Morphological and Biochemical Changes Following Acute Unilateral Testicular Torsion in Prepubertal Rats

Experimental study of the effectiveness of warm ischemia and cold ischemia during testis-sparing surgery in rats

INTRODUCTION

The postpubertal effects of testis-sparing surgery on prepubertal testicular tumors are not fully understood.

OBJECTIVE

In this study, we aimed to evaluate the effect of different durations of warm and cold ischemia during a rat prepubertal testis-sparing surgery model on the ischemic and contralateral normal testes in the postpubertal period.

STUDY DESIGN

The study encompassed a group of 54 male rats in the prepubertal stage who were then arranged to be put into nine groups: sham (Sh), control-cold (Cc), control-biopsy (Cb), 30, 60 or 90min warm ischemia (WIb30,WIb60,WIb90) and cold ischemia (CIb30,CIb60,CIb90). In the ischemia groups, a microvascular clamp was applied to the right spermatic cord, then testicular biopsy was taken. In the cold ischemia groups, the testicles were preserved in sterile ice mud. After the experiment, the rats were observed for 4 weeks to pinpoint any changes during their progression into the post-pubertal period. Bilateral orchiectomy materials were examined histopathologically, and Johnsen scores were used to evaluate postpubertal fertility potential.

RESULTS

In our investigation, rats in all groups exhibited similar weight gains. The postpubertal size of the right testis in the testicular biopsy groups was found to be smaller compared to the remaining groups. In the warm ischemia group, testicular atrophy occurred after ischemic duration exceeding 30 min. Conversely, no testicular atrophy was observed in the cold ischemia groups. The dimensions of the rats' left testicles were similar. On histopathology, right testicular Johnsen scores were significantly lower in the warm ischemic groups than in the cold ischemic groups.

DISCUSSION

Our study is the first to investigate the postpubertal effects of varying durations of warm and cold ischemia in a prepubertal testis-sparing surgery model. In our study, the Johnsen scores of testes subjected to 30, 60, and 90 min of ischemia were found to be higher in the cold ischemia groups compared to the warm ischemia groups. As the ischemia duration prolonged, a discernible progression of testicular atrophy was observed in the warm ischemia groups, contrasting with the sustained stability of testicular sizes in the cold ischemia groups.

CONCLUSIONS

Warm ischemia applied to the testis causes damage to the testicle within the first 30 min and leads to atrophy after 30 min. In the cases of warm ischemia, both the Johnsen scores, which serve as indicators of post-pubertal fertility, and the testicular size decline in parallel with the duration of ischemia.

The effect of hydrogen sulfide on ischemi̇a /reperfusion injury in an experimental testicular torsion model

INTRODUCTION

Testicular torsion is an acute pediatric surgical emergency requiring rapid diagnosis to prevent the permanent ischaemic damage of the testicles. Hydrogen Sulfide (H2S) have shown to cure tissue damage and has a role in the prevention of I/R damage. We aimed to evaluate the effect of H2S in testicular torsion.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Eighteen male, Wistar albino rats were divided into 3 groups. The sham group which is applied surgical stress. The ischemia/reperfusion group (I/R) which detorsion performed 1 h later than testicular torsion application. I/R + NaHS treatment group, NaHS solution was injected intraperitoneally for 1 week. On the 7th day of the detorsion all left testes were fixed in Bouin solution and sent to Pathology Department for histopathological examination. All right testes were washed with normal saline, dried in a sterile way and stored in - 80 °C deepfreeze up to the date of biochemical processes. Testicular tissues were obtained for the detection of myeloperoxidase (MPO), malondialdehyde (MDA), AOPP (advanced oxidation protein product) for oxidant markers and ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) levels, superoxide dismutase (SOD),glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) activities for antioxidant markers and histopathological exploration.

RESULTS

The effects of NaHs administration on oxidation were evaluated by determination of testicular MPO, MDA and AOPP levels. Increased testicular MPO (58.6%) activity was observed in the I/R group compared to the sham group. Following NaHS treatment, MPO (26.7%) activity was significantly decreased in rats exposed to I/R injury (Figure 1). MDA levels did not alter. Increases in AOPP (20.9%) levels were observed in the I/R group. NaHS treatment resulted in significant decreases in AOPP (25.1%) levels in testes tissues of rats exposed to I/R injury. The effects of NaHS treatment on antioxidant system FRAP, SOD, GSH and GSH-Px activities were evaluated. GSH levels were significantly increased in the IR + NaHS group compared to the I/R group. In histopathological examination degeneration of seminiferous tubules and spermatogenic cells were observed in the I/R group. After NaHS treatment, normal spermatogenic activity with many spermatozoa in the lumen of most seminiferous tubules were observed in the I/R injured rats. According to Johnsen's scoring (JS), the I/R group was significantly decreased compared to the sham group. JS values for the I/R + NaHS group were significantly increased compared to the I/R group.

CONCLUSION

Our study supports that ischemia/reperfusion injury plays an important role in the testicular torsion injury, and it is a pioneer study showing that H₂S may have a potential for therapeutic effect. The limitation of this work is this is an experimental study with limited number of animals. According to the results of our study, hydrogen sulfide treatment has beneficial effects on biochemical and histopathological results of testicular injury in testic torsion.

The potential protective and therapeutic effects of platelet-rich plasma on ischemia/reperfusion injury following experimental torsion/detorsion of testis in the Albino rat model

AIMS

This study was designed to evaluate the protective and therapeutic efficacy of platelet-rich plasma (PRP) against testicular degeneration and germ cell apoptosis after induced spermatic cord torsion/detorsion (TD) in rats.

MATERIALS

Forty rats were allocated into 5 groups: 1) control, 2) short torsion/detorsion (STD), 3) long torsion detorsion (LTD), 4) protective (PRP/P) and 5) treatment (PRP/T). Testicular ischemia was induced by twisting the right testis 1080° clockwise for 2.5 h. PRP (10 μl) was injected intra-testicular 5 min before (PRP/P) and 3 h after (PRP/T) detorsion. At the end of the experiment, rats were euthanized at 2, 30, 2, and 30 days for groups 2-5 respectively. Nitric oxide, malondialdehyde, catalase, total antioxidant capacity, reduced glutathione, glutathione-S-transferase, interleukin1 beta, tumor necrosis factor, caspase-3, and B-cell lymphoma 2 expressions were assessed in the testes. Moreover, histological examination was performed.

