Phenotypic resolution of spontaneous and D1-like agonist-induced orofacial movement topographies in congenic dopamine D1A receptor 'knockout' mice

Mechanisms for the modulation of dopamine d(1) receptor signaling in striatal neurons

In the striatum, dopamine D(1) receptors are preferentially expressed in striatonigral neurons, and increase the neuronal excitability, leading to the increase in GABAergic inhibitory output to substantia nigra pars reticulata. Such roles of D(1) receptors are important for the control of motor functions. In addition, the roles of D(1) receptors are implicated in reward, cognition, and drug addiction. Therefore, elucidation of mechanisms for the regulation of dopamine D(1) receptor signaling is required to identify therapeutic targets for Parkinson's disease and drug addiction. D(1) receptors are coupled to G(s/olf)/adenylyl cyclase/PKA signaling, leading to the phosphorylation of PKA substrates including DARPP-32. Phosphorylated form of DARPP-32 at Thr34 has been shown to inhibit protein phosphatase-1, and thereby controls the phosphorylation states and activity of many downstream physiological effectors. Roles of DARPP-32 and its phosphorylation at Thr34 and other sites in D(1) receptor signaling are extensively studied. In addition, functional roles of the non-canonical D(1) receptor signaling cascades that coupled to G(q)/phospholipase C or Src family kinase become evident. We have recently shown that phosphodiesterases (PDEs), especially PDE10A, play a pivotal role in regulating the tone of D(1) receptor signaling relatively to that of D(2) receptor signaling. We review the current understanding of molecular mechanisms for the modulation of D(1) receptor signaling in the striatum.

Phenotypic disruption to orofacial movement topography in conditional mutants with generalized CamKIIa/Cre D1Tox versus striatal-specific DARPP-32/Cre D1Tox ablation of D1 dopamine receptor-expressing cells

Orofacial movements were quantified in (a) DARPP-32/Cre D1Tox mutants, having progressive loss of D1 dopamine receptor expressing striatal medium spiny neurons and (b) CamKIIa/Cre D1Tox mutants, having progressive, generalized loss of forebrain D1 receptor expressing cells. Horizontal jaw movements and tongue protrusions were reduced in DARPP-32/Cre but not in CamKIIa/Cre mutants; head and vibrissae movements were increased in DARPP-32/Cre but decreased in CamKIIa/Cre mutants. In drug challenge studies, tongue protrusions were increased in CamKIIa/Cre mutants following vehicle, suggesting a stress-related phenotype. These findings indicate that mice with progressive loss of striatal-specific D1 receptor expressing cells have an orofacial phenotype that may be modulated by the loss of extrastriatal D1 receptor expressing cells. As progressive loss of D1 dopamine receptor-expressing cells is a hallmark feature of Huntington's disease (HD), these findings may inform the functional role of loss of this cell population in the overall pathobiology of HD.

Orofacial movements in phospholipase C-related catalytically inactive protein-1/2 double knockout mice: Effect of the GABAergic agent diazepam and the D(1) dopamine receptor agonist SKF 83959

Orofacial movements are regulated by D(1)-like dopamine receptors interacting with additional mechanisms. Phospholipase C-related catalytically inactive protein (PRIP) regulates cell surface expression of GABA(A) receptors containing a gamma2 subunit. Mutant mice with double knockout of PRIP-1 and PRIP-2 were used to investigate aspects of GABAergic regulation of orofacial movements and interactions with D(1) mechanisms. Vertical jaw movements, tongue protrusions and movements of the head and vibrissae were reduced in PRIP-1/2 double knockouts. The GABA(A)ergic agent diazepam reduced movements of the head and vibrissae; these effects were unaltered in PRIP-1/2 double knockouts. The D(1)-like agonist SKF 83959 induced vertical jaw movements, incisor chattering, and movements of the head and vibrissae that were unaltered in PRIP-1/2 double knockouts. However, SKF 83959-induced tongue protrusions were reduced in PRIP-1/2 double knockouts. PRIP-mediated regulation of GABA(A)ergic receptor mechanisms influences topographically distinct aspects of orofacial movement and interacts with D(1) receptor systems.

