1
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Herrington JA, Del Rosso L, Capitanio JP. Behavioral effects of postnatal ketamine exposure in rhesus macaque infants are dependent on MAOA-LPR genotype. Dev Psychobiol 2019; 61:605-614. [PMID: 30868562 DOI: 10.1002/dev.21843] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2018] [Revised: 11/28/2018] [Accepted: 12/03/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Ketamine is an N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonist widely used in pediatric anesthetic and therapeutic practices and veterinary medicine. Previous evidence suggests that exposure to ketamine during sensitive periods of development results in neural apoptosis and atypical behavior. Since monoamine neurotransmitters play important roles in prenatal and early postnatal neural development, and since previous work suggests ketamine can inhibit monoamine transporters, we hypothesized that there would be behavioral consequences of prenatal and early postnatal exposure to ketamine moderated by genotype of the promoter in the monoamine oxidase-A (MAOA) gene. From a large sample of animals (N = 408), we compared groups of rhesus monkeys that had experienced a single exposure to ketamine during prenatal development, an exposure during prenatal development and one postnatal exposure, a postnatal exposure with no prenatal exposure, and no exposures. Animals were classified by putative activity levels for the MAOA genotype and were tested between 3 and 4 months of age on a battery of behavioral tests. Results suggested that animals exposed to ketamine postnatally, at a dose typically used for sedative effects that also had the low-activity variant of MAOA performed poorly on a visual memory test compared to animals with the high-activity variant of the MAOA gene.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Laura Del Rosso
- California National Primate Research Center, University of California, Davis, California
| | - John P Capitanio
- California National Primate Research Center, University of California, Davis, California
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2
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Cheung HM, Yew DTW. Effects of Perinatal Exposure to Ketamine on the Developing Brain. Front Neurosci 2019; 13:138. [PMID: 30853884 PMCID: PMC6395450 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2019.00138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2018] [Accepted: 02/06/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Initially used as an analgesic and anesthetic, ketamine has unfortunately been abused as a popular recreational party drug due to its psychotropic effects. Over the last decade, ketamine has also emerged as an effective rapid-onset anti-depressant. The increasingly widespread use and misuse of the drug in infants and pregnant women has posed a concern about the neurotoxicity of ketamine to the immature brains of developing fetuses and children. In this review, we summarize recent research findings on major possible mechanisms of perinatal ketamine-induced neurotoxicity. We also briefly summarize the neuroprotective effects of ketamine in the presence of noxious stimuli. Future actions include implementation of more drug abuse education and prevention campaigns to raise the public’s awareness of the harmful effects of ketamine abuse; further investigations to justify the clinical use of ketamine as analgesic, anesthetic and anti-depressant; and further studies to develop alternatives to ketamine or treatments that can alleviate the detrimental effects of ketamine use, especially in infants and pregnant women.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hoi Man Cheung
- School of Chinese Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Sha Tin, Hong Kong.,Hong Kong College of Technology, Sha Tin, Hong Kong
| | - David Tai Wai Yew
- School of Chinese Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Sha Tin, Hong Kong.,Hong Kong College of Technology, Sha Tin, Hong Kong
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3
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Wojnarowicz MW, Fisher AM, Minaeva O, Goldstein LE. Considerations for Experimental Animal Models of Concussion, Traumatic Brain Injury, and Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy-These Matters Matter. Front Neurol 2017; 8:240. [PMID: 28620350 PMCID: PMC5451508 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2017.00240] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2017] [Accepted: 05/16/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Animal models of concussion, traumatic brain injury (TBI), and chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE) are widely available and routinely deployed in laboratories around the world. Effective animal modeling requires careful consideration of four basic principles. First, animal model use must be guided by clarity of definitions regarding the human disease or condition being modeled. Concussion, TBI, and CTE represent distinct clinical entities that require clear differentiation: concussion is a neurological syndrome, TBI is a neurological event, and CTE is a neurological disease. While these conditions are all associated with head injury, the pathophysiology, clinical course, and medical management of each are distinct. Investigators who use animal models of these conditions must take into account these clinical distinctions to avoid misinterpretation of results and category mistakes. Second, model selection must be grounded by clarity of purpose with respect to experimental questions and frame of reference of the investigation. Distinguishing injury context ("inputs") from injury consequences ("outputs") may be helpful during animal model selection, experimental design and execution, and interpretation of results. Vigilance is required to rout out, or rigorously control for, model artifacts with potential to interfere with primary endpoints. The widespread use of anesthetics in many animal models illustrates the many ways that model artifacts can confound preclinical results. Third, concordance between key features of the animal model and the human disease or condition being modeled is required to confirm model biofidelity. Fourth, experimental results observed in animals must be confirmed in human subjects for model validation. Adherence to these principles serves as a bulwark against flawed interpretation of results, study replication failure, and confusion in the field. Implementing these principles will advance basic science discovery and accelerate clinical translation to benefit people affected by concussion, TBI, and CTE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark W Wojnarowicz
- Molecular Aging and Development Laboratory, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Andrew M Fisher
- Molecular Aging and Development Laboratory, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, United States.,Boston University College of Engineering, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Olga Minaeva
- Molecular Aging and Development Laboratory, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, United States.,Boston University College of Engineering, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Lee E Goldstein
- Molecular Aging and Development Laboratory, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, United States.,Boston University College of Engineering, Boston, MA, United States.,CTE Program, Boston University Alzheimer's Disease Center, Boston, MA, United States
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4
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Groeber Travis CM, Altman DE, Genovese RF. Ketamine administration diminishes operant responding but does not impair conditioned fear. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2015; 139:84-91. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2015.10.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2015] [Revised: 10/16/2015] [Accepted: 10/21/2015] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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5
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Optogenetic stimulation of infralimbic PFC reproduces ketamine's rapid and sustained antidepressant actions. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2015; 112:8106-11. [PMID: 26056286 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1414728112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 194] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Ketamine produces rapid and sustained antidepressant actions in depressed patients, but the precise cellular mechanisms underlying these effects have not been identified. Here we determined if modulation of neuronal activity in the infralimbic prefrontal cortex (IL-PFC) underlies the antidepressant and anxiolytic actions of ketamine. We found that neuronal inactivation of the IL-PFC completely blocked the antidepressant and anxiolytic effects of systemic ketamine in rodent models and that ketamine microinfusion into IL-PFC reproduced these behavioral actions of systemic ketamine. We also found that optogenetic stimulation of the IL-PFC produced rapid and long-lasting antidepressant and anxiolytic effects and that these effects are associated with increased number and function of spine synapses of layer V pyramidal neurons. The results demonstrate that ketamine infusions or optogenetic stimulation of IL-PFC are sufficient to produce long-lasting antidepressant behavioral and synaptic responses similar to the effects of systemic ketamine administration.