KEY FINDINGS

PRP treatment significantly mitigated the torsion-detorsion induced testicular degeneration. Particularly, by improving the state of oxidative stress (NO, P = 0.0001) and antioxidant markers (TAC, GSH, GST, P = 0.0001-0.01) and decreasing the expression of IL-1β, TNF-α and cas 3 and increase the BCL2 fold changes (P = 0.0001). The protective use of PRP is superior to the therapeutic use of PRP in the restoration of the testicular histoarchitecture following TD.

SIGNIFICANCE

This study illustrates the cyto-protective role of PRP against TD induced testicular cell injury that highlight possible application of PRP as a complementary therapy in different testicular degenerative diseases which might attribute to its ability to ameliorate the oxidative stress and inhibit induced apoptosis.

Epithelial growth factor and decompressive testicular fasciotomy to control ischemia reperfusion injury in rats

PURPOSE

Testicular torsion is an urological emergency and an important cause of male infertility. Recent studies have shown that not only ischemia, but also the restoration of blood flow creates a deleterious situation for the testis. The goal of this work was to evaluate the role of systemic epithelial growth factor application and its association with decompressive fasciotomy in tissue recovery of the testes undergoing the torsion of the spermatic cord.

METHOD

Torsion of the spermatic cord was induced in 40 Wistar pubescent testes for a period of 4 h. At the time of detorsion systemic epithelial growth factor and decompressive fasciotomy were applied as treatment alternatives. After 21 days, the testicles were examined macro and microscopically.

RESULTS

The variables evaluated were weight, testicular volume and the degree of histological alterations by optical microscopy. The rate of healing of testicular torsion showed significant difference between the groups. It was noted that in terms of testicular weight and volume the animals treated with systemic epithelial growth factor resembled the control group and had a better histological classification than the other groups. The mean Johnsen score was significantly higher in the group treated with systemic growth factor and decompressive testicular fasciotomy than in the group without fasciotomy. No significant changes were noted in the contralateral testes.

CONCLUSION

Although decompressive testicular fasciotomy improved spermatogenesis, recovery was limited. Systemic epithelial growth factor administered in combination with decompressive testicular fasciotomy was more effective for spermatogenesis than fasciotomy alone. Administering epithelial growth factor after reperfusion might have the potential to decrease long-term histologic damage after testicular torsion. The combination of decompressive testicular fasciotomy and epithelial growth factor had a synergistic effect on the healing of these testes.

Estimating the time of onset of testicular torsion using ultrasonography in an experimental rat model

Purpose

We aimed to document the time of onset of ultrasonographic and histologic changes in the testes of a rat model following testicular torsion.

Methods

Twenty-five Sprague-Dawley rats were divided into four groups. All animals underwent preoperative Doppler ultrasonography. Groups 1, 2, and 3 underwent unilateral surgical torsion of the testis lasting for 72, 24, and 6 hours, respectively. Group 4 underwent a sham operation. The animals were followed with Doppler ultrasonography at 6, 24, 48, and 72 hours postoperatively. Histologic examinations were performed at the designated final time point for each group.

Results

After torsion, enlargement of the epididymal head and thickening of the spermatic cord over time were noted. Based on the ultrasonographic dimensions, the ratio of the epididymal volume increased with time following torsion (p=0.002). The torsed testes had an average weight gain of 0.27 g at 6 hours compared to the control testes, but an average weight loss of 0.22 g at 72 hours (P=0.006). Changes in testicular echotexture were noted as soon as 6 hours after torsion, but there was no consistent pattern of echotexture change thereafter. Histologically, viable tubules were seen 6 hours after torsion, while extensive hemorrhagic necrosis was found at 72 hours.

Conclusion

In evaluating testicular torsion, the enlargement ratio of the epididymis and thickening of the spermatic cord on Doppler ultrasonography may be useful for determining the urgency of immediate surgery. Changes in testicular echotexture may not be a reliable indicator of the time of onset.

Prevention of the harmful effects of free oxygen radicals by using N-acetylcysteine in testicular torsion

INTRODUCTION

Testicular torsion is a urological emergency both in childhood and in adult life. Many studies on experimental testicular torsion have demonstrated biochemical and pathological ischemia-reperfusion injury and the efficacy of some drugs have been investigated to prevent this damage. N-acetylcysteine (NAC) promotes glutathione synthesis and acts as a glutathione precursor because of the fact that it increases the glutathione-reductase activity by transporting sulfhydryl groups.

AIM

In this experimental study, the authors aimed to investigate the effectiveness of NAC in preventing ischemia-reperfusion injury following testicular torsion and detorsion.

STUDY DESIGN

For this experimental study, 36 albino Wistar-male rats were used. The rats were randomly divided into 4 groups: sham (n = 8), ischemia-reperfusion (n = 8), ischemia-NAC -reperfusion (n = 10), and ischemia-NAC-reperfusion-NAC (n = 10) groups. Two hours of torsion and 4 h of detorsion were created in the left testis. After 4 h of detorsion, the rats were sacrificed. Each tissue was divided into two sections for biochemical and pathological examinations.

RESULTS

There was a statistically significant difference between the study groups in terms of the total-sulfhydryl level, nitric oxide level, and the malondialdehyde values. Histopathological examination revealed that NAC was effective in preventing reperfusion injury in the testis but ineffective in preventing the reduction in the spermatid count.

DISCUSSION

The results of this experimental study support that NAC can histopathologically maintain the structure of seminiferous tubules against ischemis reperfusion injury and prevent damage to the germinative cells. However, it was unable to prevent the reduction in spermatid count. There was no significant difference in the prevention of ischemia-reperfusion injury between NAC administration during the first hour of ischemia and NAC administration during reperfusion. Although NAC can prevent tissue damage from ischemia reperfusion injury, it is not effective against the reduction in the spermatid count.

CONCLUSION

N-acetylcysteine may be biochemically effective in preventing ischemia-reperfusion injury after testicular torsion and detorsion. NAC is a readily available and easy to use agent that can be used during testicular ischemia.

