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Wang L, Li L, Zhao D, Yuan H, Zhang H, Chen J, Pang D, Lu Y, Ouyang H. MYH7 R453C induced cardiac remodelling via activating TGF-β/Smad2/3, ERK1/2 and Nox4/ROS/NF-κB signalling pathways. Open Biol 2024; 14:230427. [PMID: 38862020 DOI: 10.1098/rsob.230427] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2023] [Accepted: 04/24/2024] [Indexed: 06/13/2024] Open
Abstract
Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM) is a monogenic cardiac disorder commonly induced by sarcomere gene mutations. However, the mechanism for HCM is not well defined. Here, we generated transgenic MYH7 R453C and MYH6 R453C piglets and found both developed typical cardiac hypertrophy. Unexpectedly, we found serious fibrosis and cardiomyocyte loss in the ventricular of MYH7 R453C, not MYH6 R453C piglets, similar to HCM patients. Then, RNA-seq analysis and western blotting identified the activation of ERK1/2 and PI3K-Akt pathways in MYH7 R453C. Moreover, we observed an increased expression of fetal genes and an excess of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in MYH7 R453C piglet models, which was produced by Nox4 and subsequently induced inflammatory response. Additionally, the phosphorylation levels of Smad2/3, ERK1/2 and NF-kB p65 proteins were elevated in cardiomyocytes with the MYH7 R453C mutation. Furthermore, epigallocatechin gallate, a natural bioactive compound, could be used as a drug to reduce cell death by adjusting significant downregulation of the protein expression of Bax and upregulated Bcl-2 levels in the H9C2 models with MYH7 R453C mutation. In conclusion, our study illustrated that TGF-β/Smad2/3, ERK1/2 and Nox4/ROS pathways have synergistic effects on cardiac remodelling and inflammation in MYH7 R453C mutation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lingyu Wang
- Key Lab for Zoonoses Research, Ministry of Education, College of Animal Sciences, Jilin University , Changchun 130062, People's Republic of China
| | - Linquan Li
- Key Lab for Zoonoses Research, Ministry of Education, College of Animal Sciences, Jilin University , Changchun 130062, People's Republic of China
| | - Dazhong Zhao
- Key Lab for Zoonoses Research, Ministry of Education, College of Animal Sciences, Jilin University , Changchun 130062, People's Republic of China
| | - Hongming Yuan
- Key Lab for Zoonoses Research, Ministry of Education, College of Animal Sciences, Jilin University , Changchun 130062, People's Republic of China
| | - Huanyu Zhang
- Key Lab for Zoonoses Research, Ministry of Education, College of Animal Sciences, Jilin University , Changchun 130062, People's Republic of China
| | - Jiahuan Chen
- Key Lab for Zoonoses Research, Ministry of Education, College of Animal Sciences, Jilin University , Changchun 130062, People's Republic of China
| | - Daxin Pang
- Key Lab for Zoonoses Research, Ministry of Education, College of Animal Sciences, Jilin University , Changchun 130062, People's Republic of China
- Chongqing Research Institute, Jilin University , Chongqing 401123, People's Republic of China
| | - Yi Lu
- Department of Human Genetics, Radboud University Medical Center , Nijmegen 6525 GA, The Netherlands
| | - Hongsheng Ouyang
- Key Lab for Zoonoses Research, Ministry of Education, College of Animal Sciences, Jilin University , Changchun 130062, People's Republic of China
- Chongqing Research Institute, Jilin University , Chongqing 401123, People's Republic of China
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2