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6
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Mickley GA, Hoxha Z, DiSorbo A, Wilson GN, Remus JL, Biesan O, Ketchesin KD, Ramos L, Luchsinger JR, Prodan S, Rogers M, Wiles NR, Hoxha N. Latent inhibition of a conditioned taste aversion in fetal rats. Dev Psychobiol 2013; 56:435-47. [DOI: 10.1002/dev.21110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2012] [Accepted: 02/18/2013] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- G. Andrew Mickley
- The Neuroscience Program; Baldwin Wallace University; 275 Eastland Rd. Berea OH 44017
| | - Zana Hoxha
- The Neuroscience Program; Baldwin Wallace University; 275 Eastland Rd. Berea OH 44017
| | - Anthony DiSorbo
- The Neuroscience Program; Baldwin Wallace University; 275 Eastland Rd. Berea OH 44017
| | - Gina N. Wilson
- The Neuroscience Program; Baldwin Wallace University; 275 Eastland Rd. Berea OH 44017
| | - Jennifer L. Remus
- The Neuroscience Program; Baldwin Wallace University; 275 Eastland Rd. Berea OH 44017
| | - Orion Biesan
- The Neuroscience Program; Baldwin Wallace University; 275 Eastland Rd. Berea OH 44017
| | - Kyle D. Ketchesin
- The Neuroscience Program; Baldwin Wallace University; 275 Eastland Rd. Berea OH 44017
| | - Linnet Ramos
- The Neuroscience Program; Baldwin Wallace University; 275 Eastland Rd. Berea OH 44017
| | - Joseph R. Luchsinger
- The Neuroscience Program; Baldwin Wallace University; 275 Eastland Rd. Berea OH 44017
| | - Suzanna Prodan
- The Neuroscience Program; Baldwin Wallace University; 275 Eastland Rd. Berea OH 44017
| | - Morgan Rogers
- The Neuroscience Program; Baldwin Wallace University; 275 Eastland Rd. Berea OH 44017
| | - Nathanael R. Wiles
- The Neuroscience Program; Baldwin Wallace University; 275 Eastland Rd. Berea OH 44017
| | - Nita Hoxha
- The Neuroscience Program; Baldwin Wallace University; 275 Eastland Rd. Berea OH 44017
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7
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Mood disorders. Transl Neurosci 2012. [DOI: 10.1017/cbo9780511980053.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
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8
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Capitanio JP, Del Rosso LA, Calonder LA, Blozis SA, Penedo MCT. Behavioral effects of prenatal ketamine exposure in rhesus macaques are dependent on MAOA genotype. Exp Clin Psychopharmacol 2012; 20:173-80. [PMID: 22250657 PMCID: PMC3481859 DOI: 10.1037/a0026773] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Ketamine is an N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonist that is used in anesthetic, abuse, and therapeutic contexts. Recent evidence suggests that ketamine may affect not only glutamate systems, but may also act on receptors in the dopamine and serotonin systems. Because monoamine neurotransmitters play important trophic roles in prenatal development, we hypothesized that the behavioral consequences of prenatal exposure to ketamine may be moderated by genotype of the promoter in the monoamine oxidase-A (MAOA) gene. Eighty-two infant rhesus monkeys were identified that had known dates of conception and exposures to ketamine during gestation. Animals were tested at 3-4 months of age on a battery of tests assessing responsiveness to maternal separation, recognition memory, and contact with novel objects. Animals were classified by putative activity levels for the MAOA genotype. The effects of prenatal ketamine exposure were seen only in the context of MAOA genotype. Greater exposure to ketamine resulted in increased activity, less willingness to perform in the memory task, and reduced emotionality and novel-object contact, but only for individuals with the low-activity genotype. Nearly all effects of ketamine were the result of first- and second-trimester exposure. MAOA genotype moderates the role of prenatal ketamine exposure at time points in gestation earlier than have been shown in past research, and is particularly evident for measures of emotionality. These results support the idea that ketamine's use might be best considered in light of individuals' genetic characteristics.
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Affiliation(s)
- John P. Capitanio
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Davis,California National Primate Research Center, University of California, Davis
| | - Laura A. Del Rosso
- California National Primate Research Center, University of California, Davis
| | - Laura A. Calonder
- California National Primate Research Center, University of California, Davis
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9
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Javitt DC, Schoepp D, Kalivas PW, Volkow ND, Zarate C, Merchant K, Bear MF, Umbricht D, Hajos M, Potter WZ, Lee CM. Translating glutamate: from pathophysiology to treatment. Sci Transl Med 2011; 3:102mr2. [PMID: 21957170 PMCID: PMC3273336 DOI: 10.1126/scitranslmed.3002804] [Citation(s) in RCA: 131] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The neurotransmitter glutamate is the primary excitatory neurotransmitter in mammalian brain and is responsible for most corticocortical and corticofugal neurotransmission. Disturbances in glutamatergic function have been implicated in the pathophysiology of several neuropsychiatric disorders-including schizophrenia, drug abuse and addiction, autism, and depression-that were until recently poorly understood. Nevertheless, improvements in basic information regarding these disorders have yet to translate into Food and Drug Administration-approved treatments. Barriers to translation include the need not only for improved compounds but also for improved biomarkers sensitive to both structural and functional target engagement and for improved translational models. Overcoming these barriers will require unique collaborative arrangements between pharma, government, and academia. Here, we review a recent Institute of Medicine-sponsored meeting, highlighting advances in glutamatergic theories of neuropsychiatric illness as well as remaining barriers to treatment development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel C Javitt
- Translational Schizophrenia Research Center, Nathan Kline Institute/Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York, NY 10032, USA.