Protective effects of polydatin on experimental testicular torsion and detorsion injury in rats

Oxidative stress plays a critical role in the process of testicular torsion and detorsion (T/D). The purpose of the present study was to investigate the protective effect of polydatin (PD) on testicular T/D injury. Rats were randomly divided into three groups, a sham group, a group subjected to 2 h torsion followed by 24 h detorsion and a group subjected to T/D and injected i.p. with 20 mg kg−1 PD 30 min before detorsion. Unilateral orchiectomy was performed after 24 h of reperfusion. Half the testes were prepared for histological examination by haematoxylin–eosin staining and the terminal deoxyribonucleotidyl transferase-mediated dUTP–digoxigenin nick end-labelling (TUNEL) technique. In the remaining tissues, levels of malondialdehyde (MDA), catalase (CAT), glutathione peroxidase (GPx) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) were determined, as was the expression of several apoptosis-related proteins. Compared with the T/D group, PD pretreatment significantly ameliorated the morphological damage, lowered the Cosentino histological score and increased the mean number of germ cell layers and Johnsen’s testicular biopsy score. In addition, PD treatment markedly decreased MDA levels and upregulated CAT, GPx and SOD activity. Furthermore, PD decreased T/D-induced germ cell-specific apoptosis, attenuated the activation of caspase-3, caspase-8, caspase-9 and poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase and increased the Bcl-2/Bax ratio. The findings indicate that PD has a protective effect against testicular T/D injuries, especially at the histological, antioxidative stress and antiapoptotic levels.

Absence of Peroxiredoxin 6 Amplifies the Effect of Oxidant Stress on Mobility and SCSA/CMA3 Defined Chromatin Quality and Impairs Fertilizing Ability of Mouse Spermatozoa

Oxidative stress, the imbalance between reactive oxygen species production and antioxidant defenses, is associated with male infertility. Peroxiredoxins (PRDXs) are antioxidant enzymes with a wide distribution in spermatozoa. PRDX6 is highly abundant and located in all subcellular compartments of the spermatozoon. Infertile men have lower levels of sperm PRDX6 associated with low sperm motility and high DNA damage. In order to better understand the role of PRDX6 in male reproduction, the aim of this study was to elucidate the impact of the lack of PRDX6 on male mouse fertility. Spermatozoa lacking PRDX6 showed significantly increased levels of cellular oxidative damage evidenced by high levels of lipid peroxidation, 8-hydroxy-deoxyguanosine (DNA oxidation), and protein oxidation (S-glutathionylation and carbonylation), lower sperm chromatin quality (high DNA fragmentation and low DNA compaction, due to low levels of protamination and a high percentage of free thiols), along with decreased sperm motility and impairment of capacitation as compared with wild-type (WT) spermatozoa. These manifestations of damage are exacerbated by tert-butyl hydroperoxide treatment in vivo. While WT males partially recovered the quality of their spermatozoa (in terms of motility and sperm DNA integrity), Prdx6(-/-) males showed higher levels of sperm damage (lower motility and chromatin integrity) 6 mo after the end of treatment. In conclusion, Prdx6(-/-) males are more vulnerable to oxidative stress than WT males, resulting in impairment of sperm quality and ability to fertilize the oocyte, compatible with the subfertility phenotype observed in these knockout mice.

The Effects of Local and Systemic Growth Hormone Treatment on Germ Cell Population and Fertility in an Experimental Unilateral Testicular Torsion and Orchiectomy Model

PURPOSE

We evaluated the effects of local and systemic growth hormone on the germ cell population of the contralateral testes of pubertal rats subjected to unilateral testicular torsion and orchiectomy 24 hours later.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A total of 40 male Wistar-Albino rats at age 3 weeks were divided into 5 groups. In the sham operated group the right testis was sutured and orchiectomy was performed 24 hours later. In groups 2 to 5 orchiectomy was performed 24 hours later following testicular torsion. In groups 3 and 4 unloaded and growth hormone loaded gelatin films, respectively, were sutured on the contralateral testes. In group 5 systemic growth hormone was administered for 7 days. Five weeks later each rat was cohabited with 2 female rats and the left testes were removed for evaluation. Mean seminiferous tubular diameter, mean testicular biopsy score and the mean haploid cell percentage were calculated. Mating studies were performed and fertility parameters were assayed.

RESULTS

Mean seminiferous tubular diameter, mean testicular biopsy score and the mean haploid cell percentage of the contralateral testes were significantly decreased in the control and gelatin groups compared with the other groups. There was no difference between the local and systemic growth hormone groups regarding the haploid cell percentage. There were no differences between the groups in mean fetus numbers, mating or fertility and fecundity indexes except in the gelatin group, in which the mean fetus number was significantly lower.

CONCLUSIONS

Fertility is not affected in rats after 24 hours of testicular torsion and orchiectomy, although there is germ cell injury and a decrease in the percent of haploid cells. Growth hormone administration resulted in the restoration of germ cell histology and an increase in the haploid cell percentage of the contralateral testes. Growth hormone may improve fertility after unilateral testicular torsion and orchiectomy.

Protective effects of the nuclear factor kappa B inhibitor pyrrolidine dithiocarbamate on experimental testicular torsion and detorsion injury

Testicular torsion results with the damage of the testis and it is a surgical emergency. Pyrrolidine dithiocarbamate (PDTC) is a low-molecular-weight antioxidant and potent inhibitor of nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) activation. In this study, we aimed to investigate the effects of PDTC to testicular torsion-detorsion (T/D) injury. Forty adult male Sprague-Dawley rats were separated into four groups. A sham operation was performed in group I. In group II, torsion is performed 2 hours by 720 degree extravaginally testis. In group III, 4 h reperfusion of the testis was performed after 2 h of testicular torsion. In group IV, after performing the same surgical procedures as in group III, PDTC (100 mg/kg, intravenous's) was administered before 30 min of detorsion. The testes tissue malondialdehyde (MDA), superoxide dismutase (SOD) catalase (CAT) level was evaluated. Histological evaluations were performed after hematoxylin and eosin staining. Testicular tissue MDA levels were the highest in the T/D groups compared with treatment group. Administration of PDTC prevented a further increase in MDA levels. Significant decrease occurred in CAT and SOD levels in treatment group compared with the control group. The rats in the treatment group had normal testicular architecture. The results suggest that PDTC can be a potential protective agent for preventing the biochemical and histological changes related to oxidative stress in testicular injury caused by testis torsion.

