - Robert P Millar
- Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine, Department of Integrative Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, 7925, South Africa
- Centre for Neuroendocrinology, Department of Immunology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Thomas Bertsch
- Institute for Clinical Chemistry, Laboratory Medicine and Transfusion Medicine, Nuremberg General Hospital & Paracelsus Medical University, Nuremberg, Germany
| | | | - Jakob Triebel
- Institute for Clinical Chemistry, Laboratory Medicine and Transfusion Medicine, Nuremberg General Hospital & Paracelsus Medical University, Nuremberg, Germany
| | - Carmen Clapp
- Instituto de Neurobiología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), Querétaro, México.
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7
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Martínez-Alarcón O, García-López G, Guerra-Mora JR, Molina-Hernández A, Diaz-Martínez NE, Portillo W, Díaz NF. Prolactin from Pluripotency to Central Nervous System Development. Neuroendocrinology 2022; 112:201-214. [PMID: 33934093 DOI: 10.1159/000516939] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2021] [Accepted: 04/30/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Prolactin (PRL) is a versatile hormone that exerts more than 300 functions in vertebrates, mainly associated with physiological effects in adult animals. Although the process that regulates early development is poorly understood, evidence suggests a role of PRL in the early embryonic development regarding pluripotency and nervous system development. Thus, PRL could be a crucial regulator in oocyte preimplantation and maturation as well as during diapause, a reversible state of blastocyst development arrest that shares metabolic, transcriptomic, and proteomic similarities with pluripotent stem cells in the naïve state. Thus, we analyzed the role of the hormone during those processes, which involve the regulation of its receptor and several signaling cascades (Jak/Mapk, Jak/Stat, and PI3k/Akt), resulting in either a plethora of physiological actions or their dysregulation, a factor in developmental disorders. Finally, we propose models to improve the knowledge on PRL function during early development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Omar Martínez-Alarcón
- Departamento de Fisiología y Desarrollo Celular, Instituto Nacional de Perinatología, Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - Guadalupe García-López
- Departamento de Fisiología y Desarrollo Celular, Instituto Nacional de Perinatología, Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - José Raúl Guerra-Mora
- Departamento de Neurociencias, Instituto Nacional de Cancerología, Ciudad de México, Mexico
- Departamento de Cirugia Experimental, Instituto Nacional de Nutrición, Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - Anayansi Molina-Hernández
- Departamento de Fisiología y Desarrollo Celular, Instituto Nacional de Perinatología, Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - Néstor Emmanuel Diaz-Martínez
- Laboratorio de Reprogramación Celular y Bioingeniería de Tejidos, Biotecnología Médica y Farmacéutica CONACYT, Centro de Investigación y Asistencia en Tecnología y Diseño del Estado de Jalisco, Guadalajara, Mexico
| | - Wendy Portillo
- Departamento de Neurobiología Conductual y Cognitiva, Instituto de Neurobiología, UNAM, Quéretaro, Mexico
| | - Néstor Fabián Díaz
- Departamento de Fisiología y Desarrollo Celular, Instituto Nacional de Perinatología, Ciudad de México, Mexico
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8
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Müller N, Robles JP, Zamora M, Ebnet J, Markl-Hahn H, Martínez de la Escalera G, Clapp C, Bertsch T, Triebel J. Development of Vasoinhibin-Specific Monoclonal Antibodies. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2021; 12:645085. [PMID: 33959096 PMCID: PMC8095375 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2021.645085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2020] [Accepted: 03/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Vasoinhibin is a protein hormone with antiangiogenic, antivasodilatatory, and antivasopermeability effects generated by the proteolytic cleavage of prolactin. The discovery of its role in diabetic retinopathy and peripartum cardiomyopathy led to the evaluation of new pharmacological treatments in clinical interventional trials. However, the quantitative evaluation of vasoinhibin in biological samples from patients has not been possible due to the lack of vasoinhibin-specific antibodies. Recently, loop 1 of vasoinhibin was identified to have a different three-dimensional structure compared to PRL, and thus to contain vasoinhibin-specific epitopes. Here, we report the development of two sets of vasoinhibin-specific monoclonal antibodies against two neighboring regions of the vasoinhibin loop 1. An experimental sandwich ELISA with two monoclonal anti-vasoinhibin antibodies was developed, which had no cross-reactivity to recombinant human full-length prolactin. The ELISA had a quantitation limit of 100 ng/ml, and intra-assay- and inter-assay coefficients of variation of 12.5% and 14%, respectively. The evaluation of 15 human serum samples demonstrated concentrations of below limit of detection (n=3), below limit of quantitation (n=1) and between 0.23 µg/ml (230 ng/ml) to 605 µg/ml (n=12) in the quantifiable range. Despite the high specificity of the monoclonal-monoclonal antibody sandwiches which discriminate vasoinhibin from PRL, there might be cross-reactivities by serum proteins other than vasoinhibin. A fully established vasoinhibin ELISA may support diagnostic and therapeutic measures in vascular diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nils Müller
- Institute for Clinical Chemistry, Laboratory Medicine and Transfusion Medicine, Nuremberg General Hospital & Paracelsus Medical University, Nuremberg, Germany
| | - Juan Pablo Robles
- Instituto de Neurobiología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), Querétaro, Mexico
| | - Magdalena Zamora
- Instituto de Neurobiología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), Querétaro, Mexico
| | - Johannes Ebnet
- Institute for Clinical Chemistry, Laboratory Medicine and Transfusion Medicine, Nuremberg General Hospital & Paracelsus Medical University, Nuremberg, Germany
| | - Hülya Markl-Hahn
- Institute for Clinical Chemistry, Laboratory Medicine and Transfusion Medicine, Nuremberg General Hospital & Paracelsus Medical University, Nuremberg, Germany
| | | | - Carmen Clapp
- Instituto de Neurobiología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), Querétaro, Mexico
| | - Thomas Bertsch
- Institute for Clinical Chemistry, Laboratory Medicine and Transfusion Medicine, Nuremberg General Hospital & Paracelsus Medical University, Nuremberg, Germany
| | - Jakob Triebel
- Institute for Clinical Chemistry, Laboratory Medicine and Transfusion Medicine, Nuremberg General Hospital & Paracelsus Medical University, Nuremberg, Germany
- *Correspondence: Jakob Triebel,
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9
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10
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Abstract
AbstractThe dynamics of proteins in solution includes a variety of processes, such as backbone and side-chain fluctuations, interdomain motions, as well as global rotational and translational (i.e. center of mass) diffusion. Since protein dynamics is related to protein function and essential transport processes, a detailed mechanistic understanding and monitoring of protein dynamics in solution is highly desirable. The hierarchical character of protein dynamics requires experimental tools addressing a broad range of time- and length scales. We discuss how different techniques contribute to a comprehensive picture of protein dynamics, and focus in particular on results from neutron spectroscopy. We outline the underlying principles and review available instrumentation as well as related analysis frameworks.