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Menezes Junior ADS, de França-e-Silva ALG, de Oliveira HL, de Lima KBA, Porto IDOP, Pedroso TMA, Silva DDME, Freitas AF. Genetic Mutations and Mitochondrial Redox Signaling as Modulating Factors in Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy: A Scoping Review. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:5855. [PMID: 38892064 PMCID: PMC11173352 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25115855] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2024] [Revised: 05/15/2024] [Accepted: 05/21/2024] [Indexed: 06/21/2024] Open
Abstract
Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM) is a heart condition characterized by cellular and metabolic dysfunction, with mitochondrial dysfunction playing a crucial role. Although the direct relationship between genetic mutations and mitochondrial dysfunction remains unclear, targeting mitochondrial dysfunction presents promising opportunities for treatment, as there are currently no effective treatments available for HCM. This review adhered to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis Extension for Scoping Reviews guidelines. Searches were conducted in databases such as PubMed, Embase, and Scopus up to September 2023 using "MESH terms". Bibliographic references from pertinent articles were also included. Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM) is influenced by ionic homeostasis, cardiac tissue remodeling, metabolic balance, genetic mutations, reactive oxygen species regulation, and mitochondrial dysfunction. The latter is a common factor regardless of the cause and is linked to intracellular calcium handling, energetic and oxidative stress, and HCM-induced hypertrophy. Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy treatments focus on symptom management and complication prevention. Targeted therapeutic approaches, such as improving mitochondrial bioenergetics, are being explored. This includes coenzyme Q and elamipretide therapies and metabolic strategies like therapeutic ketosis. Understanding the biomolecular, genetic, and mitochondrial mechanisms underlying HCM is crucial for developing new therapeutic modalities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonio da Silva Menezes Junior
- Faculdade de Medicina, Departamento de Clínica Médica, Universidade Federal de Goiás (UFG), Goiânia 74020-020, Brazil; (A.L.G.d.F.-e.-S.); (H.L.d.O.); (K.B.A.d.L.); (D.d.M.e.S.); (A.F.F.J.)
| | - Ana Luísa Guedes de França-e-Silva
- Faculdade de Medicina, Departamento de Clínica Médica, Universidade Federal de Goiás (UFG), Goiânia 74020-020, Brazil; (A.L.G.d.F.-e.-S.); (H.L.d.O.); (K.B.A.d.L.); (D.d.M.e.S.); (A.F.F.J.)
| | - Henrique Lima de Oliveira
- Faculdade de Medicina, Departamento de Clínica Médica, Universidade Federal de Goiás (UFG), Goiânia 74020-020, Brazil; (A.L.G.d.F.-e.-S.); (H.L.d.O.); (K.B.A.d.L.); (D.d.M.e.S.); (A.F.F.J.)
| | - Khissya Beatryz Alves de Lima
- Faculdade de Medicina, Departamento de Clínica Médica, Universidade Federal de Goiás (UFG), Goiânia 74020-020, Brazil; (A.L.G.d.F.-e.-S.); (H.L.d.O.); (K.B.A.d.L.); (D.d.M.e.S.); (A.F.F.J.)
| | - Iane de Oliveira Pires Porto
- Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Rio Verde (UniRV), Campus Aparecida, Aparecida de Goiânia 74345-030, Brazil; (I.d.O.P.P.); (T.M.A.P.)
| | - Thays Millena Alves Pedroso
- Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Rio Verde (UniRV), Campus Aparecida, Aparecida de Goiânia 74345-030, Brazil; (I.d.O.P.P.); (T.M.A.P.)
| | - Daniela de Melo e Silva
- Faculdade de Medicina, Departamento de Clínica Médica, Universidade Federal de Goiás (UFG), Goiânia 74020-020, Brazil; (A.L.G.d.F.-e.-S.); (H.L.d.O.); (K.B.A.d.L.); (D.d.M.e.S.); (A.F.F.J.)
| | - Aguinaldo F. Freitas
- Faculdade de Medicina, Departamento de Clínica Médica, Universidade Federal de Goiás (UFG), Goiânia 74020-020, Brazil; (A.L.G.d.F.-e.-S.); (H.L.d.O.); (K.B.A.d.L.); (D.d.M.e.S.); (A.F.F.J.)