The effect of erythropoietin on ischemia/reperfusion injury after testicular torsion/detorsion: a randomized experimental study

This study was conducted to investigate the protective effect of erythropoietin (EPO) on ischemia/reperfusion related changes after testicular torsion/detorsion. In a randomized experimental trial 30 male rats were randomly allocated into six equal groups of five rats each. Group I (orchiectomy for histopathologic examination), group II (sham operation), group III (torsion for 2 hours, and ischemia/detorsion for 24 hours, and orchiectomy); group IV (torsion for 2 hours, ischemia/detorsion for 24 hours with erythropoietin injection then orchiectomy), group V (torsion for 2 hours and detorsion and EPO injection and orchiectomy 1 week later, group VI (torsion for 2 hours/detorsion and orchiectomy 1 week later). Two groups (groups 4 and 5) received different protocols of erythropoietin administration after testicular torsion/distortion. other groups were not receiving erythropoietin. Johnsen's spermatogenesis scoring method and Cosentino's histologic staging method were used to assess main outcome measures of the study. After the experimentation, Johnsen's score in EPO Groups was statistically different from the score in some groups not receiving erythropoietin. Cosentino's score in EPO groups was statistically different from the score in all groups not receiving erythropoietin. Neovascularization, vascular necrosis, vascular congestion, edema, hemorrhage, and acute inflammation were observed in some groups. This study shows short-term protective efficacy of erythropoietin on rat testicular injury after ischemia/reperfusion.

Effects of 3-aminobenzamide on unilateral testicular ischemia–reperfusion injury: What is the role of PARP inhibition?

The therapeutic effects of poly(adenosine diphosphate-ribose) polymerase inhibition by 3-aminobenzamide (3-AB) were investigated in testicular ischemia–reperfusion (I/R) injury, using sperm analysis and histopathological and biochemical examinations, including superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) activities and reduced glutathione (GSH) levels. Male rats were divided into 3 groups: sham (n = 12), I/R (n = 12), and I/R with 3-AB (I/R–3-AB) (n = 12). The left testicular artery was occluded for 1 h, followed by 24 h (for biochemical and histopathological examinations) and 30 days (for sperm analysis) of reperfusion. 3-AB treatment intraperitoneally 10 min prior to and 1 h after reperfusion increased the I/R-induced decrease in sperm motility in both testes and reduced the increased abnormal sperm rates in the ipsilateral testis. However, 3-AB treatment failed to prevent the I/R-induced decrease in sperm concentration in both testes. SOD and CAT activities did not change in any group. GSH-Px activity and GSH levels were increased by I/R. 3-AB treatment reversed the I/R-induced increase in GSH-Px activity, similar to the level in sham rats, but did not alter GSH levels. 3-AB treatment significantly increased the I/R-induced decrease in histopathologic score. In conclusion, 3-AB treatment has potential biochemical and histopathological benefits beyond improving sperm quality and may have the potential to decrease damage from testicular torsion.

Effect of allopurinol on damage caused by free radicals to cryptorchid testes

Cryptorchidism causes apoptosis of germ cells. It has been suggested that the redox regulatory system is involved in this process. The free radicals produced are thought to be generated during the production of uric acid, a reaction catalyzed by xanthine oxidase. This enzyme is inhibited by allopurinol; however, the role of allopurinol in neonate rats with inguinal cryptorchidism has not been assessed yet. Sixty male Wistar rats were used and five groups were formed: a control, a sham, a sham group with allopurinol administration and two groups with surgical unilateral cryptorchidism, which either did not receive, or received, allopurinol. The rats were assessed at 40 days post-partum. Reactive oxygen species concentration and epithelial area were measured and the histopathological, apoptotic and cellular proliferation indexes were determined. We found a decrease in reactive oxygen species, histopathological and apoptotic indexes and an increase in proliferation index and epithelial area in rats with cryptorchidism treated with allopurinol in comparison with rats with untreated cryptorchidism. We suggest that the over-production of reactive oxygen species plays an important role in the damage of the cryptorchid testes. Allopurinol administration decreases reactive oxygen species concentrations as well as the damage to the germ epithelium.

The protective effect of darbepoetin alfa on experimental testicular torsion and detorsion injury

AIM

Testicular torsion is a serious urological emergency, usually involving newborns, children, and adolescents which can lead to subfertility and infertility. Prevention of testicular damage caused by torsion is still a clinical and experimental problem. So far many chemicals and drugs have been investigated for decreasing ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury in experimental animals. The possible protective effect of darbepoetin alfa, a novel erythropoietic protein, on testicular tissue after I/R injury was examined in this study.

METHODS

Thirty rats were divided into three groups: sham operation, torsion/detorsion, and torsion/detorsion plus darbepoetin alfa groups. After torsion (2 hours) and detorsion (4 hours), bilateral orchiectomy was performed. Malondialdehyde, nitric oxide and glutathione levels were determined in testicular tissue.

RESULTS

Administration of darbepoetin alfa caused a decrease of malondialdehyde and nitric oxide levels and an increase in glutathione levels compared with the torsion/detorsion group. In addition, histological injury scores were significantly decreased in the treatment group more than the torsion/detorsion group.

CONCLUSION

The results suggest that darbepoetin alfa may be a potential protective agent for preventing testicular injury caused by testis torsion.

Effect of melatonin on testicular ischemia/reperfusion injury in rats: is this effect related to the proinflammatory cytokines?

OBJECTIVE

To determine whether the protective effect of melatonin in testicular ischemia/reperfusion (IR) injury is mediated by the proinflammatory molecules.

DESIGN

Experimental study.

SETTING

University pharmacology laboratory.

ANIMAL(S)

Fifty-six 8-week-old male Wistar albino rats.