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11
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Amyloid formation of growth hormone in presence of zinc: Relevance to its storage in secretory granules. Sci Rep 2016; 6:23370. [PMID: 27004850 PMCID: PMC4804206 DOI: 10.1038/srep23370] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2015] [Accepted: 03/04/2016] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Amyloids are cross-β-sheet fibrillar aggregates, associated with various human diseases and native functions such as protein/peptide hormone storage inside secretory granules of neuroendocrine cells. In the current study, using amyloid detecting agents, we show that growth hormone (GH) could be stored as amyloid in the pituitary of rat. Moreover, to demonstrate the formation of GH amyloid in vitro, we studied various conditions (solvents, glycosaminoglycans, salts and metal ions) and found that in presence of zinc metal ions (Zn(II)), GH formed short curvy fibrils. The amyloidogenic nature of these fibrils was examined by Thioflavin T binding, Congo Red binding, transmission electron microscopy and X-ray diffraction. Our biophysical studies also suggest that Zn(II) initiates the early oligomerization of GH that eventually facilitates the fibrillation process. Furthermore, using immunofluorescence study of pituitary tissue, we show that GH in pituitary significantly co-localizes with Zn(II), suggesting the probable role of zinc in GH aggregation within secretory granules. We also found that GH amyloid formed in vitro is capable of releasing monomers. The study will help to understand the possible mechanism of GH storage, its regulation and monomer release from the somatotrophs of anterior pituitary.
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12
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Premzl M. Third party data gene data set of eutherian growth hormone genes. GENOMICS DATA 2015; 6:166-9. [PMID: 26697363 PMCID: PMC4664738 DOI: 10.1016/j.gdata.2015.09.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2015] [Revised: 09/06/2015] [Accepted: 09/07/2015] [Indexed: 10/31/2022]
Abstract
Among 146 potential coding sequences, the most comprehensive eutherian growth hormone gene data set annotated 100 complete coding sequences. The eutherian comparative genomic analysis protocol first described 5 major gene clusters of eutherian growth hormone genes. The present updated gene classification and nomenclature of eutherian growth hormone genes integrated gene annotations, phylogenetic analysis and protein molecular evolution analysis into new framework of future experiments. The curated third party data gene data set of eutherian growth hormone genes was deposited in European Nucleotide Archive under accession numbers LM644135-LM644234.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marko Premzl
- Laboratory of Genomics, Centre of Animal Reproduction, 55 Heinzel St, Zagreb, Croatia
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13
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Bu G, Liang X, Li J, Wang Y. Extra-pituitary prolactin (PRL) and prolactin-like protein (PRL-L) in chickens and zebrafish. Gen Comp Endocrinol 2015; 220:143-53. [PMID: 25683198 DOI: 10.1016/j.ygcen.2015.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2014] [Revised: 02/02/2015] [Accepted: 02/06/2015] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
It is generally believed that in vertebrates, prolactin (PRL) is predominantly synthesized and released by pituitary lactotrophs and plays important roles in many physiological processes via activation of PRL receptor (PRLR), including water and electrolyte balance, reproduction, growth and development, metabolism, immuno-modulation, and behavior. However, there is increasing evidence showing that PRL and the newly identified 'prolactin-like protein (PRL-L)', a novel ligand of PRL receptor, are also expressed in a variety of extra-pituitary tissues, such as the brain, skin, ovary, and testes in non-mammalian vertebrates. In this brief review, we summarize the recent research progress on the structure, biological activities, and extra-pituitary expression of PRL and PRL-L in chickens (Gallus gallus) and zebrafish (Danio rerio) from our and other laboratories and briefly discuss their potential paracrine/autocrine roles in non-mammalian vertebrates, which may promote us to rethink the broad spectrum of PRL actions previously attributed to pituitary PRL only.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guixian Bu
- Key Laboratory of Bio-resources and Eco-environment of Ministry of Education, College of Life Sciences, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610065, PR China
| | - Xiaomeng Liang
- Key Laboratory of Bio-resources and Eco-environment of Ministry of Education, College of Life Sciences, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610065, PR China
| | - Juan Li
- Key Laboratory of Bio-resources and Eco-environment of Ministry of Education, College of Life Sciences, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610065, PR China
| | - Yajun Wang
- Key Laboratory of Bio-resources and Eco-environment of Ministry of Education, College of Life Sciences, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610065, PR China.
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14
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Triebel J, Bertsch T, Bollheimer C, Rios-Barrera D, Pearce CF, Hüfner M, Martínez de la Escalera G, Clapp C. Principles of the prolactin/vasoinhibin axis. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2015; 309:R1193-203. [PMID: 26310939 PMCID: PMC4666935 DOI: 10.1152/ajpregu.00256.2015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2015] [Accepted: 08/25/2015] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
The hormonal family of vasoinhibins, which derive from the anterior pituitary hormone prolactin, are known for their inhibiting effects on blood vessel growth, vasopermeability, and vasodilation. As pleiotropic hormones, vasoinhibins act in multiple target organs and tissues. The generation, secretion, and regulation of vasoinhibins are embedded into the organizational principle of an axis, which integrates the hypothalamus, the pituitary, and the target tissue microenvironment. This axis is designated as the prolactin/vasoinhibin axis. Disturbances of the prolactin/vasoinhibin axis are associated with the pathogenesis of retinal and cardiac diseases and with diseases occurring during pregnancy. New phylogenetical, physiological, and clinical implications are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jakob Triebel
- Institute for Clinical Chemistry, Laboratory Medicine and Transfusion Medicine, Paracelsus Medical University, Nuremberg, Germany;
| | - Thomas Bertsch
- Institute for Clinical Chemistry, Laboratory Medicine and Transfusion Medicine, Paracelsus Medical University, Nuremberg, Germany
| | - Cornelius Bollheimer
- Institute for Biomedicine of Aging, Friedrich-Alexander Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Nuremberg, Germany
| | - Daniel Rios-Barrera
- European Molecular Biology Laboratory, Developmental Biology Unit, Directors' Research, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Christy F Pearce
- Southern Colorado Maternal Fetal Medicine, St. Francis Medical Campus, Centura Health, Colorado Springs, Colorado
| | | | | | - Carmen Clapp
- Instituto de Neurobiología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), Campus UNAM-Juriquilla, Querétaro, México
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15
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Johansson H, Jensen MR, Gesmar H, Meier S, Vinther JM, Keeler C, Hodsdon ME, Led JJ. Specific and nonspecific interactions in ultraweak protein-protein associations revealed by solvent paramagnetic relaxation enhancements. J Am Chem Soc 2014; 136:10277-86. [PMID: 24969589 PMCID: PMC4111215 DOI: 10.1021/ja503546j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
![]()
Weak
and transient protein–protein interactions underlie
numerous biological processes. However, the location of the interaction
sites of the specific complexes and the effect of transient, nonspecific
protein–protein interactions often remain elusive. We have
investigated the weak self-association of human growth hormone (hGH, KD = 0.90 ± 0.03 mM) at neutral pH by the
paramagnetic relaxation enhancement (PRE) of the amide protons induced
by the soluble paramagnetic relaxation agent, gadodiamide (Gd(DTPA-BMA)).
Primarily, it was found that the PREs are in agreement with the general
Hwang-Freed model for relaxation by translational diffusion (J. Chem. Phys.1975, 63, 4017–4025),
only if crowding effects on the diffusion in the protein solution
are taken into account. Second, by measuring the PREs of the amide
protons at increasing hGH concentrations and a constant concentration
of the relaxation agent, it is shown that a distinction can be made
between residues that are affected only by transient, nonspecific
protein–protein interactions and residues that are involved
in specific protein–protein associations. Thus, the PREs of
the former residues increase linearly with the hGH concentration in
the entire concentration range because of a reduction of the diffusion
caused by the transient, nonspecific protein–protein interactions,
while the PREs of the latter residues increase only at the lower hGH
concentrations but decrease at the higher concentrations because of
specific protein–protein associations that impede the access
of gadodiamide to the residues of the interaction surface. Finally,
it is found that the ultraweak aggregation of hGH involves several
interaction sites that are located in patches covering a large part
of the protein surface.