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3
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Li B, Liu F, Chen X, Chen T, Zhang J, Liu Y, Yao Y, Hu W, Zhang M, Wang B, Liu L, Chen K, Wu Y. FARS2 Deficiency Causes Cardiomyopathy by Disrupting Mitochondrial Homeostasis and the Mitochondrial Quality Control System. Circulation 2024; 149:1268-1284. [PMID: 38362779 PMCID: PMC11017836 DOI: 10.1161/circulationaha.123.064489] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2023] [Accepted: 12/13/2023] [Indexed: 02/17/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM) is a common heritable heart disease. Although HCM has been reported to be associated with many variants of genes involved in sarcomeric protein biomechanics, pathogenic genes have not been identified in patients with partial HCM. FARS2 (the mitochondrial phenylalanyl-tRNA synthetase), a type of mitochondrial aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase, plays a role in the mitochondrial translation machinery. Several variants of FARS2 have been suggested to cause neurological disorders; however, FARS2-associated diseases involving other organs have not been reported. We identified FARS2 as a potential novel pathogenic gene in cardiomyopathy and investigated its effects on mitochondrial homeostasis and the cardiomyopathy phenotype. METHODS FARS2 variants in patients with HCM were identified using whole-exome sequencing, Sanger sequencing, molecular docking analyses, and cell model investigation. Fars2 conditional mutant (p.R415L) or knockout mice, fars2-knockdown zebrafish, and Fars2-knockdown neonatal rat ventricular myocytes were engineered to construct FARS2 deficiency models both in vivo and in vitro. The effects of FARS2 and its role in mitochondrial homeostasis were subsequently evaluated using RNA sequencing and mitochondrial functional analyses. Myocardial tissues from patients were used for further verification. RESULTS We identified 7 unreported FARS2 variants in patients with HCM. Heart-specific Fars2-deficient mice presented cardiac hypertrophy, left ventricular dilation, progressive heart failure accompanied by myocardial and mitochondrial dysfunction, and a short life span. Heterozygous cardiac-specific Fars2R415L mice displayed a tendency to cardiac hypertrophy at age 4 weeks, accompanied by myocardial dysfunction. In addition, fars2-knockdown zebrafish presented pericardial edema and heart failure. FARS2 deficiency impaired mitochondrial homeostasis by directly blocking the aminoacylation of mt-tRNAPhe and inhibiting the synthesis of mitochondrial proteins, ultimately contributing to an imbalanced mitochondrial quality control system by accelerating mitochondrial hyperfragmentation and disrupting mitochondrion-related autophagy. Interfering with the mitochondrial quality control system using adeno-associated virus 9 or specific inhibitors mitigated the cardiac and mitochondrial dysfunction triggered by FARS2 deficiency by restoring mitochondrial homeostasis. CONCLUSIONS Our findings unveil the previously unrecognized role of FARS2 in heart and mitochondrial homeostasis. This study may provide new insights into the molecular diagnosis and prevention of heritable cardiomyopathy as well as therapeutic options for FARS2-associated cardiomyopathy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bowen Li
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Shaanxi Provincial Key Laboratory of Clinical Genetics (B.L., X.C., T.C., J.Z., Y.L., Y.Y., W.H., M.Z., Y.W.), Air Force Medical University, Xi’an, China
| | - Fangfang Liu
- Department of Neurobiology (F.L.), Air Force Medical University, Xi’an, China
| | - Xihui Chen
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Shaanxi Provincial Key Laboratory of Clinical Genetics (B.L., X.C., T.C., J.Z., Y.L., Y.Y., W.H., M.Z., Y.W.), Air Force Medical University, Xi’an, China
| | - Tangdong Chen
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Shaanxi Provincial Key Laboratory of Clinical Genetics (B.L., X.C., T.C., J.Z., Y.L., Y.Y., W.H., M.Z., Y.W.), Air Force Medical University, Xi’an, China
| | - Juan Zhang
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Shaanxi Provincial Key Laboratory of Clinical Genetics (B.L., X.C., T.C., J.Z., Y.L., Y.Y., W.H., M.Z., Y.W.), Air Force Medical University, Xi’an, China
| | - Yifeng Liu
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Shaanxi Provincial Key Laboratory of Clinical Genetics (B.L., X.C., T.C., J.Z., Y.L., Y.Y., W.H., M.Z., Y.W.), Air Force Medical University, Xi’an, China
| | - Yan Yao
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Shaanxi Provincial Key Laboratory of Clinical Genetics (B.L., X.C., T.C., J.Z., Y.L., Y.Y., W.H., M.Z., Y.W.), Air Force Medical University, Xi’an, China
| | - Weihong Hu
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Shaanxi Provincial Key Laboratory of Clinical Genetics (B.L., X.C., T.C., J.Z., Y.L., Y.Y., W.H., M.Z., Y.W.), Air Force Medical University, Xi’an, China
| | - Mengjie Zhang
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Shaanxi Provincial Key Laboratory of Clinical Genetics (B.L., X.C., T.C., J.Z., Y.L., Y.Y., W.H., M.Z., Y.W.), Air Force Medical University, Xi’an, China