INTERVENTION(S)

Left testicular artery and vein was occluded for 1 hour, followed by 3 hours or 24 hours of reperfusion. Melatonin (10 mg/kg IP) or vehicle (1% ethanol in saline) was given 10 minutes before ischemia.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S)

Malondialdehyde (MDA), protein carbonyl (PC) content, myeloperoxidase (MPO) activity, and proinflammatory cytokines TNF-alpha, IL-1beta, and IL-6 were examined in testicular tissue after 3 hours of reperfusion. Histologic examination was made after 24 hours of reperfusion.

RESULT(S)

The MDA, PC, and MPO levels in testicular tissue increased significantly after IR, but the proinflammatory cytokine levels did not change. Melatonin treatment decreased lipid and protein oxidation and ameloriated histopathologic alterations induced by IR without any change in proinflammatory cytokine levels.

CONCLUSION(S)

The protective effect of melatonin on IR-induced testiculary injury is related to its antioxidant properties but not to proinflammatory cytokines.

Involvement of mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) during testicular ischemia-reperfusion injury in nuclear factor-kappaB knock-out mice

Nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-kappaB), extracellular regulated kinase (ERK 1/2) and c-jun-N terminal kinase (JNK) play an important role in testicular ischemia. We investigated the patterns of ERK1/2, JNK and p38 activation in NF-kappaB knockout (KO) mice subjected to testicular torsion. KO and normal littermate wild-type (WT) animals underwent at 1 h testicular ischemia followed by 24 h reperfusion (TI/R). Sham testicular ischemia-reperfusion mice served as controls. ERK 1/2, JNK and p38 expression by western blot analysis, tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) expression (RT-PCR and western blot analysis) and a complete histological examination were carried out. TI/R caused a greater increase in phosphorylated form of ERK 1/2 in KO mice than in WT animals in either the ischemic testis and the contralateral one. By contrary, active form of JNK and p38 were completely abrogated in both testes of KO mice, while WT animals showed a significant activation of those kinases in both testes. TNF-alpha expression was markedly reduced in KO mice when compared to WT mice either at the mRNA and the protein level. Finally TI/R-induced histological damage was markedly reduced in KO mice. Our data indicate that NF-kappaB plays a pivotal role in the development of testicular ischemia-reperfusion injury and suggest that, in the absence of the transcriptional factor, the up-stream signal JNK and p38 may be abrogated while ERK 1/2 activity is enhanced.

Reduced sperm yield from testicular biopsies of vasectomized men is due to increased apoptosis

OBJECTIVE

To compare sperm yields, apoptotic indices, and sperm DNA fragmentation from vasectomized men and fertile men undergoing vasectomy.

DESIGN

Testicular biopsies from vasectomized (n = 26) and fertile men (n = 46), were milked to calculate sperm/gram and also formalin-fixed to determine the numbers of developing sperm and incidence and intensities of testicular FasL, Fas, Bax, and Bcl-2. Testicular sperm DNA fragmentation was assessed using the alkaline Comet assay.

SETTING

An ART unit.

PATIENT(S)

Twenty-six men attending for intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) and 46 men attending for vasectomies.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S)

Spermatocyte, spermatid and sperm yields, Fas, FasL, and Bax staining.

RESULT(S)

Sperm yields from men vasectomized >5 years previously were markedly reduced compared to fertile men. Increased intensities of FasL and Bax staining were observed in the seminiferous tubules of vasectomy men. FasL positivity (percentage) also increased in Sertoli cells, and both FasL and Fas positivity (percentage) increased in primary spermatocytes and round spermatids of vasectomized men. Sperm DNA fragmentation, an end point marker of apoptosis, increased significantly in vasectomized men compared to fertile men.

CONCLUSION(S)

Reduced sperm yields after vasectomy are associated with increased apoptosis through the Fas-FasL and Bax pathways. Sperm after vasectomy displayed increased DNA fragmentation.

Long-Term Influence of Prepubertal Testicular Torsion on Spermatogenesis

PURPOSE

To study the influence of prepubertal unilateral testicular torsion on spermatogenesis postpubertally.

METHODS

Sixty prepubertal SD male rats were divided into 6 groups. In each group, animal suffered different courses of unilateral testicular torsion including sham operation, 2- and 6-hour-long torsion, and permanent torsion. Salvia miltiorrhiza was injected as a remedy to release the I/R injury in the 2- and 6-hour-long torted groups. Postpubertally, the percentage of DNA content of haploid cells in the testes was determined individually.

RESULTS

The percentage of haploid cells in the sham operation group was 76.5+/-1.9%. The number decreased in every other group (p<0.01). Comparing with the same course of torsion, Salvia miltiorrhiza injection could improve the percentage of haploid cells (p<0.01). In the permanent unilateral testicular torted group, the percentage was nearly zero (0.4+/-0.2%).

CONCLUSIONS

Prepubertal unilateral testicular torsion induces decreased spermatogenesis postpubertally. The result takes place in the bilateral testes. Salvia miltiorrhiza, as an antioxidant remedy, could relieve the injury which manifests improved spermatogenesis.

Lipid Peroxidation Activates Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinases in Testicular Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury

PURPOSE

Testicular damage after torsion has been attributed to many mechanisms, of which one is lipid peroxidation of the plasma membrane, which could cause the activation of the mitogen-activated protein kinase family. These proteins are of vital importance for signal transduction pathways and 2 of them, extracellular signal-regulated kinase and c-jun N-terminal kinase, participate in the pathogenesis of testicular ischemia. We investigated whether lipid peroxidation may trigger mitogen-activated protein kinase activation in testicular ischemia-reperfusion.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Adult male Sprague-Dawley rats were subjected to 1-hour testicular ischemia, followed by 24 hours of reperfusion. Sham testicular ischemia-reperfusion rats served as controls. Animals were randomized to receive raxofelast, an inhibitor of lipid peroxidation (20 mg/kg intraperitoneally administered 15 minutes before detorsion and 15 minutes after detorsion) or vehicle (1 ml/kg 10% dimethyl sulfoxide/NaCl solution). A group of animals was sacrificed 0, 10, 15, 20, 25 and 30 minutes, and 1, 2 and 3 hours, respectively, after detorsion to evaluate testicular c-jun N-terminal kinase, extracellular signal-regulated kinase and tumor necrosis factor-alpha activation by Western blot analysis, and mRNA expression and conjugated dienes using a spectrophotometer technique. Another group was sacrificed 24 hours after detorsion to evaluate histological alterations.