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Affiliation(s)
- Helle Johansson
- Department of Chemistry, University of Copenhagen , Universitetsparken 5, DK-2100 Copenhagen Ø, Denmark
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16
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Abstract
Amyloids are stable, β-sheet-rich protein/peptides aggregates with 2–15 nm diameter and few micrometers long. It is originally associated with many human diseases such as Alzheimer's, Parkinson's and prion diseases. Amyloids are resistant to enzyme degradation, temperature changes and wide ranges of pH. Although, amyloids are hard and their stiffness is comparable to steel, a constant recycling of monomer occur inside the amyloid fibrils. It grows in a nucleation dependent polymerization manner by recruiting native soluble protein and by converting them to amyloid. These extraordinary physical properties make amyloids attractive for nanotechnological applications. Some amyloid fibrils have also evolved to perform native biological functions (functional amyloid) of the host organism. Functional amyloids are present in mammals such as amyloids of pMel17 and pituitary hormones, where they help in skin pigmentation and hormone storage, respectively. Here, the progress of utilizing amyloid fibrils for nanobiotechnological applications with particular emphasis on the recent studies that amyloid could be utilized for the formulation of peptide/protein drugs depot and how secretory cells uses amyloid for hormone storage will be reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- SAMIR K. MAJI
- Department of Biosciences and Bioengineering, IIT Bombay, Powai, Mumbai 400076, India
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17
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18
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Idelman G, Jacobson EM, Tuttle TR, Ben-Jonathan N. Lactogens and estrogens in breast cancer chemoresistance. Expert Rev Endocrinol Metab 2011; 6:411-422. [PMID: 21731573 PMCID: PMC3125604 DOI: 10.1586/eem.11.19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Tumor resistance to chemotherapy in advanced breast cancer is a major impediment to treatment success. Resistance can be induced by the drugs themselves or result from the action of internal factors. The role of hormones in chemoresistance has received little attention. This article focuses on two classes of hormones: lactogens and estrogens. Lactogens include prolactin, growth hormone and placental lactogen, all of which can activate the prolactin receptor. Estrogens include endogenous steroids and nonsteroidal compounds from the environment termed endocrine disruptors, all of which can activate 'classical' estrogen receptors (ERα and ERβ), as well as other types of receptors. Both lactogens and estrogens antagonize cytotoxicity of multiple chemotherapeutic agents through complementary mechanisms. The implications of chemoresistance by these hormones to patients with breast cancer, and the potential benefits of developing combinatorial anti-lactogen/anti-estrogen treatment regimens, are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gila Idelman
- Department of Cancer and Cell Biology, University of Cincinnati, 7315 Eden Avenue, Cincinnati, OH 45267-0521, USA
| | - Eric M Jacobson
- Department of Cancer and Cell Biology, University of Cincinnati, 7315 Eden Avenue, Cincinnati, OH 45267-0521, USA
| | - Traci R Tuttle
- Department of Cancer and Cell Biology, University of Cincinnati, 7315 Eden Avenue, Cincinnati, OH 45267-0521, USA
| | - Nira Ben-Jonathan
- Department of Cancer and Cell Biology, University of Cincinnati, 7315 Eden Avenue, Cincinnati, OH 45267-0521, USA
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19
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Abstract
Human prolactin (hPRL) binds two human prolactin receptor molecules, creating active heterotrimeric complexes. Receptors bind dissimilar hormone surfaces termed site 1 and site 2 in an obligate ordered process. We sought to map the functional epitopes in site 1 of hPRL. Extensive alanine mutagenesis (102 of the 199 residues) showed approximately 40% of these mutant hPRLs changed the ΔG for site 1 receptor binding. Six of these residues are within 3.5 Å of the receptor and form the site 1 functional epitopes. We identified a set of noncovalent interactions between these six residues and the receptor. We identified a second group of site 1 residues that are between 3.5 and 5 Å from the receptor where alanine mutations reduced the affinity. This second group has noncovalent interactions with other hormone residues and stabilized the topology of the functional epitopes by linking these to the body of the protein. Finally, we identified a third group of residues that are outside site 1 (>5 Å) and extend to site 2 and whose mutation to alanine significantly weakened receptor binding at site 1 of prolactin. These three groups of residues form a contiguous structural motif between sites 1 and 2 of human prolactin and may constitute structural features that functionally couple sites 1 and 2. This work identifies the residues that form the functional epitopes for site 1 of human prolactin and also identifies a set of residues that support the concept that sites 1 and 2 are functionally coupled by an allosteric mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Geeta Vittal Rao
- Ohio State Biophysics Program, Ohio State University, 1925 Coffey Road, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
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20
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Structure of the EF-hand domain of polycystin-2 suggests a mechanism for Ca2+-dependent regulation of polycystin-2 channel activity. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2010; 107:9176-81. [PMID: 20439752 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0912295107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The C-terminal cytoplasmic tail of polycystin-2 (PC2/TRPP2), a Ca(2+)-permeable channel, is frequently mutated or truncated in autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease. We have previously shown that this tail consists of three functional regions: an EF-hand domain (PC2-EF, 720-797), a flexible linker (798-827), and an oligomeric coiled coil domain (828-895). We found that PC2-EF binds Ca(2+) at a single site and undergoes Ca(2+)-dependent conformational changes, suggesting it is an essential element of Ca(2+)-sensitive regulation of PC2 activity. Here we describe the NMR structure and dynamics of Ca(2+)-bound PC2-EF. Human PC2-EF contains a divergent non-Ca(2+)-binding helix-loop-helix (HLH) motif packed against a canonical Ca(2+)-binding EF-hand motif. This HLH motif may have evolved from a canonical EF-hand found in invertebrate PC2 homologs. Temperature-dependent steady-state NOE experiments and NMR R(1) and R(2) relaxation rates correlate with increased molecular motion in the EF-hand, possibly due to exchange between apo and Ca(2+)-bound states, consistent with a role for PC2-EF as a Ca(2+)-sensitive regulator. Structure-based sequence conservation analysis reveals a conserved hydrophobic surface in the same region, which may mediate Ca(2+)-dependent protein interactions. We propose that Ca(2+)-sensing by PC2-EF is responsible for the cooperative nature of PC2 channel activation and inhibition. Based on our results, we present a mechanism of regulation of the Ca(2+) dependence of PC2 channel activity by PC2-EF.