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10
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Machado-Vieira R, Ibrahim L, Henter ID, Zarate CA. Novel glutamatergic agents for major depressive disorder and bipolar disorder. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2011; 100:678-87. [PMID: 21971560 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2011.09.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2010] [Revised: 09/09/2011] [Accepted: 09/20/2011] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Mood disorders such as major depressive disorder (MDD) and bipolar disorder (BPD) are common, chronic, recurrent mental illnesses that affect the lives and functioning of millions of individuals worldwide. Growing evidence suggests that the glutamatergic system is central to the neurobiology and treatment of these disorders. Here, we review data supporting the involvement of the glutamatergic system in the pathophysiology of mood disorders as well as the efficacy of glutamatergic agents as novel therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rodrigo Machado-Vieira
- LIM-27, Institute and Department of Psychiatry, University of Sao Paulo Medical School, USP, Sao Paulo, Brazil
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11
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Machado-Vieira R, Zarate CA. Proof of concept trials in bipolar disorder and major depressive disorder: a translational perspective in the search for improved treatments. Depress Anxiety 2011; 28:267-81. [PMID: 21456037 PMCID: PMC3071576 DOI: 10.1002/da.20800] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2010] [Revised: 01/14/2011] [Accepted: 01/24/2011] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
A better understanding of the neurobiology of mood disorders, informed by preclinical research and bi-directionally translated to clinical research, is critical for the future development of new and effective treatments. Recently, diverse new targets/compounds have been specifically tested in preclinical models and in proof-of-concept studies, with potential relevance as treatments for mood disorders. Most of the evidence comes from case reports, case series, or controlled proof-of-concept studies, some with small sample sizes. These include (1) the opioid neuropeptide system, (2) the purinergic system, (3) the glutamatergic system, (4) the tachykinin neuropeptide system, (5) the cholinergic system (muscarinic system), and (6) intracellular signaling pathways. These targets may be of substantial interest in defining future directions in drug development, as well as in developing the next generation of therapeutic agents for the treatment of mood disorders. Overall, further study of these and similar drugs may lead to a better understanding of relevant and clinically useful drug targets in the treatment of these devastating illnesses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rodrigo Machado-Vieira
- Institute and Department of Psychiatry, LIM-27, University of Sao Paulo Medical School, USP, Sao Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Carlos A. Zarate
- Experimental Therapeutics & Pathophysiology Branch, Intramural Research Program, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health, 10 Center Drive, CRC Unit 7 Southeast, Room 7-3445, Bethesda, Maryland, 20892, USA
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12
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Zarate C, Machado-Vieira R, Henter I, Ibrahim L, Diazgranados N, Salvadore G. Glutamatergic modulators: the future of treating mood disorders? Harv Rev Psychiatry 2010; 18:293-303. [PMID: 20825266 PMCID: PMC3000412 DOI: 10.3109/10673229.2010.511059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 156] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Mood disorders such as bipolar disorder and major depressive disorder are common, chronic, and recurrent conditions affecting millions of individuals worldwide. Existing antidepressants and mood stabilizers used to treat these disorders are insufficient for many. Patients continue to have low remission rates, delayed onset of action, residual subsyndromal symptoms, and relapses. New therapeutic agents able to exert faster and sustained antidepressant or mood-stabilizing effects are urgently needed to treat these disorders. In this context, the glutamatergic system has been implicated in the pathophysiology of mood disorders in unique clinical and neurobiological ways. In addition to evidence confirming the role of the glutamatergic modulators riluzole and ketamine as proof-of-concept agents in this system, trials with diverse glutamatergic modulators are under way. Overall, this system holds considerable promise for developing the next generation of novel therapeutics for the treatment of bipolar disorder and major depressive disorder.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos Zarate
- Experimental Therapeutics & Pathophysiology Branch, Division of Intramural Research Programs, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health, Department of Health & Human Services, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA.
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13
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Okamoto N, Nakai T, Sakamoto K, Nagafusa Y, Higuchi T, Nishikawa T. Rapid antidepressant effect of ketamine anesthesia during electroconvulsive therapy of treatment-resistant depression: comparing ketamine and propofol anesthesia. J ECT 2010; 26:223-7. [PMID: 19935085 DOI: 10.1097/yct.0b013e3181c3b0aa] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Reports of the superiority of the antidepressant effect of ketamine during the conduct of electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) have been limited. We conducted an open-label trial of ketamine to determine whether ketamine as the anesthetic during ECT would provide a greater antidepressant effect than the antidepressant effect obtained with propofol. METHODS Between April 2006 and April 2007, 31 inpatients with treatment-resistant depression gave written consent for ECT and to participate in this study. An anesthesiologist who was unaware of the mental symptoms of the subjects assigned them to receive propofol or ketamine anesthetic according to the preferences of the patients, and the patients underwent 8 ECT sessions for 4 weeks. The Hamilton Depression Rating Scale (HDRS) was valuated before ECT and after the completion of the second, fourth, sixth, and eighth ECT sessions. RESULTS The HDRS scores improved earlier in the ketamine group, with decreases in HDRS scores that were significantly greater in the ketamine group. CONCLUSIONS The results suggested that it is possible to improve symptoms of depression earlier by using ketamine anesthesia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nagahisa Okamoto
- Department of Psychiatry, National Center Hospital of Neurology and Psychiatry, Kodaira City, Tokyo, Japan.
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14
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Machado-Vieira R, Salvadore G, DiazGranados N, Ibrahim L, Latov D, Wheeler-Castillo C, Baumann J, Henter ID, Zarate CA. New therapeutic targets for mood disorders. ScientificWorldJournal 2010; 10:713-26. [PMID: 20419280 PMCID: PMC3035047 DOI: 10.1100/tsw.2010.65] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Existing pharmacological treatments for bipolar disorder (BPD) and major depressive disorder (MDD) are often insufficient for many patients. Here we describe a number of targets/compounds that clinical and preclinical studies suggest could result in putative novel treatments for mood disorders. These include: (1) glycogen synthase kinase-3 (GSK-3) and protein kinase C (PKC), (2) the purinergic system, (3) histone deacetylases (HDACs), (4) the melatonergic system, (5) the tachykinin neuropeptides system, (6) the glutamatergic system, and (7) oxidative stress and bioenergetics. The paper reviews data on new compounds that have shown antimanic or antidepressant effects in subjects with mood disorders, or similar effects in preclinical animal models. Overall, an improved understanding of the neurobiological underpinnings of mood disorders is critical in order to develop targeted treatments that are more effective, act more rapidly, and are better tolerated than currently available therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rodrigo Machado-Vieira
- Experimental Therapeutics, Mood and Anxiety Disorders Research Program, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA.
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15
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Machado-Vieira R, Baumann J, Wheeler-Castillo C, Latov D, Henter ID, Salvadore G, Zarate CA. The Timing of Antidepressant Effects: A Comparison of Diverse Pharmacological and Somatic Treatments. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2010; 3:19-41. [PMID: 27713241 PMCID: PMC3991019 DOI: 10.3390/ph3010019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 139] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2009] [Revised: 12/17/2009] [Accepted: 12/29/2009] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Currently available antidepressants used to treat major depressive disorder (MDD) unfortunately often take weeks to months to achieve their full effects, commonly resulting in considerable morbidity and increased risk for suicidal behavior. Our lack of understanding of the precise cellular underpinnings of this illness and of the mechanism of action of existing effective pharmacological treatments is a large part of the reason that therapies with a more rapid onset of antidepressant action (ROAA) have not been developed. Other issues that need to be addressed include heterogeneous clinical concepts and statistical models to measure rapid antidepressant effects. This review describes the timing of onset of antidepressant effects for various therapies used to treat MDD. While several agents produce earlier improvement of depressive symptoms (defined as occurring within one week), the response rate associated with such agents can be quite variable. These agents include both currently available antidepressants as well as other pharmacological and non-pharmacological interventions. Considerably fewer treatments are associated with ROAA, defined as occurring within several hours or one day. Treatment strategies for MDD whose sustained antidepressant effects manifest within hours or even a few days would have an enormous impact on public health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rodrigo Machado-Vieira
- Experimental Therapeutics, Mood and Anxiety Disorders Program, National Institute of Mental Health, and Department of Health and Human Services, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Jacqueline Baumann
- Experimental Therapeutics, Mood and Anxiety Disorders Program, National Institute of Mental Health, and Department of Health and Human Services, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Cristina Wheeler-Castillo
- Experimental Therapeutics, Mood and Anxiety Disorders Program, National Institute of Mental Health, and Department of Health and Human Services, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - David Latov
- Experimental Therapeutics, Mood and Anxiety Disorders Program, National Institute of Mental Health, and Department of Health and Human Services, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Ioline D Henter
- Experimental Therapeutics, Mood and Anxiety Disorders Program, National Institute of Mental Health, and Department of Health and Human Services, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Giacomo Salvadore
- Experimental Therapeutics, Mood and Anxiety Disorders Program, National Institute of Mental Health, and Department of Health and Human Services, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Carlos A Zarate
- Experimental Therapeutics, Mood and Anxiety Disorders Program, National Institute of Mental Health, and Department of Health and Human Services, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA.