| | - Bo Wang
- School of Basic Medicine, Department of Ultrasound, Xijing Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy Center, Xijing Hospital (B.W., L.L.), Air Force Medical University, Xi’an, China
| | - Liwen Liu
- School of Basic Medicine, Department of Ultrasound, Xijing Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy Center, Xijing Hospital (B.W., L.L.), Air Force Medical University, Xi’an, China
| | - Kun Chen
- Department of Anatomy, Histology and Embryology and K.K. Leung Brain Research Center (K.C.), Air Force Medical University, Xi’an, China
| | - Yuanming Wu
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Shaanxi Provincial Key Laboratory of Clinical Genetics (B.L., X.C., T.C., J.Z., Y.L., Y.Y., W.H., M.Z., Y.W.), Air Force Medical University, Xi’an, China
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, Tangdu Hospital (Y.W.), Air Force Medical University, Xi’an, China
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4
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Kaplan JL, Rivas VN, Connolly DJ. Advancing Treatments for Feline Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy: The Role of Animal Models and Targeted Therapeutics. Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract 2023; 53:1293-1308. [PMID: 37414693 DOI: 10.1016/j.cvsm.2023.05.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/08/2023]
Abstract
Feline HCM is the most common cardiovascular disease in cats, leading to devastating outcomes, including congestive heart failure (CHF), arterial thromboembolism (ATE), and sudden death. Evidence demonstrating long-term survival benefit with currently available therapies is lacking. Therefore, it is imperative to explore intricate genetic and molecular pathways that drive HCM pathophysiology to inspire the development of novel therapeutics. Several clinical trials exploring new drug therapies are currently underway, including those investigating small molecule inhibitors and rapamycin. This article outlines the key work performed using cellular and animal models that has led to and continues to guide the development of new innovative therapeutic strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanna L Kaplan
- Department of Medicine and Epidemiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA, USA.
| | - Victor N Rivas
- Department of Medicine and Epidemiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
| | - David J Connolly
- Department of Clinical Science and Services, Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, Hertfordshire, UK
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5
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Chatterjee P, Holody CD, Kirschenman R, Graton ME, Spaans F, Phillips TJ, Case CP, Bourque SL, Lemieux H, Davidge ST. Sex-Specific Effects of Prenatal Hypoxia and a Placental Antioxidant Treatment on Cardiac Mitochondrial Function in the Young Adult Offspring. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:13624. [PMID: 37686430 PMCID: PMC10487956 DOI: 10.3390/ijms241713624] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2023] [Revised: 08/25/2023] [Accepted: 09/01/2023] [Indexed: 09/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Prenatal hypoxia is associated with placental oxidative stress, leading to impaired fetal growth and an increased risk of cardiovascular disease in the adult offspring; however, the mechanisms are unknown. Alterations in mitochondrial function may result in impaired cardiac function in offspring. In this study, we hypothesized that cardiac mitochondrial function is impaired in adult offspring exposed to intrauterine hypoxia, which can be prevented by placental treatment with a nanoparticle-encapsulated mitochondrial antioxidant (nMitoQ). Cardiac mitochondrial respiration was assessed in 4-month-old rat offspring exposed to prenatal hypoxia (11% O2) from gestational day (GD)15-21 receiving either saline or nMitoQ on GD 15. Prenatal hypoxia did not alter cardiac mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation capacity in the male offspring. In females, the NADH + succinate pathway capacity decreased by prenatal hypoxia and tended to be increased by nMitoQ. Prenatal hypoxia also decreased the succinate pathway capacity in females. nMitoQ treatment increased respiratory coupling efficiency in prenatal hypoxia-exposed female offspring. In conclusion, prenatal hypoxia impaired cardiac mitochondrial function in adult female offspring only, which was improved with prenatal nMitoQ treatment. Therefore, treatment strategies targeting placental oxidative stress in prenatal hypoxia may reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease in adult offspring by improving cardiac mitochondrial function in a sex-specific manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paulami Chatterjee
- Department of Physiology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2R3, Canada;
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2R3, Canada; (R.K.); (M.E.G.); (F.S.)