Assessment of jaw movements by magnetic sensor in relation to topographies of orofacial behaviour in freely moving rats: Studies with the dopamine D(1)-like receptor agonists SKF 83822 vs SKF 83959

This study applies new magnetic sensor-electromyographic technology for recording jaw movements in freely moving rats to analyse topographies of orofacial movement that occur in association with individual elements of behaviour under challenge with two dopamine D(1)-like receptor agonists, SKF 83822 ([R/S]-6-chloro-7, 8-dihydroxy-3-allyl-1-[3-methyl-phenyl]-2,3,4,5-tetrahydro-1H-3-benzazepine) and SKF 83959([R/S]-3-methyl-6-chloro-7, 8-dihydroxy-1-[3-methyl-phenyl]-2,3,4,5-tetrahydro-1H-3-benzazepine). Grooming of the snout/face involved primarily dominant-mouth opening jaw movements with small activation of digastric muscles; subsequent grooming of the flank/trunk was characterised by repetitive, uniform jaw movements with small activation of digastric and masseter muscles. In contrast, grooming of the fingers and tail typically involved high-frequency jaw movements with variable vertical jaw movements and/or strong activation of masseter muscles. Vacuous chewing involved two distinct patterns of jaw movements: a dominant-closing pattern, with strong activation of masseter muscles, and a dominant-opening pattern, with slight activation of masseter muscles. SKF 83822 stimulates dopamine D(1)-like receptors and activates adenylate cyclase but not phosphoinositide hydrolysis, while SKF 83959 stimulates dopamine D(1)-like receptors and activates phosphoinositide hydrolysis but not adenylate cyclase. These agonists exerted differential effects on jaw movements, as SKF 83959 induced more jaw movements per episode of syntactic grooming than SKF 83822, while SKF 83822 induced more jaw movements during non-syntactic grooming than SKF 83959. Magnetic sensor technology in freely moving animals resolved distinct topographies of orofacial movement and informs on their relationship to other behaviours in the rodent repertoire and to dopamine D(1)-like receptor function.

Differential involvement of cyclase- versus non-cyclase-coupled D1-like dopamine receptors in orofacial movement topography in mice: studies with SKF 83822

Though orofacial movements are fundamental motor patterns that are known to be regulated critically by D1-like dopamine receptors, these processes remain poorly understood. This uncertainty is heightened by evidence for putative D1-like receptors that are linked not only to adenylyl cyclase (AC) but also to phospholipase C (PLC). Using a new method, we have characterised four topographies of orofacial movement in the mouse using the novel D1-like agonist SKF 83822, which stimulates AC but not PLC. These were compared with responses to SKF 83959, which stimulates PLC but not AC. Also, effects were characterised using the D1-like antagonist SCH 23390 and the D2-like antagonist YM 09151-2. SKF 83822 induced vertical jaw movements with incisor chattering but inhibited horizontal jaw movements; there was little effect on tongue protrusions. Vertical jaw movements induced by SKF 83822 were inhibited by SCH 23390 but uninfluenced by YM 09151-2, while YM 09151-2 released horizontal jaw movements; thus, D1-like agonist-induced, AC-mediated vertical jaw movements constitute a 'pure' D1-like-dependent process that does not involve D1-like:D2-like interactions, while horizontal jaw movements involve oppositional interactions. Orofacial movements in mice appear to consist of at least four phenomenologically dissociable topographies that are mechanistically distinct. They are regulated differentially by AC- and/or PLC-dependent processes and these processes involve distinct D1-like:D2-like interactions.

Disruption of orofacial movement topographies in congenic mutants with dopamine D5 but not D4 receptor or DARPP-32 transduction 'knockout'

The role of D(1)-like [D(1), D(5)] and D(2)-like [D(2), D(3), D(4)] dopamine receptors and dopamine transduction via DARPP-32 in topographies of orofacial movement was assessed in restrained mice with congenic D(4) vs. D(5) receptor vs. DARPP-32 'knockout'. D(4) and DARPP-32 mutants evidenced no material phenotype; also, there were no alterations in topographical responsivity to either the selective D(2)-like agonist RU 24213 or the selective D(1)-like agonist SK and F 83959. In contrast, D(5) mutants evidenced an increase in spontaneous vertical jaw movements, which habituated more slowly than in wildtypes, and a decrease in horizontal jaw movements; topographical responsivity to SK and F 83959 and RU 24213 was unaltered. D(5) receptors regulate distinct topographies of vertical and horizontal jaw movement in an opposite manner. In assuming that the well-recognised role of the D(1)-like family in regulating orofacial movements involves primarily D(1) receptors, a role for their D(5) counterparts may have been overlooked.