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16
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Machado-Vieira R, Manji HK, Zarate CA. Potential novel therapeutics for bipolar disorders. Curr Top Behav Neurosci 2010; 5:303-29. [PMID: 25236562 DOI: 10.1007/7854_2010_51] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Existing pharmacological treatments for bipolar disorder (BPD), a severe recurrent mood disorder, are in general insufficient for many patients. Despite adequate doses and treatment duration, many individuals with this disease continue to experience mood episode relapses, residual symptoms, and functional impairment. This chapter reviews a number of targets/compounds that could result in putative novel treatments for BPD, including the dynorphin opioid neuropeptide system, the glutamatergic system, the purinergic system, the cholinergic system (muscarinic and nicotinic systems), the oxidative stress system, and the melatonergic system. The arachidonic acid cascade and intracellular signaling cascades (including glycogen synthase kinase 3 and protein kinase C) are also reviewed, as are agents that affect multiple targets (e.g., modafinil, Uridine RG2417). Further study of these and similar agents may improve our understanding of relevant drug targets and their clinical utility as potential therapeutics for this devastating disorder.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rodrigo Machado-Vieira
- Experimental Therapeutics, Mood and Anxiety Disorders Research Program, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health, 10 Center Drive, Mark O. Hatfield CRC, Unit 7 SE, Rm. 7-3445, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA,
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17
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Machado-Vieira R, Salvadore G, Ibrahim LA, Diaz-Granados N, Zarate CA. Targeting glutamatergic signaling for the development of novel therapeutics for mood disorders. Curr Pharm Des 2009; 15:1595-611. [PMID: 19442176 DOI: 10.2174/138161209788168010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
There have been no recent advances in drug development for mood disorders in terms of identifying drug targets that are mechanistically distinct from existing ones. As a result, existing antidepressants are based on decades-old notions of which targets are relevant to the mechanisms of antidepressant action. Low rates of remission, a delay of onset of therapeutic effects, continual residual depressive symptoms, relapses, and poor quality of life are unfortunately common in patients with mood disorders. Offering alternative options is requisite in order to reduce the individual and societal burden of these diseases. The glutamatergic system is a promising area of research in mood disorders, and likely to offer new possibilities in therapeutics. There is increasing evidence that mood disorders are associated with impairments in neuroplasticity and cellular resilience, and alterations of the glutamatergic system are known to play a major role in cellular plasticity and resilience. Existing antidepressants and mood stabilizers have prominent effects on the glutamate system, and modulating glutamatergic ionotropic or metabotropic receptors results in antidepressant-like properties in animal models. Several glutamatergic modulators targeting various glutamate components are currently being studied in the treatment of mood disorders, including release inhibitors of glutamate, N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) antagonists, alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid (AMPA) throughput enhancers, and glutamate transporter enhancers. This paper reviews the currently available knowledge regarding the role of the glutamatergic system in the etiopathogenesis of mood disorders and putative glutamate modulators.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rodrigo Machado-Vieira
- Experimental Therapeutics, Mood and Anxiety Disorders Research Program, National Institute of Mental Health/NIH, 10 Center Drive, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
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18
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Machado-Vieira R, Manji HK, Zarate CA. The role of the tripartite glutamatergic synapse in the pathophysiology and therapeutics of mood disorders. Neuroscientist 2009; 15:525-39. [PMID: 19471044 DOI: 10.1177/1073858409336093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 112] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Bipolar disorder and major depressive disorder are common, chronic, and recurrent mood disorders that affect the lives of millions of individuals worldwide. Growing evidence suggests that glutamatergic system dysfunction is directly involved in mood disorders. This article describes the role of the "tripartite glutamatergic synapse," comprising presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons and glial cells, in the pathophysiology and therapeutics of mood disorders. Glutamatergic neurons and glia directly control synaptic and extrasynaptic glutamate levels/ release through integrative effects that target glutamate excitatory amino acid transporters, postsynaptic density proteins, ionotropic receptors (alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole propionic acid [AMPA], N-methyl-D-aspartate [NMDA], and kainate), and metabotropic receptors. This article also explores the glutamatergic modulators riluzole and ketamine, which are considered valuable proof-of-concept agents for developing the next generation of antidepressants and mood stabilizers. In therapeutically relevant paradigms, ketamine preferentially targets postsynaptic AMPA/NMDA receptors, and riluzole preferentially targets presynaptic voltage-operated channels and glia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rodrigo Machado-Vieira
- Experimental Therapeutics, Mood and Anxiety Disorders Research Program, NIMH-NIH, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, USA
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Machado-Vieira R, Salvadore G, Diazgranados N, Zarate CA. Ketamine and the next generation of antidepressants with a rapid onset of action. Pharmacol Ther 2009; 123:143-50. [PMID: 19397926 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2009.02.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 174] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2009] [Accepted: 02/23/2009] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Existing treatments for major depressive disorder (MDD) usually take weeks to months to achieve their antidepressant effects, and a significant number of patients do not have adequate improvement even after months of treatment. In addition, increased risk of suicide attempts is a major public health concern during the first month of standard antidepressant therapy. Thus, improved therapeutics that can exert their antidepressant effects within hours or a few days of their administration are urgently needed, as is a better understanding of the presumed mechanisms associated with these rapid antidepressant effects. In this context, the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) antagonist ketamine has consistently shown antidepressant effects within a few hours of its administration. This makes it a valuable research tool to identify biomarkers of response in order to develop the next generation of fast-acting antidepressants. In this review, we describe clinical, electrophysiological, biochemical, and imaging correlates as relevant targets in the study of the antidepressant response associated with ketamine, and their implications for the development of novel, fast-acting antidepressants. We also review evidence that alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid (AMPA) to NMDA throughput may represent a convergent mechanism for the rapid antidepressant actions of ketamine. Overall, understanding the molecular basis of this work will likely lead to the ultimate development of improved therapeutics for MDD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rodrigo Machado-Vieira