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21
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Voorhees JL, Brooks CL. Obligate ordered binding of human lactogenic cytokines. J Biol Chem 2010; 285:20022-30. [PMID: 20427283 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m109.084988] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Class 1 cytokines bind two receptors to create an active heterotrimeric complex. It has been argued that ligand binding to their receptors is an ordered process, but a structural mechanism describing this process has not been determined. We have previously described an obligate ordered binding mechanism for the human prolactin/prolactin receptor heterotrimeric complex. In this work we expand this conceptual understanding of ordered binding to include three human lactogenic hormones: prolactin, growth hormone, and placental lactogen. We independently blocked either of the two receptor binding sites of each hormone and used surface plasmon resonance to measure human prolactin receptor binding kinetics and stoichiometries to the remaining binding surface. When site 1 of any of the three hormones was blocked, site 2 could not bind the receptor. But blocking site 2 did not affect receptor binding at site 1, indicating a requirement for receptor binding to site 1 before site 2 binding. In addition we noted variable responses to the presence of zinc in hormone-receptor interaction. Finally, we performed Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) analyses where receptor binding at subsaturating stoichiometries induced changes in FRET signaling, indicative of binding-induced changes in hormone conformation, whereas at receptor:hormone ratios in excess of 2:1 no additional changes in FRET signaling were observed. These results strongly support a conformationally mediated obligate-ordered receptor binding for each of the three lactogenic hormones.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffery L Voorhees
- The Ohio State Biochemistry Program, The Ohio State University, 1925 Coffey Rd., Columbus, OH 43210, USA
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22
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Wang D, Zhang Y, Liu Y, Yang Y. Karyotype and single nucleotide polymorphism of the prolactin gene in milking bucks. Small Rumin Res 2009. [DOI: 10.1016/j.smallrumres.2009.09.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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23
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Keeler C, Tettamanzi MC, Meshack S, Hodsdon ME. Contribution of individual histidines to the global stability of human prolactin. Protein Sci 2009; 18:909-20. [PMID: 19384991 DOI: 10.1002/pro.100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
A member of the family of hematopoietic cytokines human prolactin (hPRL) is a 23k kDa polypeptide hormone, which displays pH dependence in its structural and functional properties. The binding affinity of hPRL for the extracellular domain of its receptor decreases 500-fold over the relatively narrow, physiologic pH range from 8 to 6; whereas, the affinity of human growth hormone (hGH), its closest evolutionary cousin, does not. Similarly, the structural stability of hPRL decreases from 7.6 to 5.6 kcal/mol from pH 8 to 6, respectively, whereas the stability of hGH is slightly increased over this same pH range. hPRL contains nine histidines, compared with hGH's three, and they are likely responsible for hPRL's pH-dependent behavior. We have systematically mutated each of hPRL's histidines to alanine and measured the effect on pH-dependent global stability. Surprisingly, a vast majority of these mutations stabilize the native protein, by as much as 2-3 kcal/mol. Changes in the overall pH dependence to hPRL global stability can be rationalized according to the predominant structural interactions of individual histidines in the hPRL tertiary structure. Using double mutant cycles, we detect large interaction free energies within a cluster of nearby histidines, which are both stabilizing and destabilizing to the native state. Finally, by comparing the structural locations of hPRL's nine histidines with their homologous residues in hGH, we speculate on the evolutionary role of replacing structurally stabilizing residues with histidine to introduce pH dependence to cytokine function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Camille Keeler
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut 06520-8035, USA
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24
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Utama FE, Tran TH, Ryder A, LeBaron MJ, Parlow AF, Rui H. Insensitivity of human prolactin receptors to nonhuman prolactins: relevance for experimental modeling of prolactin receptor-expressing human cells. Endocrinology 2009; 150:1782-90. [PMID: 19022890 PMCID: PMC2659276 DOI: 10.1210/en.2008-1057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Prolactin (PRL) receptors are expressed in a broad range of human cell types and in a majority of human breast and prostate cancers. Experimentally, normal and malignant human cells are typically cultured in vitro in media containing bovine PRL (bPRL) from fetal bovine serum or as xenotransplants in vivo in the presence of murine PRL (mPRL). The biological efficacy of bPRL toward hPRL receptors (hPRLR) is controversial, and hPRLR are insensitive to mPRL, but the mechanism is not known. To clarify limitations of current in vitro and in vivo experimental model systems for studies of hPRLR-expressing cells, we tested human and relevant subprimate prolactins in multiple hPRLR bioassays. bPRL and ovine PRL were 10-fold less potent hPRLR agonists than hPRL, although maximal responses at high ligand concentrations (efficacies) equaled that of hPRL. mPRL and rat PRL had greater than 50-fold lower potencies toward hPRLR than hPRL and had 50% reduced efficacies. In fact, mPRL and rat PRL were less effective hPRLR agonists than murine GH. Unexpectedly, mPRL was an effective competitive inhibitor of hPRL binding to hPRLR with an inhibitory constant of 1.3 nm and showed partial antagonist activity, suggesting reduced site-2 binding. Collectively, low bioactivities of bPRL and mPRL toward hPRLR suggest that existing laboratory cancer cell lines grown in 10% bovine serum-supplemented media or in mice are selected for growth under lactogen-depleted conditions. The biology and drug responsiveness of existing human cell lines may therefore not be representative of clinical cancers that are sensitive to circulating PRL.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fransiscus E Utama
- Department of Cancer Biology, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19107, USA.
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25
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Langenheim JF, Chen WY. Development of a novel ligand that activates JAK2/STAT5 signaling through a heterodimer of prolactin receptor and growth hormone receptor. J Recept Signal Transduct Res 2009; 29:107-12. [DOI: 10.1080/10799890902845252] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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26
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Structure and function of a new class of human prolactin antagonists. Protein Expr Purif 2009; 66:121-30. [PMID: 19236917 DOI: 10.1016/j.pep.2009.02.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2008] [Revised: 02/10/2009] [Accepted: 02/11/2009] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Delta 41-52 hPRL (human prolactin with residues 41-52 removed) is a lead compound for a new class of hPRL antagonists. The deleted sequence contains residues that functionally couple sites 1 and 2, the two hormone surfaces that each bind receptors. Delta 41-52 hPRL retains 0.03% agonist activity in FDC-1 cell bioassays, a 3054-fold reduction in activity, and displays approximately 100-fold less agonist activity than G129R hPRL, an antagonist that reduces the binding of hPRL receptor at site 2 during the formation of the heterotrimeric hormone/receptor complex. Replacement of various numbers and types of residues into the gap created by the deletion of residues 41 through 52 created hPRLs with varying agonist activities, suggested that manipulation of the sequence connecting the C-terminal of helix 1 with the disulfide bond (cysteines 58 with 174) linking helices 1 and 4 modulates articulation of these helices and influences agonist activity. We have compared the antagonist activities of G129R and Delta 41-52 hPRLs to induce apoptosis in Jurkat cells, a human lymphoid cell line displaying an autocrine/paracrine hPRL/receptor system. Delta 41-52 hPRL induces apoptosis in a time and dose-dependent fashion. Under these same conditions G129R hPRL fails to induce apoptosis. We conclude Delta 41-52 hPRL is a lead compound of a new class of hPRL antagonists capable at low concentrations of inducing apoptosis in human cells expressing an autocrine/paracrine hPRL/receptor system.