RESULTS

Testicular ischemia-reperfusion injury caused a significant increase in the conjugated diene levels, extracellular signal-regulated kinase c-jun N-terminal kinase activity and tumor necrosis factor-alpha expression in both testes. Furthermore, histological examination revealed marked damage. Raxofelast inhibited these parameters and decreased histological damage.

CONCLUSIONS

These data suggest that lipid peroxidation triggers extracellular signal-regulated kinase and c-jun N-terminal kinase activation. Furthermore, mitogen-activated protein kinase blockade might represent a potential therapeutic approach to treatment in patients with unilateral testicular torsion.

Evidence for a Role of Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase 3/Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase in the Development of Testicular Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury

Mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) 3/MAPK1 (also known as ERK1/ERK2) plays an important role in the signal transduction pathways. To our knowledge, however, its role in the development of testicular ischemia-reperfusion injury has not yet been investigated. Therefore, we studied the pattern of MAPK3/MAPK1 activation in a experimental model of testicular ischemia-reperfusion injury. We also investigated MAPK8 to understand whether an association exists between these two MAPKs. Adult male Sprague-Dawley rats were subjected to 1 h of testicular ischemia followed by 24 h of reperfusion or to a sham testicular ischemia-reperfusion. Animals were randomized to receive PD98059, which is an inhibitor of MAPK3/MAPK1 (10 mg/kg i.p. administered immediately after detorsion), or its vehicle. The time course of MAPK3/MAPK1, MAPK8, and tumor necrosis factor (TNF; also known as TNF alpha) expression and a histological examination in both the ischemic-reperfused testis and the contralateral one were performed. In both testes, MAPK3/MAPK1 and MAPK8 expression appeared following 10 min of reperfusion and reached their highest activation after 30 min. The MAPK levels slowly decreased, and no significant expression of either kinase was observed following 2 h of reperfusion. Expression of TNF was evident after 1 h of reperfusion and reached its maximum increase after 3 h. PD98059 blunted MAPK3/MAPK1 and MAPK8, reduced TNF expression, and improved the testicular damage caused by ischemia-reperfusion injury in both testes. These data emphasize that MAPK3/MAPK1 has a role in testicular damage and that its blockade might have a future therapeutic role for the management of patients with unilateral testicular torsion.

Effects of vasectomy on spermatogenesis and fertility outcome after testicular sperm extraction combined with ICSI

BACKGROUND

Each year 40,000 men have a vasectomy in the UK whilst another 2400 request a reversal to begin a second family. Sperm can now be obtained by testicular biopsy and subsequently used in assisted conception with ICSI. The study aims were to compare sperm yields of men post-vasectomy or with obstructive azoospermia (OA) of unknown aetiology with yields of fertile men and to assess any alteration in the clinical pregnancy rates after ICSI.

METHODS

Testicular tissue was obtained by Trucut needle from men who had undergone a vasectomy >5 years previously or had OA from other causes and from fertile men during vasectomy. Seminiferous tubules were milked to measure sperm yields. Numbers of Sertoli cells and spermatids and thickness of the seminiferous tubule walls were assessed using quantitative computerized analysis.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

Sperm yields/g testis were significantly decreased in men post-vasectomy and in men with OA, relative to fertile men. Significant reductions were also observed in early (40%) and mature (29%) spermatid numbers and an increase of 31% was seen in the seminiferous tubule wall (basal membrane and collagen thickness) of vasectomized men compared with fertile men. Clinical pregnancy rates in couples who had had a vasectomy were also significantly reduced.

The protective effect of selenium on ipsilateral and contralateral testes in testicular reperfusion injury

This study was designed to investigate the effect of selenium on ipsilateral and contralateral testicular damage after unilateral testicular torsion/detorsion (T/D). Thirty-two male rats were divided into four groups, each containing eight rats. Torsion was created by rotating the right testis 720 degrees in a clockwise direction. Group 1 underwent sham operation to determine basal values for biochemical and histopathological evaluation. Sham operation was performed in group 2, and sodium selenate (0.2 mg/kg) was given intraperitoneally. Group 3 served as a T/D group, receiving 4-h torsion and 4-h detorsion. Similarly, in group 4 sodium selenate (0.2 mg/kg) was injected intraperitoneally 20 min before detorsion. Bilateral orchiectomies were performed for measurement of tissue malondialdehyde (MDA) levels and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activities and histopathologic examination. The results were compared statistically. The highest MDA and the lowest SOD values were determined in both testes in group 3. There were statistically significant differences in MDA levels and SOD activities in group 3 compared with group 4. Specimens from group 3 had a significantly greater histologic injury than other groups. These results suggest that ischemia-reperfusion injury occurred in both testes after unilateral testicular T/D and that selenium administration before detorsion prevents reperfusion injury in testicular torsion.

Effect of Lomodex-MgSO(4) in the prevention of reperfusion injury following unilateral testicular torsion: an experimental study in rats