- Experimental Therapeutics Mood and Anxiety Disorders Program, National Institute of Mental Health, Department of Health and Human Services, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
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Boctor SY, Ferguson SA. Neonatal NMDA receptor antagonist treatments have no effects on prepulse inhibition of postnatal day 25 Sprague-Dawley rats. Neurotoxicology 2008; 30:151-4. [PMID: 19038286 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuro.2008.10.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2008] [Revised: 10/29/2008] [Accepted: 10/29/2008] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Glutamate activation of the NMDA receptor is essential for neuronal differentiation, migration, and survival. Treatment with NMDA receptor antagonists, such as ketamine (KET) or phencyclidine (PCP), can trigger apoptosis in neonatal rats. However, L-carnitine (LC) treatment appears to prevent glutamate-induced toxicity in the developing CNS. Previously, we described altered preweaning behaviors (i.e., abnormal home cage, slant board and forelimb hang behaviors) resulting from neonatal PCP and KET treatment. Those adverse effects of KET were somewhat ameliorated by LC [Boctor SY, Wang C, Ferguson SA. Neonatal PCP is more potent than ketamine at modifying preweaning behaviors of Sprague-Dawley rats. Toxicol Sci 2008;106:172-9]. Here, a portion of those subjects were evaluated for prepulse inhibition (PPI) of the acoustic startle response at postnatal day (PND) 25 since previous reports described PCP-induced effects on this response. Rats were subcutaneously treated with: saline; 10 mg/kg PCP (1x/day) on PNDs 7, 9 and 11; 20 mg/kg KET (6 injections every 2h on PND 7); or a similar regimen of ketamine and 250 mg/kg LC on PND 7, with a single injection of 250 mg/kg LC on PNDs 8-11 (KLC). Male and female rats were assessed using a standard PPI paradigm with prepulses of 68, 78 and 82 dB. Body weight was decreased 17-21% and whole brain weight was decreased 10% in PCP-treated rats. Specifically, cerebellar weight was significantly less in PCP-treated rats relative to control. Despite the magnitude of those PCP-induced changes, startle response in normal pulse only trials and percent of PPI in PCP-, KET-, and KLC-treated groups were comparable to controls. Average latency to maximum startle was 2.6 ms less in females than males (p<0.007); there were no other significant sex effects. The lack of neonatal PCP treatment on later PPI is similar to that reported by Rasmussen et al. [Rasmussen BA, O'Neil J, Manaye KF, Perry DC, Tizabi Y. Long-term effects of developmental PCP administration on sensorimotor gating in male and female rats. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2007; 190: 43-9.], and indicates that neonatal PCP-induced effects on PPI [Wang C, McInnis J, Ross-Sanchez M, Shinnick-Gallagher P, Wiley JL, Johnson KM. Long-term behavioral and neurodegenerative effects of perinatal phencyclidine administration: implications for schizophrenia. Neuroscience 2001; 107: 535-50.] appear difficult to replicate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sherin Y Boctor
- Department of Interdisciplinary Biomedical Sciences, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, AR 72205, United States.
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Machado-Vieira R, Salvadore G, Luckenbaugh DA, Manji HK, Zarate CA. Rapid onset of antidepressant action: a new paradigm in the research and treatment of major depressive disorder. J Clin Psychiatry 2008; 69:946-58. [PMID: 18435563 PMCID: PMC2699451 DOI: 10.4088/jcp.v69n0610] [Citation(s) in RCA: 153] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Current therapeutics of depression are similar in their time to antidepressant action and often take weeks to months to achieve response and remission, which commonly results in considerable morbidity and disruption in personal, professional, family, and social life, as well as risk for suicidal behavior. Thus, treatment strategies presenting a rapid improvement of depressive symptoms--within hours or even a few days--and whose effects are sustained would have an enormous impact on public health. This article reviews the published data related to different aspects of rapid improvement of depressive symptoms. DATA SOURCES Literature for this review was obtained through a search of the MEDLINE database (1966-2007) using the following keywords and phrases: rapid response, antidepressant, time to, glutamate, sleep, therapeutics, latency, and depression. The data obtained were organized according to the following topics: clinical relevance and time course of antidepressant action, interventions showing evidence of rapid response and its potential neurobiological basis, and new technologies for better understanding rapid anti-depressant actions. DATA SYNTHESIS A limited number of prospective studies evaluating rapid antidepressant actions have been conducted. Currently, only a few interventions have been shown to produce antidepressant response in hours or a few days. The neurobiological basis of these rapid antidepressant actions is only now being deciphered. CONCLUSIONS Certain experimental treatments can produce antidepressant response in a much shorter period of time than existing medications. Understanding the molecular basis of these experimental interventions is likely to lead to the development of improved therapeutics rather than simply furthering our knowledge of current standard antidepressants.
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Wang JH, Fu Y, Wilson FAW, Ma YY. Ketamine affects memory consolidation: Differential effects in T-maze and passive avoidance paradigms in mice. Neuroscience 2006; 140:993-1002. [PMID: 16600517 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2006.02.062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2005] [Revised: 02/16/2006] [Accepted: 02/24/2006] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The effects of ketamine, an N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) antagonist, on memory in animals have been limited to the sub-anesthetic dose given prior to training in previous studies. We evaluated the effects of post-training anesthetic doses of ketamine to selectively manipulate memory consolidation, and the effect of pre-retention sub-anesthetic doses of ketamine on memory retrieval in passive avoidance and T-maze tasks in mice. Repeated post-training anesthetic doses of ketamine impaired the consolidation of memory in the T-maze but not in passive avoidance paradigms. This impairment was not permanent but diminished 1-2 days after ketamine withdrawal. Sub-anesthetic post-training doses of ketamine (5 mg/kg) had no effect on memory consolidation, and larger doses (10, 20 and 50 mg/kg) did not influence the retrieval of memory in the T-maze. The data suggest that repeated anesthetic doses of ketamine block NMDA receptors and affect memory consolidation. Moreover, NMDA mechanisms antagonized by ketamine appear to be selectively involved in spatial (T-maze) memory mechanisms but may not be necessary for non-spatial (passive avoidance) memory consolidation.