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27
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Jensen MR, Kristensen SM, Keeler C, Christensen HEM, Hodsdon ME, Led JJ. Weak self-association of human growth hormone investigated by nitrogen-15 NMR relaxation. Proteins 2009; 73:161-72. [PMID: 18409193 DOI: 10.1002/prot.22039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
The self-association of human growth hormone(hGH) was investigated using 15N NMR relaxation.The investigation relies on the 15N R1 and R2 relaxation rates and the heteronuclear{1H}-15N NOEs of the backbone amide groups at multiple protein concentrations. It is shown that the rotational correlation time of hGH in solution depends strongly on its concentration, indicating a significant degree of self-association.The self-association is reversible and the monomers in the aggregates are noncovalently linked. Extrapolation of the relaxation data to zero concentration predicts a correlation time of 13.4 ns and a rotational diffusion anisotropy of 1.26 for monomeric hGH, in agreement with the rotational diffusion properties estimated by hydrodynamic calculations. Moreover, the extrapolation allows characterization of the backbone dynamics of monomeric hGH without interference from self-association phenomena, and it is found that hGH is considerably more flexible than originally thought. A concerted least-squares analysis of the 15N relaxations and their concentration dependence reveals that the self-association goes beyond a simple monomer-dimer equilibrium, and that tetramers or other multimeric states co-exist in fast exchange with the monomeric and dimeric hGH at sub-millimolar concentrations. Small changes in the 1H and 15N amide chemical shifts suggest that a region around the C-terminus is involved in the oligomer formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Malene Ringkjøbing Jensen
- Department of Chemistry, University of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken 5, DK-2100 Copenhagen Ø, Denmark
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28
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29
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Tettamanzi MC, Keeler C, Meshack S, Hodsdon ME. Analysis of site-specific histidine protonation in human prolactin. Biochemistry 2008; 47:8638-47. [PMID: 18652486 DOI: 10.1021/bi800444t] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The structural and functional properties of human prolactin (hPRL), a 23 kDa protein hormone and cytokine, are pH-dependent. The dissociation rate constant for binding to the extracellular domain of the hPRL receptor increases nearly 500-fold over the relatively narrow and physiologic range from pH 8 to 6. As the apparent midpoint for this transition occurs around pH 6.5, we have looked toward histidine residues as a potential biophysical origin of the behavior. hPRL has a surprising number of nine histidines, nearly all of which are present on the protein surface. Using NMR spectroscopy, we have monitored site-specific proton binding to eight of these nine residues and derived equilibrium dissociation constants. During this analysis, a thermodynamic interaction between a localized triplet of three histidines (H27, H30, and H180) became apparent, which was subsequently confirmed by site-directed mutagenesis. After consideration of multiple potential models, we present statistical support for the existence of two negative cooperativity constants, one linking protonation of residues H30 and H180 with a magnitude of approximately 0.1 and the other weaker interaction between residues H27 and H30. Additionally, mutation of any of these three histidines to alanine stabilizes the folded protein relative to the chemically denatured state. A detailed understanding of these complex protonation reactions will aid in elucidating the biophysical mechanism of pH-dependent regulation of hPRL's structural and functional properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Cristina Tettamanzi
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut 06520, USA
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30
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Svensson LA, Bondensgaard K, Nørskov-Lauritsen L, Christensen L, Becker P, Andersen MD, Maltesen MJ, Rand KD, Breinholt J. Crystal Structure of a Prolactin Receptor Antagonist Bound to the Extracellular Domain of the Prolactin Receptor. J Biol Chem 2008; 283:19085-94. [DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m801202200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
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31
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Abstract
Hyperprolactinaemia is a frequent cause of reproductive problems encountered in clinical practice. A variety of pathophysiological conditions can lead to hyperprolactinaemia; therefore, pregnancy, drug effects, hypothyroidism and polycystic ovary syndrome should be excluded before investigating for prolactin-secreting pituitary tumours. Prolactinomas are mainly diagnosed in women aged 20-40 years. They present with clinical features of hyperprolactinaemia (galactorrhoea, gonadal dysfunction), and more rarely with large tumours, headache and visual field loss due to optic chiasm compression. Medical therapy with dopamine agonists is the treatment of choice for both micro- and macroprolactinomas. Tumour shrinkage and restoration of gonadal function are achieved in the majority of cases with dopamine agonists. A trial of withdrawal of medical therapy may be considered in many patients with close follow-up. Pituitary surgery and radiotherapy currently have very limited indications. Pregnancies in patients with prolactinomas need careful planning and close monitoring.
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Affiliation(s)
- V K B Prabhakar
- Department of Endocrinology, Manchester Royal Infirmary, Manchester M13 9WL, UK
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32
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Abstract
Prolactin (PRL) is a 23-kDa protein hormone that binds to a single-span membrane receptor, a member of the cytokine receptor superfamily, and exerts its action via several interacting signaling pathways. PRL is a multifunctional hormone that affects multiple reproductive and metabolic functions and is also involved in tumorigenicity. In addition to being a classical pituitary hormone, PRL in humans is produced by many tissues throughout the body where it acts as a cytokine. The objective of this review is to compare and contrast multiple aspects of PRL, from structure to regulation, and from physiology to pathology in rats, mice, and humans. At each juncture, questions are raised whether, or to what extent, data from rodents are relevant to PRL homeostasis in humans. Most current knowledge on PRL has been obtained from studies with rats and, more recently, from the use of transgenic mice. Although this information is indispensable for understanding PRL in human health and disease, there is sufficient disparity in the control of the production, distribution, and physiological functions of PRL among these species to warrant careful and judicial extrapolation to humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nira Ben-Jonathan
- Department of Cell and Cancer Biology, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio 45255, USA.