- Women and Children’s Health Research Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2R3, Canada; (S.L.B.); (H.L.)
| | - Claudia D. Holody
- Faculty Saint-Jean, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2R3, Canada;
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2R3, Canada
| | - Raven Kirschenman
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2R3, Canada; (R.K.); (M.E.G.); (F.S.)
- Women and Children’s Health Research Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2R3, Canada; (S.L.B.); (H.L.)
| | - Murilo E. Graton
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2R3, Canada; (R.K.); (M.E.G.); (F.S.)
- Women and Children’s Health Research Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2R3, Canada; (S.L.B.); (H.L.)
| | - Floor Spaans
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2R3, Canada; (R.K.); (M.E.G.); (F.S.)
- Women and Children’s Health Research Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2R3, Canada; (S.L.B.); (H.L.)
| | - Tom J. Phillips
- UK Dementia Research Institute, Cardiff University, Cardiff CF10 3AT, UK;
| | - C. Patrick Case
- Musculoskeletal Research Unit, University of Bristol, Bristol BS10 5NB, UK;
| | - Stephane L. Bourque
- Women and Children’s Health Research Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2R3, Canada; (S.L.B.); (H.L.)
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2R3, Canada
- Department of Anesthesiology & Pain Medicine, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2R3, Canada
| | - Hélène Lemieux
- Women and Children’s Health Research Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2R3, Canada; (S.L.B.); (H.L.)
- Faculty Saint-Jean, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2R3, Canada;
- Department of Medicine, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2R3, Canada
| | - Sandra T. Davidge
- Department of Physiology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2R3, Canada;
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2R3, Canada; (R.K.); (M.E.G.); (F.S.)
- Women and Children’s Health Research Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2R3, Canada; (S.L.B.); (H.L.)