Topographical resolution of jaw movements mediated by cyclase- vs. non-cyclase-coupled dopamine D1-like receptors: Studies with SK&F 83822

This study examined the effects on orofacial movement topography of SK&F 83822 ([R/S]-6-chloro-7,8-dihydroxy-3-allyl-1-[3-methylphenyl]-2,3,4,5-tetrahydro-1H-3-benzazepine), which stimulates dopamine D(1)-like receptors coupled to stimulation of adenylyl cyclase (AC) but not phosphoinositide (PI) hydrolysis, in comparison with SK&F 83959 ([R/S]-3-methyl-6-chloro-7,8-dihydroxy-1-[3-methyl-phenyl]-2,3,4,5-tetrahydro-1H-3-benzazepine), which stimulates PI hydrolysis but not AC. SK&F 83822 alone induced chattering, while SK&F 83959 alone exerted little effect. SK&F 83822 and SK&F 83959 each in combination with the dopamine D(2)-like agonist quinpirole resulted in synergistic induction of non-chattering movements with tongue protrusions. These effects were blocked by the dopamine D(1)-like receptor antagonist SCH 23390 ([R]-3-methyl-7-chloro-8-hydroxy-1-phenyl-2,3,4,5-tetrahydro-1H-3-benzazepine). However, the dopamine D(2)-like receptor antagonist YM 09151-2 (cis-N-[1-benzyl-2-methyl-pyrrolidin-3-yl]-5-chloro-2-methoxy-4-methylaminobenzamide) exerted a biphasic effect on synergism with SK&F 83822: chattering was initially released but antagonised thereafter. Only antagonism was seen for synergism with SK&F 83959. While both AC- and PI-coupled dopamine D(1)-like receptors participate in synergistic dopamine D(1)-like:D(2)-like receptor interactions, topographically specific synergistic and oppositional dopamine D(1)-like:D(2)-like interactions evident with SK&F 83822 reflect the involvement primarily of D(1)-like receptors coupled to AC rather than PI.

Phenotypic studies on dopamine receptor subtype and associated signal transduction mutants: insights and challenges from 10 years at the psychopharmacology-molecular biology interface

BACKGROUND

Mutants with targeted gene deletion ('knockout') or insertion (transgenic) of D1, D2, D3, D4 and D5 dopamine (DA) receptor subtypes are complemented by an increasing variety of double knockout and transgenic-'knockout' models, together with knockout of critical components of DA receptor signalling cascades such as G alpha(olf)[G gamma7], adenylyl cyclase type 5, PKA [RIIbeta] and DARPP-32. However, it is increasingly recognised that these molecular techniques have a number of inherent limitations. Furthermore, there are poorly understood methodological factors that contribute to inconsistent phenotypic findings between laboratories.

OBJECTIVE

This review seeks to document the impact of DA receptor subtype and related transduction mutants on our understanding of the behavioural roles of these entities, primarily at the level of unconditioned psychomotor behaviour.

METHODS

It includes ethologically based and orofacial movement studies in our own laboratories, since these are the only studies to systematically compare each of the D1, D2, D3, D4 and D5 receptor and DARPP-32 signal transduction 'knockouts'.

DISCUSSION

There is a particular emphasis on identifying methodological factors that might influence phenotypic effects and account for inconsistencies. The findings are offered empirically to (1) specify the extent of phenotypic diversity among individual DA receptor subtypes and transduction components and (2) indicate relationships between D1, D2, D3, D4 and D5 receptor subtype proteins, associated G alpha(i)/G alpha(s)/G alpha(olf)[G gamma7]-adenylyl cyclase type 5-PKA [RIIbeta]-DARPP-32 signalling cascades and behaviour. The findings are also offered heuristically as a base for such phenotypic comparisons at additional levels of behaviour so that a yet more complete phenotypic profile might emerge.

D1-like dopamine receptor-mediated function in congenic mutants with D1 vs. D5 receptor "knockout"

Current understanding of the functional roles of individual dopamine D1-like [D1, D5] and D2-like [D2L/s, D3, D4] receptor subtypes remains incomplete. In particular, the lack of pharmacological agonists and antagonists able to distinguish between D1 and D5 receptors means that any differential roles in the regulation of behavior are poorly understood. Mutant mice with targeted gene deletion ("knockout") of individual dopamine receptor subtypes offer an important alternative approach to resolving these functional roles. In congenic D1 mutants examined ethologically, progressive increases in specific topographies of behavior over wildtypes were considerably greater than those in D1 mutants on a mixed genetic background; D1 knockout appears to influence the neuronal substrate(s) of habituation to disrupt sculpture of the changing topography of behavior from initial exploration through to quiescence. Similarly, the D1 receptor appears to regulate specific topographies of orofacial movement in the mouse as these are "sculpted" in a time-dependent manner. Although the well-recognized role of the D1-like family in regulating several aspects of behavioral topography has been assumed to involve primarily D1 receptors, this presumption may require modification to accommodate a subtle but not negligible role for their D5 counterparts as evidenced in the phenotype of congenic D5 mutants.