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33
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Panchal M, Muralidhar K. Purification of Monomeric Prolactin Charge Isoform from Buffalo Pituitaries. Prep Biochem Biotechnol 2007; 38:94-104. [DOI: 10.1080/10826060701774395] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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34
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Jarymowycz VA, Stone MJ. Fast time scale dynamics of protein backbones: NMR relaxation methods, applications, and functional consequences. Chem Rev 2007; 106:1624-71. [PMID: 16683748 DOI: 10.1021/cr040421p] [Citation(s) in RCA: 317] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Virginia A Jarymowycz
- Department of Chemistry and Interdisciplinary Biochemistry Program, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana 47405-0001, USA
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35
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Jomain JB, Tallet E, Broutin I, Hoos S, van Agthoven J, Ducruix A, Kelly PA, Kragelund BB, England P, Goffin V. Structural and Thermodynamic Bases for the Design of Pure Prolactin Receptor Antagonists. J Biol Chem 2007; 282:33118-31. [PMID: 17785459 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m704364200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Competitive antagonists of the human prolactin (hPRL) receptor are a novel class of molecules of potential therapeutic interest in the context of cancer. We recently developed the pure antagonist Del1-9-G129R-hPRL by deleting the nine N-terminal residues of G129R-hPRL, a first generation partial antagonist. We determined the crystallographic structure of Del1-9-G129R-hPRL, which revealed no major change compared with wild type hPRL, indicating that its pure antagonistic properties are intrinsically due to the mutations. To decipher the molecular bases of pure antagonism, we compared the biological, physicochemical, and structural properties of numerous hPRL variants harboring N-terminal or Gly(129) mutations, alone or combined. The pure versus partial antagonistic properties of the multiple hPRL variants could not be correlated to differences in their affinities toward the hPRL receptor, especially at site 2 as determined by surface plasmon resonance. On the contrary, residual agonism of the hPRL variants was found to be inversely correlated to their thermodynamic stability, which was altered by all the Gly(129) mutations but not by those involving the N terminus. We therefore propose that residual agonism can be abolished either by further disrupting hormone site 2-receptor contacts by N-terminal deletion, as in Del1-9-G129R-hPRL, or by stabilizing hPRL and constraining its intrinsic flexibility, as in G129V-hPRL.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean-Baptiste Jomain
- INSERM U845, Centre de Recherche Croissance et Signalisation, Equipe PRL, GH et Tumeurs, Faculté de Médecine Necker, 156 Rue de Vaugirard, Paris Cedex 15, France
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36
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Abstract
Pituitary-derived prolactin (PRL) is a well-known regulator of the lactating mammary gland. However, the recent discovery that human adipose tissue produces PRL as well as expresses the PRL receptor (PRLR) highlights a previously unappreciated action of PRL as a cytokine involved in adipose tissue function. Biologically active PRL is secreted by all adipose tissue depots examined: breast, visceral and subcutaneous. The expression of adipose PRL is regulated by a non-pituitary, alternative superdistal promoter. PRL expression and release increases during early pre-adipocyte differentiation and is stimulated by cyclic AMP activators, including beta adrenergic receptor agonists. PRL release from subcutaneous adipose explants is attenuated during obesity, suggesting that adipose PRL production is altered by the metabolic state. Several lines of evidence indicate that PRL suppresses lipid storage as well as the release of adipokines such as adiponectin, interleukin-6 and possibly leptin. PRL has also been implicated in the regulation of adipogenesis. A newly developed PRL-secreting human adipocyte cell line, LS14, should allow comprehensive examination of the regulation and function of adipocyte-derived PRL. Collectively, these studies raise the prospect that PRL affects energy homeostasis through its action as an adipokine and is involved in the manifestation of insulin resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Brandebourg
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Cincinnati School of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH, USA
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37
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Keeler C, Jablonski EM, Albert YB, Taylor BD, Myszka DG, Clevenger CV, Hodsdon ME. The kinetics of binding human prolactin, but not growth hormone, to the prolactin receptor vary over a physiologic pH range. Biochemistry 2007; 46:2398-410. [PMID: 17279774 DOI: 10.1021/bi061958v] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
A member of the family of hematopoietic cytokines, human prolactin (hPRL) serves a dual role both as an endocrine hormone and as an autocrine/paracrine cytokine or growth factor. During investigation of the solution structural properties of hPRL, we have noted a surprising pH dependence of its structural stability over a range from approximately pH 6.0 to pH 8.0. An analysis of backbone atom NMR chemical shift changes and backbone amide hydrogen-deuterium exchange rates due to titration of the solution pH over this same range, along with calculations of protein surface electrostatic potential, suggests the possible involvement of a localized cluster of three His residues (27, 30, and 180), which comprise a portion of the high-affinity receptor-binding epitope. Surface plasmon resonance analysis of the interaction between hPRL and the extracellular domain (ECD) of the hPRL receptor reveals a selective 500-fold change in the dissociation rate between pH 8.3 and pH 5.8. In comparison, the interaction of hGH with the same receptor ECD did not demonstrate any significant dependence on pH. We also present an initial investigation of the pH dependence of hPRL function in rat Nb2 cell proliferation assays and a STAT5 luciferase gene reporter assay in the T47D human breast cancer cell line, whose results are consistent with our biophysical studies. The potential implications of this variation in hPRL's structural stability and receptor-binding kinetics over this physiologic range of pH are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Camille Keeler
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut 06520, USA
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38
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Sadineni V, Galeva NA, Schöneich C. Characterization of the metal-binding site of human prolactin by site-specific metal-catalyzed oxidation. Anal Biochem 2006; 358:208-15. [PMID: 17010299 DOI: 10.1016/j.ab.2006.08.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2006] [Revised: 08/04/2006] [Accepted: 08/25/2006] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Site-specific metal-catalyzed oxidation (MCO) was applied to characterize the metal-binding site (MBS) of recombinant human prolactin (hPRL), which belongs to the hematopoietic cytokine family. Copper and ascorbate of various concentrations were used to initiate the oxidation of hPRL, and the oxidation-sensitive motifs were characterized and quantitated by mass spectrometry. Based on the results obtained with 10 microM Cu(2+) and 0.3-2.0mM ascorbate, we propose that the MBS in hPRL is composed of His27, His30, and His173. This result shows the similarity of hPRL to human growth hormone (hGH), a member of the same family as hPRL, where the MBS is composed of His18, His21, and Glu174.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vikram Sadineni
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66047, USA
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39
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Larson JH, Kumar CG, Everts RE, Green CA, Everts-van der Wind A, Band MR, Lewin HA. Discovery of eight novel divergent homologs expressed in cattle placenta. Physiol Genomics 2006; 25:405-13. [PMID: 16554549 DOI: 10.1152/physiolgenomics.00307.2005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Ten divergent homologs were identified using a subtractive bioinformatic analysis of 12,614 cattle placenta expressed sequence tags followed by comparative, evolutionary, and gene expression studies. Among the 10 divergent homologs, 8 have not been identified previously. These were named as follows: cattle cerebrum and skeletal muscle-specific transcript 1 (CSSMST1), cattle intestine-specific transcript 1 (CIST1), hepatitis A virus cellular receptor 1 amino-terminal domain-containing protein (HAVCRNDP), prolactin-related proteins 8, 9, and 11 (PRP8, PRP9, and PRP11, respectively) and secreted and transmembrane protein 1A and 1B (SECTM1A and SECTM1B, respectively). In addition, two previously known divergent genes were identified, trophoblast Kunitz domain protein 1 (TKDP1) and a new splice variant of TKDP4. Nucleotide substitution analysis provided evidence for positive selection in members of the PRP gene family, SECTM1A and SECTM1B. Gene expression profiles, motif predictions, and annotations of homologous sequences indicate immunological and reproductive functions of the divergent homologs. The genes identified in this study are thus of evolutionary and physiological importance and may have a role in placental adaptations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua H Larson
- Department of Animal Sciences, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, USA
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40