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Affiliation(s)
- J H Wang
- Section of Cognitive Brain Research and Key Laboratory of Animal Models and Human Disease Mechanisms, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, Yunnan 650223, PR China
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Mathew SJ, Keegan K, Smith L. Glutamate modulators as novel interventions for mood disorders. BRAZILIAN JOURNAL OF PSYCHIATRY 2005; 27:243-8. [PMID: 16224615 DOI: 10.1590/s1516-44462005000300016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Recent evidence suggests that critical molecules in neurotrophic signaling cascades are long-term targets for currently available monoaminergic antidepressants. As chronic and severe mood disorders are characterized by impairments in neuronal resilience, pharmacological strategies that subserve a neuroprotective function might alter disorder pathophysiology and modify disease progression. Several promising approaches involve modulation of the glutamate neurotransmitter system, via post-synaptic receptor blockade or potentiation and presynaptic vesicular release inhibition. A focused review of the extant scientific literature was conducted, with a discussion of 3 compounds or classes of drugs currently undergoing clinical investigation: ketamine, riluzole, and AMPA receptor potentiators. Recent investigations in mood disordered patients suggest that the NMDA receptor antagonist ketamine might demonstrate rapid antidepressant properties. Riluzole has been shown to reverse glutamate-mediated impairments in neuronal plasticity and to stimulate the synthesis of brain derived neurotrophic factor. Open-label trials in treatment-resistant depression have yielded promising results. Likewise, AMPA receptor potentiators favorably impact neurotrophic factors as well as enhance cognition. CONCLUSIONS Pharmacological approaches that modulate components of the glutamate system offer novel targets for severe, recurrent mood disorders. Controlled studies are necessary.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sanjay J Mathew
- Department of Psychiatry, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, NY 10029, USA.
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Fredriksson A, Archer T, Alm H, Gordh T, Eriksson P. Neurofunctional deficits and potentiated apoptosis by neonatal NMDA antagonist administration. Behav Brain Res 2004; 153:367-76. [PMID: 15265631 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2003.12.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 158] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2003] [Revised: 12/15/2003] [Accepted: 12/15/2003] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
The early postnatal brain development, when many potentially sensitive processes occur, has been shown to be vulnerable to different pharmacological and environmental compounds. In the present investigation, four groups of neonatal NMRI male mice were administered the glutamate NMDA receptor antagonist ketamine (50 mg/kg, s.c.), or the GABA(A) receptor agonist diazepam (5 mg/kg, s.c.), or co-administered ketamine (50 mg/kg, s.c.) and diazepam (5 mg/kg, s.c.), or vehicle (0.9% saline, s.c.) on day 10 after birth. On day 11, mice from each treatment group were sacrificed and brains were taken for analysis of neuronal cell degeneration, using Fluoro-Jade staining technique. Ketamine, but not diazepam, induced a severe degeneration of cells in the parietal cortex. The opposite was observed for diazepam in the laterodorsal thalamus. The most pronounced cell degeneration was seen in parietal cortex of mice exposed to both ketamine and diazepam. At 2 months of age each treatment group was tested for motor activity and learning performance. Ketamine and ketamine + diazepam treated mice displayed severe deficits of habituation to the test chamber in the spontaneous motor activity test, marked deficits of acquisition learning and retention memory in the radial arm maze-learning task and less shift learning in the circular swim maze-learning task. This study indicates that the observed functional deficits can be related to cell degeneration induced during a critical stage of neonatal brain development. The potentiated apoptosis induced by ketamine and diazepam may have implications for the selection of drugs used in neonatal paediatric anaesthesia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anders Fredriksson
- Department of Neuroscience, Psychiatry Ulleråker, Uppsala University, SE-750 17 Uppsala, Sweden.
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Mickley GA, Kenmuir CL, McMullen CA, Snyder A, Yocom AM, Likins-Fowler D, Valentine EL, Weber B, Biada JM. Long-term age-dependent behavioral changes following a single episode of fetal N-methyl-D-Aspartate (NMDA) receptor blockade. BMC Pharmacol 2004; 4:28. [PMID: 15509306 PMCID: PMC528728 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2210-4-28] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2004] [Accepted: 10/28/2004] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Administration of the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) antagonist ketamine during the perinatal period can produce a variety of behavioral and neuroanatomical changes. Our laboratory has reported reliable changes in learning and memory following a single dose of ketamine administered late in gestation. However, the nature of the drug-induced changes depends on the point during embryonic development when ketamine is administered. Embryonic day 18 (E18) rat fetuses pre-treated with ketamine (100 mg/kg, i.p. through the maternal circulation) and taught a conditioned taste aversion (CTA) learn and remember the CTA, whereas E19 fetuses do not. The current study sought to determine if long-term behavioral effects could be detected in animals that received ketamine or a saline control injection on either E18 or E19. Rat behavior was evaluated on two different measures: spontaneous locomotion and water maze learning. Measurements were collected during 2 periods: Juvenile test period [pre-pubertal locomotor test: Postnatal Day 11 (P11); pre-pubertal water maze test: P18] or Young-adult test period [post-pubertal locomotor test: P60; post-pubertal water maze test: P81]. Results Water maze performance of ketamine-treated rats was similar to that of controls when tested on P18. Likewise, the age of the animal at the time of ketamine/saline treatment did not influence learning of the maze. However, the young-adult water maze test (P81) revealed reliable benefits of prenatal ketamine exposure – especially during the initial re-training trial. On the first trial of the young adult test, rats treated with ketamine on E18 reached the hidden platform faster than any other group – including rats treated with ketamine on E19. Swim speeds of experimental and control rats were not significantly different. Spontaneous horizontal locomotion measured during juvenile testing indicated that ketamine-treated rats were less active than controls. However, later in development, rats treated with ketamine on E18 were more active than rats that received the drug on E19. Conclusion These data suggest that both the day in fetal development when ketamine is administered and the timing of post-natal behavioral testing interact to influence behavioral outcomes. The data also indicate that the paradoxical age-dependent effects of early ketamine treatment on learning, previously described in fetuses and neonates, may also be detected later in young adult rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Andrew Mickley
- Department of Psychology and the Neuroscience Program, Baldwin-Wallace College, 275 Eastland Road, Berea, OH 44017-2088, USA
| | - Cynthia L Kenmuir
- Department of Psychology and the Neuroscience Program, Baldwin-Wallace College, 275 Eastland Road, Berea, OH 44017-2088, USA
| | - Colleen A McMullen
- Department of Psychology and the Neuroscience Program, Baldwin-Wallace College, 275 Eastland Road, Berea, OH 44017-2088, USA
| | - Alicia Snyder
- Department of Psychology and the Neuroscience Program, Baldwin-Wallace College, 275 Eastland Road, Berea, OH 44017-2088, USA
| | - Anna M Yocom
- Department of Psychology and the Neuroscience Program, Baldwin-Wallace College, 275 Eastland Road, Berea, OH 44017-2088, USA
| | - Deborah Likins-Fowler
- Department of Psychology and the Neuroscience Program, Baldwin-Wallace College, 275 Eastland Road, Berea, OH 44017-2088, USA
| | - Elizabeth L Valentine