Dopamine agonists in Parkinson’s disease

Levodopa (LD), the immediate precursor of dopamine, is the most effective agent in the treatment of Parkinson's disease (PD). While quite successful in treating the primary motor deficits of PD, most patients eventually develop LD-related motor fluctuation, dyskinesias and other adverse effects associated with chronic LD therapy. There is also concern that LD is neurotoxic, although this has not been demonstrated in any in vivo studies. Dopamine agonists (DAs) have been shown to be about as effective as LD in symptomatic treatment of mild-to-moderate PD. In addition, there is a lower tendency to develop motor fluctuations and dyskinesias with DA treatment than after initiation of therapy with LD. Furthermore, there is preclinical and clinical data to suggest a slowing of neurodegeneration with DAs. The adverse effects of DAs are similar to those experienced with LD, except that the ergot agents are associated with a small risk of tissue fibrosis not noted with the non-ergot DAs.

Phenotypic analysis of dopamine receptor knockout mice; recent insights into the functional specificity of dopamine receptor subtypes

The functional specificity of dopamine receptor subtypes remains incompletely understood, in part due to the absence of highly selective agonists and antagonists. Phenotypic analysis of dopamine receptor knockout mice has been instrumental in identifying the role of dopamine receptor subtypes in mediating dopamine's effects on motor function, cognition, reward, and emotional behaviors. In this article, we provide an update of recent studies in dopamine receptor knockout mice and discuss the limitations and future promise of this approach.

SK&F 83822 distinguishes adenylyl cyclase from phospholipase C-coupled dopamine D1-like receptors: behavioural topography

Effects of SK&F 83822 [3-allyl-6-chloro-7,8-dihydroxy-1-(3-methylphenyl)-2,3,4,5-tetrahydro-1H-3-benzazepine], an agonist at dopamine D1-like receptors which stimulate adenylyl cyclase but not phosphoinositide hydrolysis, were studied topographically so as to clarify differences between these receptors in the regulation of behaviour. Using cloned receptors, SK&F 83822 showed high, selective affinity for dopamine D1 and D5 over D2, D3, D4 and several non-dopamine receptors. SK&F 83822 induced little intense grooming, but readily induced sniffing, locomotion and rearing; seizures were evident at higher doses, characterised by tonic convulsions, forepaw myoclonus and explosive hyperlocomotion. The dopamine D1-like receptor antagonist SCH 23390 [R(+)-3-methyl-7-chloro-8-hydroxy-1-phenyl-2,3,4,5-tetrahydro-1H-3-benzazepine] readily antagonised these responses to SK&F 83822, particularly seizure activity. The dopamine D2-like receptor antagonist YM 09151-2 [cis-N-(1-benzyl-2-methyl-pyrrolidin-3-yl)-5-chloro-2-methoxy-4-methylaminobenzamide] did not alleviate seizures induced by SK&F 83822; YM 09151-02 did, however, attenuate SK&F 83822-induced sniffing, locomotion and rearing, and released vacuous chewing. These findings indicate that dopamine D1-like receptors linked to adenylyl cyclase can be differentiated from those not linked to adenylyl cyclase in terms of their roles in the topographical regulation of behaviour. For example, the seizure and vacuous chewing responses appear to involve dopamine D1-like receptors that stimulate adenylyl cyclase, while intense grooming involves those which do not.

Topographical effects of D1-like dopamine receptor agonists on orofacial movements in mice and their differential regulation via oppositional versus synergistic D1-like: D2-like interactions: cautionary observations on SK&F 82958 as an anomalous agent

Using a novel procedure, the regulation of individual topographies of orofacial movement in the mouse by oppositional versus cooperative/synergistic D1-like: D2-like dopamine receptor interactions was studied. The D1-like agonists SK&F 38393 and SK&F 83959 each induced vertical, but not horizontal, jaw movements, together with tongue protrusions and incisor chattering; however, SK&F 82958 induced a different profile which, consistent with other neurochemical and neurophysiological studies, suggests that this agent shows anomalous properties relative to other D1-like agonists. When given alone, the D2-like agonist quinpirole reduced horizontal jaw movements and incisor chattering. On coadministration, both SK&F 38393- and SK&F 83959-induced vertical jaw movements and tongue protrusions were inhibited by quinpirole, while SK&F 82958 again showed an anomalous profile. These findings indicate that, in the mouse, vertical jaw movements and tongue protrusions are regulated by oppositional D1-like: D2-like interactions, and appear to involve a D1-like receptor that is not coupled to adenylyl cyclase, whereas horizontal jaw movements are inhibited by D2-like receptors. Additionally, results obtained using SK&F 82958 as a probe for D1-like mechanisms should be treated with considerable caution until they are confirmed using other D1-like agonists.