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6
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Ranjbarvaziri S, Kooiker KB, Ellenberger M, Fajardo G, Zhao M, Vander Roest AS, Woldeyes RA, Koyano TT, Fong R, Ma N, Tian L, Traber GM, Chan F, Perrino J, Reddy S, Chiu W, Wu JC, Woo JY, Ruppel KM, Spudich JA, Snyder MP, Contrepois K, Bernstein D. Altered Cardiac Energetics and Mitochondrial Dysfunction in Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy. Circulation 2021; 144:1714-1731. [PMID: 34672721 PMCID: PMC8608736 DOI: 10.1161/circulationaha.121.053575] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 36.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2021] [Accepted: 09/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM) is a complex disease partly explained by the effects of individual gene variants on sarcomeric protein biomechanics. At the cellular level, HCM mutations most commonly enhance force production, leading to higher energy demands. Despite significant advances in elucidating sarcomeric structure-function relationships, there is still much to be learned about the mechanisms that link altered cardiac energetics to HCM phenotypes. In this work, we test the hypothesis that changes in cardiac energetics represent a common pathophysiologic pathway in HCM. METHODS We performed a comprehensive multiomics profile of the molecular (transcripts, metabolites, and complex lipids), ultrastructural, and functional components of HCM energetics using myocardial samples from 27 HCM patients and 13 normal controls (donor hearts). RESULTS Integrated omics analysis revealed alterations in a wide array of biochemical pathways with major dysregulation in fatty acid metabolism, reduction of acylcarnitines, and accumulation of free fatty acids. HCM hearts showed evidence of global energetic decompensation manifested by a decrease in high energy phosphate metabolites (ATP, ADP, and phosphocreatine) and a reduction in mitochondrial genes involved in creatine kinase and ATP synthesis. Accompanying these metabolic derangements, electron microscopy showed an increased fraction of severely damaged mitochondria with reduced cristae density, coinciding with reduced citrate synthase activity and mitochondrial oxidative respiration. These mitochondrial abnormalities were associated with elevated reactive oxygen species and reduced antioxidant defenses. However, despite significant mitochondrial injury, HCM hearts failed to upregulate mitophagic clearance. CONCLUSIONS Overall, our findings suggest that perturbed metabolic signaling and mitochondrial dysfunction are common pathogenic mechanisms in patients with HCM. These results highlight potential new drug targets for attenuation of the clinical disease through improving metabolic function and reducing mitochondrial injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Ranjbarvaziri
- Department of Pediatrics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
- Cardiovascular Research Institute, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Kristina B. Kooiker
- Department of Medicine, Division of Cardiology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Mathew Ellenberger
- Department of Genetics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Giovanni Fajardo
- Department of Pediatrics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
- Cardiovascular Research Institute, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Mingming Zhao
- Department of Pediatrics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
- Cardiovascular Research Institute, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Alison Schroer Vander Roest
- Department of Pediatrics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
- Cardiovascular Research Institute, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Rahel A. Woldeyes
- Department of Bioengineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | | | - Robyn Fong
- Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery, Stanford University, CA, USA
| | - Ning Ma
- Cardiovascular Research Institute, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
- Department of Medicine, Division of Cardiology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Lei Tian
- Cardiovascular Research Institute, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
- Department of Medicine, Division of Cardiology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Gavin M. Traber
- Department of Genetics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Frandics Chan
- Department of Radiology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - John Perrino
- Cell Sciences Imaging Facility, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Sushma Reddy
- Department of Pediatrics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
- Cardiovascular Research Institute, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Wah Chiu
- Department of Bioengineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
- Division of Cryo-EM and Bioimaging, SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Joseph C. Wu
- Cardiovascular Research Institute, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
- Department of Medicine, Division of Cardiology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Joseph Y. Woo
- Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery, Stanford University, CA, USA
| | - Kathleen M. Ruppel
- Department of Pediatrics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
- Department of Biochemistry, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - James A. Spudich
- Department of Biochemistry, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Michael P. Snyder
- Department of Genetics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Kévin Contrepois