- Department of Psychology and the Neuroscience Program, Baldwin-Wallace College, 275 Eastland Road, Berea, OH 44017-2088, USA
| | - Bettina Weber
- Department of Psychology and the Neuroscience Program, Baldwin-Wallace College, 275 Eastland Road, Berea, OH 44017-2088, USA
| | - Jaclyn M Biada
- Department of Psychology and the Neuroscience Program, Baldwin-Wallace College, 275 Eastland Road, Berea, OH 44017-2088, USA
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Mickley GA, Kenmuir CL, Dengler-Crish CM, McMullen C, McConnell A, Valentine E. Repeated exposures to gustatory stimuli produce habituation or positive contrast effects in perinatal rats. Dev Psychobiol 2004; 44:176-88. [PMID: 15054886 DOI: 10.1002/dev.20000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Adult rats exhibit a decrease in consummatory responses following repeated presentations of a taste (habituation) and an increase in consummatory responses if they experience an upward shift in the magnitude or intensity of a gustatory stimulus (e.g., sucrose or saccharin). These responses do not represent a direct sensorimotor reaction to a gustatory cue, but rather reflect a change in responding based on the memory of a previous taste. Here, we sought to determine if fetal rats could (like adults) adjust their orofacial motor responses based on a memory of recent gustatory experience. Embryonic Day 18 (E18) or Day 19 (E19) rat fetuses received oral lavage with either 0.15 or 0.30% saccharin (SAC). Subsequently, observations of orofacial movements (mouthing and licking) following oral lavage with 0.30% SAC were made 50 min later, 24 hr later, or on postnatal Day 3 (P3). Thus, some animals were in a "shifted" condition in which they first experienced a relatively low concentration of SAC and then a higher one while control rats ("nonshifted") received 0.30% SAC during both taste exposures. Fetuses exhibited evidence of both habituation (with repeated presentation of the 0.30% SAC) and positive contrast effects (PCEs) (following an upward shift in SAC concentration) when retested 50 min after their first exposure to SAC on E19. However, these animals did not exhibit PCEs 24 hr later or 5 days later (on P3). Contrast effects were not observed when the initial SAC exposure was on E18, and habituation responses were variable depending on the time interval between the taste presentations to these animals. Rats with a 5- to 6-day latency between the two taste presentations showed neither PCEs nor habituation. Our data indicate that PCEs and habituation effects emerge at different ages, and their demonstration is dependent upon the latency between the taste presentations.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Andrew Mickley
- Department of Psychology and the Neuroscience Program, Baldwin-Wallace College, Berea, OH 44017, USA.
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27
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Neurobehavioral Development of Infant Learning and Memory: Implications for Infant Attachment. ADVANCES IN THE STUDY OF BEHAVIOR 2004. [DOI: 10.1016/s0065-3454(04)34003-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register]
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Mickley GA, Remmers-Roeber DR, Dengler CM, McMullen CA, Kenmuir CL, Girdler B, Crouse C, Walker C. Simple behavioral methods to assess the effect of drugs or toxins on sensory experience. J Neurosci Methods 2002; 115:85-92. [PMID: 11897367 DOI: 10.1016/s0165-0270(02)00005-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
When behavioral pharmacologists/toxicologists study conditioned taste aversions (CTAs), or other conditioned responses, as a means to investigate the effects of various drugs or toxins on a learned response, failure to discover a CTA is frequently attributed to the treatment's influence on the associative process. This kind of analysis may fail to identify drug-induced sensory changes that may influence conditioned stimulus (CS) or unconditioned stimulus (US) saliency. The current paper outlines a simple method by which a drug's influence on CS or US sensation may be determined. Further, illustrative data are provided regarding how N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor blockade modulates taste and the sensation of malaise. Ketamine (an NMDA receptor antagonist) has been reported to block CTAs in both neonatal and adult rats. The current experiments evaluated ketamine's ability to modulate the taste of a frequently employed CS (saccharin HCl=SAC) or the aversive aspects of a common US (Lithium Chloride=LiCl). Rats normally exhibit a preference for 0.3% SAC over 0.6% SAC and will suppress consumption of these liquids following an injection of LiCl. We report that ketamine did not markedly antagonize these consummatory patterns nor did it disrupt spontaneous locomotor movements. Taken together, these findings point to ketamine's limited ability to change the sensory capacities required for CTA formation. Investigators interested in determining the underlying causes of drug-induced CTA blockade may choose to employ paradigms similar to the one used here.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Andrew Mickley
- Department of Psychology and the Neuroscience Program, Carnegie Hall, Baldwin-Wallace College, 275 Eastland Road, Berea, OH 44017-2088, USA.
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Yilmaz A, Schulz D, Aksoy A, Canbeyli R. Prolonged effect of an anesthetic dose of ketamine on behavioral despair. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2002; 71:341-4. [PMID: 11812542 DOI: 10.1016/s0091-3057(01)00693-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 123] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The present study investigated the effect of a single, anesthetic dose of ketamine, a noncompetitive N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) glutamate receptor antagonist, on behavioral despair, an animal model of depression. Separate groups of male Wistar rats injected with an anesthetic dose of ketamine (160 mg/kg ip) and tested 3, 7, or 10 days later showed significantly less immobility in the second of two forced-swim tests compared to saline-injected controls. Ketamine- and saline-treated animals did not differ significantly in the swim tests with respect to other behavioral measures, namely diving, jumping, and head shakes. The present findings point to an ameliorative effect of ketamine on behavioral despair and support the view that NMDA antagonists may have a beneficial effect on depression.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Yilmaz
- Psychobiology Laboratory, Department of Psychology, Bogazici University, 80815 Bebek, Istanbul, Turkey
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Sullivan RM. Unique Characteristics of Neonatal Classical Conditioning: The Role of the Amygdala and Locus Coeruleus. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2001; 36:293-307. [PMID: 17476313 PMCID: PMC1863212 DOI: 10.1007/bf02688797] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
The central nervous system of altricial infants is specialized for optimizing attachments to their caregiver. During the first postnatal days, infant rats show a sensitive period for learning and are particularly susceptible to learning an attraction to their mother's odor. Classical conditioning appears to underlie this learning that is expressed behaviorally as an increased ability to acquire odor preferences and a decreased ability to acquire odor aversions. Specifically, in neonatal rats, pairing an odor with moderately painful shock (0.5mA) or milk produces a subsequent relative preference for that odor. The neural circuitry supporting the increased ability to acquire odor preferences appears to be the heightened functioning of the noradrenergic pontine nucleus locus coeruleus. Indeed, norepinephrine from the locus coeruleus appears to be both necessary and sufficient for learning during the sensitive period. On the other hand, the decreased ability to acquire odor aversions seems to be due to the lack of participation of the amygdala in at least some aversive learning situations. The site of plasticity in the pup's brain appears to be limited to the olfactory bulb. This neonatal sensitive period for learning ends around postnatal day 9-10, at which time pups make the transition from crawling to walking and classical conditioning becomes "adultlike." The neonatal behavioral and neural induced changes are retained into adulthood where it modifies sexual behavior.