Ethologically based resolution of D2-like dopamine receptor agonist-versus antagonist-induced behavioral topography in dopamine- and adenosine 3',5'-monophosphate-regulated phosphoprotein of 32 kDa "knockout" mutants congenic on the C57BL/6 genetic background

Given the critical role of dopamine- and adenosine 3',5'-monophosphate-regulated phosphoprotein of 32 kDa (DARPP-32) in the regulation of dopaminergic function, DARPP-32-null mutant mice congenic on the inbred C57BL/6 strain for 10 generations were examined phenotypically for their ethogram of responsivity to the selective D2-like receptor agonist RU 24213 (N-n-propyl-N-phenylethyl-p-3-hydroxyphenylethylamine) and the selective D2-like receptor antagonist YM 09151-2 (cis-N-[1-benzyl-2-methyl-pyrrolidin-3-yl]-5-chloro-2-methoxy-4-methylaminobenzamide), using procedures that resolve all topographies of behavior in the natural repertoire. After vehicle challenge, levels of sniffing and rearing seated were reduced in DARPP-32 mutants; the injection procedure seems to constitute a "stressor" that reveals phenotypic effects of DARPP-32 deletion not apparent under natural conditions. Topographical effects of 0.3 to 10.0 mg/kg RU 24213, primarily induction of sniffing and ponderous locomotion with accompanying reductions in rearing, grooming, sifting and chewing, were not altered to any material extent in DARPP-32-null mice. However, topographical effects of 0.005 to 0.625 mg/kg YM 09151-2, namely, reduction in sniffing, locomotion, rearing, grooming, and chewing but not sifting, were essentially absent in DARPP-32 mutants. Thus, the D2-like receptor agonist-mediated ethogram was essentially conserved, whereas major elements of the corresponding D2-like receptor antagonist-mediated ethogram were essentially absent in DARPP-32-null mice. This suggests some relationship between 1) extent of tonic dopaminergic activation of DARPP-32 mechanisms and 2) compensatory mechanisms consequent to the developmental absence of DARPP-32, which may emerge to act differentially on individual elements of the DARPP-32 system. Critically, the present data indicate that phenotypic effects of a given gene deletion using an agonist acting on the system disrupted cannot be generalized to a corresponding antagonist, and vice versa.

Topographical Assessment of Ethological and Dopamine Receptor Agonist-Induced Behavioral Phenotype in Mutants with Congenic DARPP-32 'Knockout'

Congenic (10 backcrosses into C57BL/6J) mutants with targeted gene deletion of DARPP-32, a neuronal phosphoprotein regarded as an essential mediator of the biological effects of dopamine (DA), were assessed phenotypically using an ethologically based approach that resolves all topographies of behavior in the mouse repertoire. Over initial exploration, female, but not male, DARPP-32 mutants evidenced increased locomotion and decreased grooming, while a decrease in rearing seated was evident in mutants of both genders; continuing assessment over several hours did not reveal additional phenotypic effects. Following challenge with the nonselective DA receptor agonist apomorphine, low doses were associated with reduced levels of sniffing, grooming, total rearing, and rearing seated in DARPP-32 mutants relative to wildtypes; this would suggest some role for DARPP-32 in mediating the biological effects of presynaptic D(2)-like autoreceptor or inhibitory postsynaptic D(2)-like receptor activation. Following challenge with higher doses, while stereotyped sniffing and locomotion with chewing was largely unaltered, the additional murine response of Straub tail was essentially abolished in DARPP-32 mutants, indicating some specific involvement of DARPP-32 in mediating this topography of behavior; additionally, there were overall reductions in levels of sniffing, total rearing, rearing seated, and grooming in DARPP-32 mutants that were unrelated to the dose of apomorphine administered, indicating broader topographical effects following the stress of the injection procedure relative to more naturalistic conditions. The developmental absence of DARPP-32 following targeted gene deletion appears to be associated with compensatory processes that maintain certain topographies of spontaneous and agonist-induced DAergic function, while other topographies remain impaired.