- Department of Genetics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Daniel Bernstein
- Department of Pediatrics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
- Cardiovascular Research Institute, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
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7
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Niihori M, Eccles CA, Kurdyukov S, Zemskova M, Varghese MV, Stepanova AA, Galkin A, Rafikov R, Rafikova O. Rats with a Human Mutation of NFU1 Develop Pulmonary Hypertension. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 2020; 62:231-242. [PMID: 31461310 DOI: 10.1165/rcmb.2019-0065oc] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
NFU1 is a mitochondrial protein that is involved in the biosynthesis of iron-sulfur clusters, and its genetic modification is associated with disorders of mitochondrial energy metabolism. Patients with autosomal-recessive inheritance of the NFU1 mutation G208C have reduced activity of the respiratory chain Complex II and decreased levels of lipoic-acid-dependent enzymes, and develop pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) in ∼70% of cases. We investigated whether rats with a human mutation in NFU1 are also predisposed to PAH development. A point mutation in rat NFU1G206C (human G208C) was introduced through CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing. Hemodynamic data, tissue samples, and fresh mitochondria were collected and analyzed. NFU1G206C rats showed increased right ventricular pressure, right ventricular hypertrophy, and high levels of pulmonary artery remodeling. Computed tomography and angiography of the pulmonary vasculature indicated severe angioobliterative changes in NFU1G206C rats. Importantly, the penetrance of the PAH phenotype was found to be more prevalent in females than in males, replicating the established sex difference among patients with PAH. Male and female homozygote rats exhibited decreased expression and activity of mitochondrial Complex II, and markedly decreased pyruvate dehydrogenase activity and lipoate binding. The limited development of PAH in males correlated with the preserved levels of oligomeric NFU1, increased expression of ISCU (an alternative branch of the iron-sulfur assembly system), and increased complex IV activity. Thus, the male sex has additional plasticity to overcome the iron-sulfur cluster deficiency. Our work describes a novel, humanized rat model of NFU1 deficiency that showed mitochondrial dysfunction similar to that observed in patients and developed PAH with the same sex dimorphism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maki Niihori
- Division of Endocrinology, Department of Medicine, University of Arizona College of Medicine, Tucson, Arizona; and
| | - Cody A Eccles
- Division of Endocrinology, Department of Medicine, University of Arizona College of Medicine, Tucson, Arizona; and
| | - Sergey Kurdyukov
- Division of Endocrinology, Department of Medicine, University of Arizona College of Medicine, Tucson, Arizona; and
| | - Marina Zemskova
- Division of Endocrinology, Department of Medicine, University of Arizona College of Medicine, Tucson, Arizona; and
| | | | - Anna A Stepanova
- Division of Neonatology, Department of Pediatrics, Columbia University, New York, New York
| | - Alexander Galkin
- Division of Neonatology, Department of Pediatrics, Columbia University, New York, New York
| | - Ruslan Rafikov
- Division of Endocrinology, Department of Medicine, University of Arizona College of Medicine, Tucson, Arizona; and
| | - Olga Rafikova
- Division of Endocrinology, Department of Medicine, University of Arizona College of Medicine, Tucson, Arizona; and
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Mitochondria and Cardiac Hypertrophy. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2017; 982:203-226. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-55330-6_11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
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Pasqualini FS, Nesmith AP, Horton RE, Sheehy SP, Parker KK. Mechanotransduction and Metabolism in Cardiomyocyte Microdomains. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2016; 2016:4081638. [PMID: 28044126 PMCID: PMC5164897 DOI: 10.1155/2016/4081638] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2016] [Revised: 11/03/2016] [Accepted: 11/07/2016] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Efficient contractions of the left ventricle are ensured by the continuous transfer of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) from energy production sites, the mitochondria, to energy utilization sites, such as ionic pumps and the force-generating sarcomeres. To minimize the impact of intracellular ATP trafficking, sarcomeres and mitochondria are closely packed together and in proximity with other ultrastructures involved in excitation-contraction coupling, such as t-tubules and sarcoplasmic reticulum junctions. This complex microdomain has been referred to as the intracellular energetic unit. Here, we review the literature in support of the notion that cardiac homeostasis and disease are emergent properties of the hierarchical organization of these units. Specifically, we will focus on pathological alterations of this microdomain that result in cardiac diseases through energy imbalance and posttranslational modifications of the cytoskeletal proteins involved in mechanosensing and transduction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesco S. Pasqualini
- Disease Biophysics Group, Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard Stem Cell Institute, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA