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Mickley GA, Remmers-Roeber DR, Dengler CM, Kenmuir CL, Crouse C. Paradoxical effects of ketamine on the memory of fetuses of different ages. BRAIN RESEARCH. DEVELOPMENTAL BRAIN RESEARCH 2001; 127:71-6. [PMID: 11287066 DOI: 10.1016/s0165-3806(01)00119-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Brain N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) glutamate receptors have been implicated as important mediators of both learning and neuronal development. The current study investigated how ketamine (a well-known NMDA-receptor blocking drug) influences taste-mediated conditioned motor responses (CMRs) in perinatal rats. Dams pregnant with either embryonic day 18 (E18) or E19 rat fetuses were injected with 0 or 100 mg/kg ketamine HCl (i.p.). One-half hour later, a reversible spinal block was performed on the dam and fetuses received oral lavage with 10 microl, 0.3% saccharin (SAC) or water (control) in utero. After the oral injection, fetuses received either a saline (control) or lithium chloride (LiCl) injection (81 mg/kg, i.p.). The uterus was replaced and, 2 days later (E20 or E21), some rats received oral lavage with SAC. Other litters were born via normal vaginal delivery or Cesarean section and orally exposed to SAC on post-natal day 3 (P3). Motor responses were observed immediately after the oral lavage of SAC. If SAC had been paired with LiCl in utero, pups generally exhibited conditioned suppression of orofacial movements (as compared to controls). Ketamine significantly attenuated this taste-mediated CMR of animals conditioned on E19. However, the same treatments did not disrupt CMRs of rats treated with ketamine before CS-US pairing on E18. Our findings indicate an age-dependent role for NMDA receptors in the formation of CMRs in perinatal rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- G A Mickley
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience Program, Carnegie Hall, Baldwin-Wallace College, 275 Eastland Road, Berea, OH 44017-2088, USA.
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Bielavska E, Miksik I, Krivanek J. Glutamate in the parabrachial nucleus of rats during conditioned taste aversion. Brain Res 2000; 887:413-7. [PMID: 11134632 DOI: 10.1016/s0006-8993(00)02986-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Brain microdialysis combined with HPLC and spectroscopic detection was used to monitor extracellular glutamate in the parabrachial nucleus (PBN) of rats during acquisition of a conditioned taste aversion (CTA). Microdialysis fractions taken every 20 min were used to assess the effects of presentation of the conditioned stimulus alone (CS, consumption of 0.1% saccharin), the unconditioned stimulus alone (US, intraperitoneal injection of 0.15 M LiCl, 2% b.w. induced malaise after water drinking) as well as that of CS-US pairing. After 15 min of saccharin drinking, the glutamate concentration in the eluate (20 microl/20 min) reached 80% above the baseline but returned to the basal value in the next fraction. LiCl alone (applied 1 h after 15 min drinking of water) increased glutamate only following some delay, i.e. in the second and third post-lithium fraction by 90 and 67%, respectively. However, when LiCl was injected 1 h after the onset of saccharin intake, the glutamate concentration rose significantly (by 95%) already in the first post-LiCl fraction and by 120% in the second one. It appears, therefore, that the 'saccharin trace' facilitates the effect of lithium on extracellular concentration of glutamate in PBN during acquisition of CTA.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Bielavska
- Institute of Physiology, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Prague, Czech Republic
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Mickley GA, Remmers-Roeber DR, Crouse C, Peluso R. Ketamine blocks a taste recognition memory in fetal rats. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2000; 67:575-81. [PMID: 11164088 DOI: 10.1016/s0091-3057(00)00391-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Decisions about novelty/familiarity are critical in determining whether or not information should be attended to, and possibly encoded, for long-term storage. We have reported that fetal and neonatal rats exhibit an increase in orofacial movements (e.g., perseverative mouthing and mouth movements, and licks) upon tasting saccharin (SAC), if it was experienced previously. E19 rat fetuses can acquire this taste recognition memory and retain it for at least 5 days (P3). In the current study, we sought to evaluate the role of N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors in establishing a taste recognition memory. Pregnant Sprague-Dawley rats received ketamine (NMDA receptor antagonist) (doses: 0, 50, or 100 mg/kg, i.p.). One-half hour later, we performed a reversible spinal block on each pregnant dam, and E19 fetuses received an oral injection of 10 microl, 0.3% SAC or water (control) while in utero. The uterus was replaced and the pups were later born via a normal vaginal delivery. On P3, all pups experienced oral lavage of 10 microl, 0.3% SAC, and motor responses were recorded. As expected, non-drugged control neonates tasting familiar SAC exhibited significantly more perseverative mouth movements, as well as total mouth movements and licks, than did pups tasting novel SAC. However, this taste recognition memory response was not observed in rats exposed to ketamine in utero. The data suggest that early non-associative taste memories may be disrupted by NMDA receptor blockade.
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Affiliation(s)
- G A Mickley
- Department of Psychology, Baldwin-Wallace College, Carnegie Hall, 275 Eastland Road, Berea, OH 44017-2088, USA.
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Mickley GA, Remmers-Roeber DR, Crouse C, Peluso R. Ketamine blocks a taste-mediated conditioned motor response in perinatal rats. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2000; 66:547-52. [PMID: 10899368 DOI: 10.1016/s0091-3057(00)00250-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Brain N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) glutamate receptors have been implicated as important mediators of both learning and neuronal development. The current study investigated how ketamine HCl (a well-known NMDA-receptor blocking drug) would influence taste-mediated conditioned motor responses in perinatal rats. Dams pregnant with E19 rat fetuses were injected with 0, 50, or 100 mg/kg ketamine HCl (IP). One-half hour later, a reversible spinal block was performed on the dam, and fetuses received an oral injection of 10 microl 0.3% Saccharin (SAC) or water while in utero. After the oral injection, fetuses received either saline or LiCl (81 mg/kg, IP). The uterus was replaced and, 2 days later (E21), rats received oral lavage with SAC. Rats in other litters were born via a normal vaginal delivery and were exposed to SAC on postnatal day 3 (P3). Observations of motor responses were recorded immediately after the oral lavage of SAC. If SAC had been paired with LiCl in utero, both E21 and P3 pups exhibited a conditioned suppression of orofacial movements (compared to controls). Both doses of ketamine significantly attenuated this taste-mediated conditioned motor response. These data reinforce the current conception of the fetus and neonate as sophisticated sensors and responders to the uterine and extrauterine environment. Further, our findings indicate a role for NMDA receptors in the formation of a conditioned motor response in fetal rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- G A Mickley
- Department of Psychology, Carnegie Hall, Baldwin-Wallace College, 275 Eastland Rd., Berea, OH 44017-2088, USA
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