Prefrontal, accumbal [shell] and ventral striatal mechanisms in jaw movements and non-cyclase-coupled dopamine D1-like receptors

The effect on jaw movements of intracerebral injections of the dopamine D1-like receptor agents SK&F 83959 (3-methyl-6-chloro-7,8-dihydroxy-1-[3-methylphenyl]-2,3,4,5-tetrahydro-1H-3-benzazepine), SK&F 38393 ([R]-7,8-dihydroxy-1-phenyl-2,3,4,5-tetrahydro-1H-3-benzazepine) and SCH 23390 ([R]-3-methyl-7-chloro-8-hydroxy-1-phenyl-2,3,4,5-tetrahydro-1H-3-benzazepine) and of injections of the dopamine D2-like receptor agonist quinpirole into the ventrolateral striatum, accumbens shell or prefrontal cortex were studied. SK&F 38393 and SK&F 83959 injected into the ventrolateral striatum synergised with i.v. quinpirole; in the shell of accumbens, SK&F 38393 evidenced weaker synergism with quinpirole, while SK&F 83959 did not synergise with it; neither agent synergised with quinpirole in the prefrontal cortex. Co-injection of SCH 23390 or SK&F 83959 into the prefrontal cortex antagonised jaw movements induced by injection of SK&F 83959 into the ventrolateral striatum in combination with i.v. quinpirole. Injection of SK&F 83959 + quinpirole into the ventrolateral striatum, but not into the accumbens shell, resulted in synergism. These findings indicate a primary, but not exclusive, role for ventral striatal, non-cyclase-coupled dopamine D1-like receptors in the induction of jaw movements. These processes appear to require tonic activity of prefrontal cyclase-linked dopamine D1A [and/or D1B] receptors.

Essential conservation of D1 mutant phenotype at the level of individual topographies of behaviour in mice lacking both D1 and D3 dopamine receptors

RATIONALE

In the absence of agonists and antagonists evidencing appropriate selectivities, individual and interactive properties of D(1) and D(3) dopamine receptors would be illuminated most powerfully by their co-deletion.

OBJECTIVES

To define and contrast the behavioural phenotype of D(1)/D(3) double knockout mice in comparison with wild types, and with individual D(1) and D(3 )mutants.

METHODS

Behavioural phenotype was characterised using an ethologically based topographical technique.

RESULTS

On comparison with wild types, D(1)/D(3) double mutants were characterised topographically as follows: increases in sniffing and locomotion, which evidenced delayed habituation; reductions in rearing free, rearing seated, grooming, chewing and stillness. Though the D(1)/D(3) double mutant ethogram comprised elements of both single mutant D(1) and D(3) lines, this phenotype was largely reflective of the D(1) mutant component.

CONCLUSIONS

Distinct patterns of initial exploratory behaviour and of temporal change over subsequent habituation were evident across the three genotypes, with particular conservation of the D(1) phenotype in D(1)/D(3 )double mutants. Under the present conditions, there was little systematic evidence for D(1):D(3) interactions in the regulation of these aspects of behaviour.

Comparative phenotypic resolution of spontaneous, D2-like and D1-like agonist-induced orofacial movement topographies in congenic mutants with dopamine D2 vs. D3 receptor ?knockout?

Using a novel system, the role of D2-like dopamine receptors in distinct topographies of orofacial movement was assessed in mutant mice with congenic D2 vs. D3 receptor knockout, and compared with findings in D1A mutants. Under spontaneous conditions, D2 mutants evidenced increased vertical jaw movements and unaltered horizontal jaw movements, with reductions in tongue protrusions and incisor chattering; in D3 mutants, only incisor chattering was reduced. Given previous evidence that D1A mutants show reduced horizontal but not vertical jaw movements, this indicates that apparent oppositional D1-like:D2-like interactions in the regulation of composited jaw movements may in fact reflect the independent actions of D2 receptors to inhibit vertical jaw movements and of D1A receptors to facilitate horizontal jaw movements. Effects of the D2-like agonist RU 24213 to exert greater reduction in horizontal than in vertical jaw movements were not altered prominently in either D2 or D3 mutants. The D1-like agonists A 68930 and SK&F 83959 induced vertical jaw movements, tongue protrusions, and incisor chattering; induction of tongue protrusions by A 68930 was reduced in D2 mutants. D2 receptors exert topographically specific regulation of orofacial movements in a manner distinct from their D1A counterparts, while D3 receptors exert only minor regulation of such movements.