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Langenheim JF, Tan D, Walker AM, Chen WY. Two wrongs can make a right: dimers of prolactin and growth hormone receptor antagonists behave as agonists. Mol Endocrinol 2005; 20:661-74. [PMID: 16269515 PMCID: PMC1402359 DOI: 10.1210/me.2005-0360] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Prolactin (PRL) and GH have two distinct binding sites (site 1 with high affinity; site 2 with low affinity) that each interact with a PRL receptor (PRLR) to form a functional receptor dimer that activates signal transduction. The G129R mutation in PRL and the G120R mutation in GH disrupt the structural integrity of site 2 such that the ligands retain the ability to bind to the first receptor with high affinity, but act as receptor antagonists. In this study, we examined the ability of monomeric and dimeric forms of these ligands, human (h) PRL and hGH, and their antagonists (hPRL-G129R and hGH-G120R) to 1) bind to PRLRs; 2) induce conformational changes in PRLRs; 3) activate signaling pathways associated with the PRLR; and 4) mediate cell proliferation in vitro. In contrast to monomeric hPRL-G129R, homodimeric hPRL-G129R induced PRLR dimerization; activated Janus family of tyrosine kinases 2/signal transducer and activator of transcription 5, Ras/Raf/MAPK kinase/Erk, and phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/Akt signaling; and stimulated Nb2 cell proliferation. Similarly, homodimeric hGH-G120R was able to mediate signaling via the PRLR and to stimulate Nb2 cell proliferation. These experiments demonstrate that a ligand must have two functional binding sites, but that these may be site 1 plus site 2 or two site 1's, to elicit receptor-mediated signal transduction. The size of the ligand plays less of a role in receptor activation, suggesting that the extracellular portion of the PRLR (and possibly the GH receptor) is rather flexible and can accommodate larger ligands. These findings may have implications for designing multifunctional therapeutics that target this class of cytokine receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Wen Y. Chen
- Address all correspondence and requests for reprints to: Wen Y. Chen, Oncology Research Institute, Greenville Hospital System, 900 West Faris Road, Greenville, South Carolina 29605-4255. E-mail:
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41
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Abstract
Prolactin (PRL) and growth hormone (GH) act by way of their receptors as either hormones (systemically) or cytokines (locally). The Jak2/Stat5 pathway is the principal route by which PRL/GH activate target genes. The availability of knockout mice for each member of this signaling cascade has provided opportunities to understand their unique interactions. Jak2 is important in alternative signal transduction schema such as the MAP kinase and PI3K/Akt pathways. The putative Jak2/RUSH pathway is based on the fact that RUSH mediates the ability of PRL to augment progesterone-dependent gene transcription. New evidence shows that suppressors, regulators, and degraders control Jak2/Stat5. This review focuses on the most recent advances in the field of PRL/GH signal transduction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beverly S Chilton
- Department of Cell Biology and Biochemistry, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Lubbock, Texas 79430, USA
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42
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Teilum K, Hoch JC, Goffin V, Kinet S, Martial JA, Kragelund BB. Solution structure of human prolactin. J Mol Biol 2005; 351:810-23. [PMID: 16045928 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmb.2005.06.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2005] [Revised: 06/16/2005] [Accepted: 06/17/2005] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
We report the solution structure of human prolactin determined by NMR spectroscopy. Our result is a significant improvement over a previous structure in terms of number and distribution of distance restraints, regularity of secondary structure, and potential energy. More significantly, the structure is sufficiently different that it leads to different conclusions regarding the mechanism of receptor activation and initiation of signal transduction. Here, we compare the structure of unbound prolactin to structures of both the homologue ovine placental lactogen and growth hormone. The structures of unbound and receptor bound prolactin/placental lactogen are similar and no noteworthy structural changes occur upon receptor binding. The observation of enhanced binding at the second receptor site when the first site is occupied has been widely interpreted to indicate conformational change induced by binding the first receptor. However, our results indicate that this enhanced binding at the second site could be due to receptor-receptor interactions or some other free energy sources rather than conformational change in the hormone. Titration of human prolactin with the extracellular domain of the human prolactin receptor was followed by NMR, gel filtration and electrophoresis. Both binary and ternary hormone-receptor complexes are clearly detectable by gel filtration and electrophoresis. The binary complex is not observable by NMR, possibly due to a dynamic equilibrium in intermediate exchange within the complex. The ternary complex of one hormone molecule bound to two receptor molecules is on the contrary readily detectable by NMR. This is in stark contrast to the widely held view that the ternary prolactin-receptor complex is only transiently formed. Thus, our results lead to improved understanding of the prolactin-prolactin receptor interaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaare Teilum
- Department of Protein Chemistry, Institute of Molecular Biology and Physiology, University of Copenhagen, Øster Farimagsgade 2A, DK-1353 Copenhagen K, Denmark
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43
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Wallis OC, Mac-Kwashie AO, Makri G, Wallis M. Molecular evolution of prolactin in primates. J Mol Evol 2005; 60:606-14. [PMID: 15983870 DOI: 10.1007/s00239-004-0239-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2004] [Accepted: 11/22/2004] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Pituitary prolactin, like growth hormone (GH) and several other protein hormones, shows an episodic pattern of molecular evolution in which sustained bursts of rapid change contrast with long periods of slow evolution. A period of rapid change occurred in the evolution of prolactin in primates, leading to marked sequence differences between human prolactin and that of nonprimate mammals. We have defined this burst more precisely by sequencing the coding regions of prolactin genes for a prosimian, the slow loris (Nycticebus pygmaeus), and a New World monkey, the marmoset (Callithrix jacchus). Slow loris prolactin is very similar in sequence to pig prolactin, so the episode of rapid change occurred during primate evolution, after the separation of lines leading to prosimians and higher primates. Marmoset prolactin is similar in sequence to human prolactin, so the accelerated evolution occurred before divergence of New World monkeys and Old World monkeys/apes. The burst of change was confined largely to coding sequence (nonsynonymous sites) for mature prolactin and is not marked in other components of the gene sequence. This and the observations that (1) there was no apparent loss of function during the episode of rapid evolution, (2) the rate of evolution slowed toward the basal rate after this burst, and (3) the distribution of substitutions in the prolactin molecule is very uneven support the idea that this episode of rapid change was due to positive adaptive selection. In the slow loris and marmoset there is no evidence for duplication of the prolactin gene, and evidence from another New World monkey (Cebus albifrons) and from the chimpanzee and human genome sequences, suggests that this is the general position in primates, contrasting with the situation for GH genes. The chimpanzee prolactin sequence differs from that of human at two residues and comparison of human and chimpanzee prolactin gene sequences suggests that noncoding regions associated with regulating expression may be evolving differently from other noncoding regions.
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Affiliation(s)
- O Caryl Wallis
- Biochemistry Department, School of Life Sciences, University of Sussex, Brighton, UK.
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44
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Goffin V, Bernichtein S, Touraine P, Kelly PA. Development and potential clinical uses of human prolactin receptor antagonists. Endocr Rev 2005; 26:400-22. [PMID: 15814850 DOI: 10.1210/er.2004-0016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 150] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
There is a large body of literature showing that prolactin (PRL) exerts growth-promoting activities in breast cancer, and possibly in prostate cancer and prostate hyperplasia. In addition, increasing evidence argues for the involvement of locally produced (autocrine) PRL, perhaps even more than pituitary-secreted (endocrine) PRL, in tumor growth. Because dopamine analogs are unable to inhibit PRL production in extrapituitary sites, alternative strategies need investigation. To that end, several PRL receptor antagonists have been developed by introducing various mutations into its natural ligands. For all but one of these analogs, the mechanism of action involves a competition with endogenous PRL for receptor binding. Such compounds are thus candidates to counteract the undesired actions of PRL, not only in tumors, but also in dopamine-resistant prolactinomas. In this review, we describe the different versions of antagonists that have been developed, with emphasis on the controversies regarding their characterization, and the limits for their potential development as a drug. The most recently developed antagonist, Delta1-9-G129R-hPRL, is the only one that is totally devoid of residual agonistic activity, meaning it acts as pure antagonist. We discuss to what extent this new molecule could be considered as a lead compound for inhibiting the actions of human PRL in the above-mentioned diseases. We also speculate on the multiple questions that could be addressed with respect to the therapeutic use of PRL receptor antagonists in patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vincent Goffin
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale Unit 584, Faculté de Médecine Necker, 156, rue de Vaugirard, 75730 Paris Cedex 15, France.