Fertility in patients treated for unilateral testicular torsion has been shown to be significantly reduced in all the reported series to date, implying that the present-day treatment requires further refinement in the form of adjunct pharmacotherapeutic intervention (Lomodex and MgSO(4)) in addition to scrotal exploration. Prepubertal Holtzman strain rats (35 days old) were used for our study. Two sets were formed with six groups of rats in each set. Rats were treated as follows: group 1, sham-operated group; group 2, torsion (4 h); group 3, torsion + detorsion (1 h); group 4, torsion + ATP-MgCl(2) + detorsion; group 5, torsion + Lomodex-MgSO(4) + detorsion; group 6, torsion + normal saline + detorsion. Whereas the first set of animals was sacrificed immediately at the end of experiment, animals in set 2 were sacrificed 8 weeks after the end of the experiment to look for the development of antisperm antibodies. Parameters studied were thiobarbituric acid reductase (TBAR) assay, histology of testicular tissue, and sperm agglutination test. Student's t-test was used for significance. With detorsion (149.95+/-30.68) there was a significant rise in the TBAR values (P<0.05) compared with torsion (57.39+/-14.47). Treatment with both Lomodex-MgSO(4) (40.74+/-6.39) and ATP-MgCl(2) (48.30+/-18.35) yielded TBAR levels comparable to those in the sham group (31.35+/-11.96). Similar injury was also seen on the contralateral testis, with detorsion (114.28+/-10.68) much more detrimental than torsion (40.59+/-15.02) and rescue seen following treatment with Lomodex-MgSO(4) (27.55+/-8.64) as well as ATP-MgCl(2) (38.61+/-12.23). Regarding th histology, with detorsion there was evidence of severe distortion of tubules, with almost all the tubules showing maturation arrest and a few tubules completely devoid of any germinal cells. Treatment with Lomodex-MgSO(4) as well as ATP-MgCl(2) showed preservation of tubular morphology. Our study failed to document the presence of agglutinating antibodies (antisperm antibodies) in any of the groups. Unilateral testicular torsion has bilateral effects and is a form of ischemia-reperfusion injury. Treatment of torsion by detorsion alone does not prevent testicular damage. The results of the present study show that administration of Lomodex + MgSO(4) prior to detorsion results in prolonged testicular salvage with a potential of subsequent improvement in semen quality and fertility and reduction in long-term morbidity. The presence of agglutinating antibodies could not be detected in the present study.

Simultaneous increase in germ cell apoptosis and oxidative stress under acute unilateral testicular ischaemia in rats

Ischaemia induced germ cell apoptosis in rat testis was studied in detail to find out (i) spermatogenic stage or seminiferous epithelium region specific involvement of germ cells in apoptosis, (ii) preferential specificity of a particular germ cell type to become apoptotic and (iii) the ratio of live and dead testicular cells isolated in vitro after various period of ischaemic induction. Cell apoptosis, as observed in histological sections increased from 1 to 24 h of ischaemia. Apoptosis was not restricted to any specific germ cell type but was observed simultaneously in all the cell types in the initial hours (1-6 h) of ischaemia. No spermatogenic stage specific preference in apoptotic induction was also observed. However, as the duration of ischaemia progressed, the cell types observed to be most affected in number and morphology were the spermatids followed by spermatocytes. Centrally located tubules of testis were affected first than those located in the periphery. Overexpression of Bax staining was limited to few germ cell nuclei only. More than 95% of the germ cells in the control testis that earlier showed trypan blue dye exclusion were found stained after 12 h of ischaemia. Starting from early hours (1 h), lipid peroxidation rose proportionally with the duration of ischaemia while superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase activities were found decreased. Significant (p < 0.05) increase in the activities of glutathion-s-transferase and levels of hydrogen peroxide were observed after 6 h of ischaemia. These findings indicate that the physiological processes of oxidative stress have a direct linkage to the extent of germ cell apoptosis in the seminiferous epithelium.

Spermatic cord torsion, reactive oxygen and nitrogen species and ischemia–reperfusion injury

Mammalian testes are highly sensitive to oxidative free radical damage. Acute scrotum is a clinical syndrome mainly caused by torsion of the spermatic cord that constitutes a surgical emergence affecting newborns, children and adolescents. This syndrome often leads to infertility of the ipsilateral (torted) and contralateral (not torted) testis, an outcome that makes surgical intervention mandatory. There is a controversy involving the effects of ischemia and reperfusion on ipsilateral and contralateral testes after unilateral torsion and detorsion of the spermatic cord. Conflicting reports have led to two distinct and opposite recommendations regarding surgical intervention: detortion and preservation of the ipsilateral testis, or ipsilateral orchiectomy to preserve contralateral fertility. Early detortion surgery in humans preserves fertility, but after prolonged torsion periods followed by preservation of the ipsilateral fertility of both testis is jeopardized. Lowered contralateral blood flow after unilateral testicular torsion is associated with reactive oxygen species (ROS) overgeneration and therefore with the corresponding tissue damage. Reperfusion time appears to be determinant of contralateral testes damage due to the consequent oxidative insult that accompanies the rise in ROS following ischemia-reperfusion. Nevertheless, more investigations on the molecular mechanisms and the antioxidant status in testis are necessary to ascertain the contribution of ROS to the tissue damage produced by spermatic cord torsion in experimental animals and humans.

The effects of nitric oxide on the expression of cell adhesion molecules (ICAM-1, UEA-1, and tenascin) in rats with unilateral testicular torsion

BACKGROUND/PURPOSE

The aim of this study was to determine the effects of nitric oxide (NO) on the expression of adhesion molecules in the early course of testicular I-R injury in rats.

METHODS

Forty male Sprague-Dawley rats were separated into 4 groups, each containing 10 rats. A sham operation was performed in group 1 (control). In group 2 (I-R), after 6 hours of unilateral testicular torsion, 1-hour detorsion of the testis was performed. In group 3 (I-R/L-NAME), after performing the same surgical procedures as in group II, L-NAME was given for 30 minutes. In group 4 (I-R/Mol), after performing the same surgical procedure (torsion and detorsion) as in group II, molsidomine, an NO donor, was infused for 30 minutes. Then, ipsilateral orchiectomies were performed to measure the tissue levels of malondialdehyde (MDA) and NO and to make histologic examination.

RESULTS

MDA values and the testicular injury score decreased and NO values increased in the I-R/Mol-treated group compared with other experimental groups. The tenascin expression in the interstitial space and basement membrane of the tubuli seminiferi were milder in the I-R/Mol group compared with that of the I-R and the I-R/L-NAME. The acrosomes of the spermatids in I-R and I-R/L-NAME groups were stained mildly by lectin. In the I-R and I-R/L-NAME groups, the interstitial spaces, basement membrane of the tubuli seminiferi, and sertoli and germinal cells in testicular tissue were stained intensely by ICAM-1.

CONCLUSIONS

The expression of adhesion molecules such as tenascin, lectin, and ICAM-1 in the torted testicular tissue may be a pathophysiologic sign of inflammation. NO regulates adhesion molecules expression.