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45
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Kansaku N, Ohkubo T, Okabayashi H, Guémené D, Kuhnlein U, Zadworny D, Shimada K. Cloning of duck PRL cDNA and genomic DNA. Gen Comp Endocrinol 2005; 141:39-47. [PMID: 15707601 DOI: 10.1016/j.ygcen.2004.11.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2004] [Revised: 11/20/2004] [Accepted: 11/29/2004] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Complementary DNA (cDNA) and genomic DNA, including flanking regions of the prolactin (PRL) gene of domesticated duck, were cloned and sequenced. Duck PRL was found to have 92.0, 91.7, and 91.4% sequence identity at the cDNA level to PRL of chicken, turkey, and quail, respectively. The predicted amino acid sequence had an overall similarity with a comparable region of chicken (93.4%), turkey (91.3%), and quail (91.3%) PRL. Mature duck PRL contains the consensus sequence for N-linked glycoslylation at position 6 which is not present in either chickens or turkeys. Thus, duck PRL is likely to be post-translationally modified differently from other avian species. Based on the cDNA sequence, the genomic structure of the gene was characterized. The duck PRL gene consists of 5 exons and 4 introns. Moreover, sequence analysis of the proximal region of duck PRL promoter revealed a high degree of similarity to that of chicken and turkey PRL promoter. These results suggest that the mechanisms, which regulate expression of the PRL gene, may be widely conserved in avian species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Norio Kansaku
- Laboratory of Animal Genetics and Breeding, Azabu University, Fuchinobe, Sagamihara 229-8501, Japan.
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46
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47
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Stenovec M, Poberaj I, Kreft M, Zorec R. Concentration-dependent staining of lactotroph vesicles by FM 4-64. Biophys J 2005; 88:2607-13. [PMID: 15681650 PMCID: PMC1305357 DOI: 10.1529/biophysj.104.054098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Hormones are released from neuroendocrine cells by passing through an exocytotic pore that forms after vesicle and plasma membrane fusion. An elegant way to study this process at the single-vesicle level is to use styryl dyes, which stain not only the membrane, but also the matrix of individual vesicles in some neuroendocrine cells. However, the mechanism by which the vesicle matrix is stained is not completely clear. One possibility is that molecules of the styryl dye in the bath solution dissolve first in the plasma membrane and are then transported into the vesicle by lateral diffusion in the plane of the membrane, and finally the vesicle matrix is stained from the vesicle membrane. On the other hand, these molecules may enter the vesicle lumen and reach the vesicle matrix by permeation through an open aqueous fusion pore. To address these questions, we exposed pituitary lactotrophs to different concentrations of FM 4-64 to monitor the fluorescence increase of single vesicles by confocal microscopy after the stimulation of cells by high K(+). The results show that the membrane and the vesicle matrix exhibit different concentration-dependent properties: the plasma membrane staining by FM 4-64 has a higher affinity in comparison to the vesicle matrix. Moreover, the kinetics of vesicle loading by FM 4-64 exhibited a concentration-dependent process, which indicates that FM 4-64 molecules stain the vesicle matrix by aqueous permeation through an open fusion pore.
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48
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Sivaprasad U, Canfield JM, Brooks CL. Mechanism for ordered receptor binding by human prolactin. Biochemistry 2004; 43:13755-65. [PMID: 15504038 DOI: 10.1021/bi049333p] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Prolactin, a lactogenic hormone, binds to two prolactin receptors sequentially, the first receptor binding at site 1 of the hormone followed by the second receptor binding at site 2. We have investigated the mechanism by which human prolactin (hPRL) binds the extracellular domain of the human prolactin receptor (hPRLbp) using surface plasmon resonance (SPR) technology. We have covalently coupled hPRL to the SPR chip surface via coupling chemistries that reside in and block either site 1 or site 2. Equilibrium binding experiments using saturating hPRLbp concentrations show that site 2 receptor binding is dependent on site 1 receptor occupancy. In contrast, site 1 binding is independent of site 2 occupancy. Thus, sites 1 and 2 are functionally coupled, site 1 binding inducing the functional organization of site 2. Site 2 of hPRL does not have a measurable binding affinity prior to hPRLbp binding at site 1. After site 1 receptor binding, site 2 affinity is increased to values approaching that of site 1. Corruption of either site 1 or site 2 by mutagenesis is consistent with a functional coupling of sites 1 and 2. Fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) experiments indicate that receptor binding at site 1 induces a conformation change in the hormone. These data support an "induced-fit" model for prolactin receptor binding where binding of the first receptor to hPRL induces a conformation change in the hormone creating the second receptor-binding site.
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Affiliation(s)
- Umasundari Sivaprasad
- The Ohio State Biochemistry Program and Department of Veterinary Biosciences, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210, USA
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49
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Piwnica D, Touraine P, Struman I, Tabruyn S, Bolbach G, Clapp C, Martial JA, Kelly PA, Goffin V. Cathepsin D Processes Human Prolactin into Multiple 16K-Like N-Terminal Fragments: Study of Their Antiangiogenic Properties and Physiological Relevance. Mol Endocrinol 2004; 18:2522-42. [PMID: 15192082 DOI: 10.1210/me.2004-0200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
16K prolactin (PRL) is the name given to the 16-kDa N-terminal fragment obtained by proteolysis of rat PRL by tissue extracts or cell lysates, in which cathepsin D was identified as the candidate protease. Based on its antiangiogenic activity, 16K PRL is potentially a physiological inhibitor of tumor growth. Full-length human PRL (hPRL) was reported to be resistant to cathepsin D, suggesting that antiangiogenic 16K PRL may be physiologically irrelevant in humans. In this study, we show that hPRL can be cleaved by cathepsin D or mammary cell extracts under the same conditions as described earlier for rat PRL, although with lower efficiency. In contrast to the rat hormone, hPRL proteolysis generates three 16K-like fragments, which were identified by N-terminal sequencing and mass spectrometry as corresponding to amino acids 1-132 (15 kDa), 1-147 (16.5 kDa), and 1-150 (17 kDa). Biochemical and mutagenetic studies showed that the species-specific digestion pattern is due to subtle differences in primary and tertiary structures of rat and human hormones. The antiangiogenic activity of N-terminal hPRL fragments was assessed by the inhibition of growth factor-induced thymidine uptake and MAPK activation in bovine umbilical endothelial cells. Finally, an N-terminal hPRL fragment comigrating with the proteolytic 17-kDa fragment was identified in human pituitary adenomas, suggesting that the physiological relevance of antiangiogenic N-terminal hPRL fragments needs to be reevaluated in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Piwnica
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM) Unit 584, Hormone Targets, Faculté de Médecine Necker, 75730, Paris Cedex 15, France
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50
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Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW This review aims to summarize current knowledge about prolactin, and outlines recent information that affects the management of patients with hyperprolactinaemia. RECENT FINDINGS The actions of prolactin have been clarified by studies of prolactin-receptor-deficient mice, which have a clear phenotype of reproductive failure at multiple sites. The treatment of patients with hyperprolactinaemia or prolactinoma is largely achieved using dopamine agonist drugs, which induce the shrinkage of pituitary prolactinomas as well as control of the endocrine syndrome. Recent findings indicate that successful cabergoline treatment may be able to induce long-term remission, allowing drug withdrawal in a substantial proportion of patients. SUMMARY At present, dopamine agonist drugs remain the best treatment for hyperprolactinaemic patients, and can help most affected women achieve pregnancy. Future work is likely to help understand the basis of long-term remission in patients with pituitary prolactinomas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julian R E Davis
- Department of Endocrinology, Manchester Royal Infirmary, Manchester, UK.
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