Activation of endothelial nitric oxide synthase in contralateral testis during unilateral testicular torsion in rats

There are controversies about the injury of the contralateral testis during unilateral testicular torsion (UTT). An autonomic reflex arc between bilateral testes has been proposed. The authors focused on the involvement of nitric oxide (NO) in the contralateral testis during UTT. Eight-week-old male Wistar rats underwent unilateral torsion (1 h)-detorsion (up to 24 h). NO synthase (NOS) activity was detected as NADPH-diaphorase activity after fixation by paraformaldehyde. N-nitro-L-Arginine methyl ester (L-NAME, 20 mg/kg) was injected intravenously to the other group of rats. To evaluate the testicular injury, proteolysis of alpha-fodrin production was detected by Western blotting. Apoptosis of the germ cells was evaluated by TUNEL. Long-term effect on spermatogenesis was evaluated by flow cytometry at 60 days after UTT. Transient activation of NOS was detected following the proteolysis of alpha-fodrin in the contralateral testis. L-NAME inhibited these alterations. NADPH-diaphorase activity and eNOS immunoreactivity were co-localized in the endothelial cells. These reactions were not observed in other organs. There was neither enhanced apoptosis nor deteriorated spermatogenesis in the contralateral testis during and 60 days after UTT. In the contralateral testis, eNOS-derived NO regulates the vasomotor function against unilateral testicular torsion, whereas it acts slightly cytotoxic. These results suggest the possible involvement of a testis-specific neurovasomotor reflex between the bilateral testes.

Differentially expressed DNA sequences following recovery from unilateral testicular torsion in rat

The molecular response during recovery from torsion-induced stress in the testis is diverse with a variety of mechanisms. In this study, using unilateral testicular torsion in rat as a model, we used subtractive hybridisation to identify differentially expressed DNA sequences in the torsioned and control testes. Three genes were identified as being down regulated in the torsioned testis compared with controls: Control Testis genes 1, 2 and 3 (CT1, CT2 and CT3). Two genes were up regulated in the torsioned testes: Torsioned Testes genes 1 and 2 (TT1 and TT2). Differential expression was confirmed by Reverse Northern blot analysis. An homology search revealed that CT1 had 88% homology with rat metallothionein cDNA; CT2 had 81% homology with rat cell surface antigen in MHC class I, but no homology could be found for CT3. TT1 had 92% identity with rat Rieske iron-sulphur protein mRNA whereas TT2 had 73% identity with a human clone of unknown function (RP 11-252D22). These results indicate that changes in gene expression occur following torsion induced stress, and that identification of differentially expressed genes may provide insights into the mechanisms of cellular tissue damage in this model.

Effects of unilateral testicular torsion on the blood flow of contralateral testis--an experimental study on dogs

The effects of unilateral testicular torsion on the blood flow of the contralateral testis were investigated. Fourteen adult male dogs were recruited. Seven dogs underwent unilateral testicular torsion of 4 h duration, and the other seven dogs had a control operation. Testicular blood flow was determined by colour Doppler ultrasonography before and after the testicular torsion. Bilateral orchidectomy was performed at the end of the study and histopathological changes were evaluated. Values of peak systolic velocity, end diastolic velocity, and resistive index were not statistically significant between ipsilateral and contralateral testes in the study group (p > 0.05). On comparison with the control group, blood flow in the contralateral testes showed no statistically significant difference (p > 0.05). Oedema and congestion were seen on ipsilateral testes in the study group. No histopathological changes were noted on the contralateral testes. Minimal oedema and congestion secondary to manipulation were found in the control operation testes. We conclude that unilateral testicular torsion does not decrease contralateral testicular blood flow as shown by colour Doppler ultrasonography.

The role of nitric oxide in testicular ischemia-reperfusion injury

PURPOSE

This study was designed to determine the role of nitric oxide (NO) in the ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) injury process in testes.

METHODS

Fifty prepubertal male rats were divided into 5 groups each containing 10 rats. After 4-hour torsion and 4-hour detorsion, bilateral orchiectomies were performed for measurement of tissue malondialdehyde (MDA) level and histopathologic examination. The results were compared statistically. The groups were labeled as group 1, basal values of biochemical parameters in testes; group 2 (control group), torsion plus detorsion; group 3, torsion plus N-monomethyl-L-arginine (L-NMMA) plus detorsion; group 4, torsion plus L-arginine plus detorsion; group 5, sham operation.

RESULTS

The highest MDA values were determined in the L-arginin group in ipsilateral testes. Group 3 and group 4 were statistically different from control group. Histological examination showed that specimens from group 4 had a significantly (P < .05) greater histological injury than group 3, and contralateral testes showed normal testicular architecture in all groups.

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggest that NO plays an important role in damaging the testis with I/R. Although inhibition of NO synthesis with L-NMMA significantly improves I/R injury in testes, enhancing NO production by providing excess of L-arginine increases such damage. In the early periods of detorsion, there is no damage to contralateral testes after unilateral testicular torsion.

Analysis of the relationship between histologic alterations and the generation of reactive oxygen species in vasectomized rat testes

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate the effects of vasal obstruction on testicular structure, to determine if tissue and/or cell damage can cause significant reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, and to correlate the histologic alterations to the measured levels of ROS products.

METHODS

To evaluate the effects of ROS generation in vasectomized testes, unilateral vasectomy was performed on 17 rats and tissue samples were examined by light microscopy. The histologic alterations were correlated to the measured tissue malondialdehyde levels by thiobarbituric acid analysis as an indicator of the ROS-induced tissue damage.

RESULTS

Unilateral vasectomy significantly affected the weights of the ipsilateral testes, but not the contralateral testes. No significant changes were noted in plasma estradiol, follicle-stimulating hormone, luteinizing hormone, and testosterone levels. The mean values of malondialdehyde were found to be significantly higher in vasectomized rats than in control rats (0.025 +/- 0.008 versus 0.018 +/- 0.007 nmol/mg protein) (P < 0.01). The malondialdehyde level was a mean of 28% lower in the contralateral testes tissue as compared to that found in ipsilateral testes (P < 0.01). Malondialdehyde output from vasectomized rats had a parallel correlation to tissue destruction.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results indicate that overproduction of ROS may be involved in vasectomy-induced testicular damage.