- Institute for Regenerative Medicine (IREM), Wyss Translational Center, University and ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Alexander P. Nesmith
- Disease Biophysics Group, Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard Stem Cell Institute, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Renita E. Horton
- Disease Biophysics Group, Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard Stem Cell Institute, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA
- James Worth Bagley College of Engineering and College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Mississippi State University, Starkville, MS, USA
| | - Sean P. Sheehy
- Disease Biophysics Group, Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard Stem Cell Institute, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Kevin Kit Parker
- Disease Biophysics Group, Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard Stem Cell Institute, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA
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Ultrastructural myocardial changes in seven cats with spontaneous hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. J Vet Cardiol 2015; 17 Suppl 1:S220-32. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jvc.2015.10.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2014] [Revised: 10/05/2015] [Accepted: 10/15/2015] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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Prathapan A, Vineetha VP, Raghu KG. Protective effect of Boerhaavia diffusa L. against mitochondrial dysfunction in angiotensin II induced hypertrophy in H9c2 cardiomyoblast cells. PLoS One 2014; 9:e96220. [PMID: 24788441 PMCID: PMC4005769 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0096220] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2014] [Accepted: 04/03/2014] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Mitochondrial dysfunction plays a critical role in the development of cardiac hypertrophy and heart failure. So mitochondria are emerging as one of the important druggable targets in the management of cardiac hypertrophy and other associated complications. In the present study, effects of ethanolic extract of Boerhaavia diffusa (BDE), a green leafy vegetable against mitochondrial dysfunction in angiotensin II (Ang II) induced hypertrophy in H9c2 cardiomyoblasts was evaluated. H9c2 cells challenged with Ang II exhibited pathological hypertrophic responses and mitochondrial dysfunction which was evident from increment in cell volume (49.09±1.13%), protein content (55.17±1.19%), LDH leakage (58.74±1.87%), increased intracellular ROS production (26.25±0.91%), mitochondrial superoxide generation (65.06±2.27%), alteration in mitochondrial transmembrane potential (ΔΨm), opening of mitochondrial permeability transition pore (mPTP) and mitochondrial swelling. In addition, activities of mitochondrial respiratory chain complexes (I-IV), aconitase, NADPH oxidase, thioredoxin reductase, oxygen consumption rate and calcium homeostasis were evaluated. Treatment with BDE significantly prevented the generation of intracellular ROS and mitochondrial superoxide radicals and protected the mitochondria by preventing dissipation of ΔΨm, opening of mPTP, mitochondrial swelling and enhanced the activities of respiratory chain complexes and oxygen consumption rate in H9c2 cells. Activities of aconitase and thioredoxin reductase which was lowered (33.77±0.68% & 45.81±0.71% respectively) due to hypertrophy, were increased in BDE treated cells (P≤0.05). Moreover, BDE also reduced the intracellular calcium overload in Ang II treated cells. Overall results revealed the protective effects of B. diffusa against mitochondrial dysfunction in hypertrophy in H9c2 cells and the present findings may shed new light on the therapeutic potential of B. diffusa in addition to its nutraceutical potentials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ayyappan Prathapan
- Agroprocessing and Natural Products Division, CSIR-National Institute for Interdisciplinary Science and Technology (NIIST), Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India
| | - Vadavanath Prabhakaran Vineetha
- Agroprocessing and Natural Products Division, CSIR-National Institute for Interdisciplinary Science and Technology (NIIST), Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India
| | - Kozhiparambil Gopalan Raghu
- Agroprocessing and Natural Products Division, CSIR-National Institute for Interdisciplinary Science and Technology (NIIST), Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India
- * E-mail:
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Myocardial energetics in heart failure. Basic Res Cardiol 2013; 108:358. [PMID: 23740216 DOI: 10.1007/s00395-013-0358-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2013] [Revised: 04/24/2013] [Accepted: 05/09/2013] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
It has become common sense that the failing heart is an "engine out of fuel". However, undisputable evidence that, indeed, the failing heart is limited by insufficient ATP supply is currently lacking. Over the last couple of years, an increasingly complex picture of mechanisms evolved that suggests that potentially metabolic intermediates and redox state could play the more dominant roles for signaling that eventually results in left ventricular remodeling and contractile dysfunction. In the pathophysiology of heart failure, mitochondria emerge in the crossfire of defective excitation-contraction coupling and increased energetic demand, which may provoke oxidative stress as an important upstream mediator of cardiac remodeling and cell death. Thus, future therapies may be guided towards restoring defective ion homeostasis and mitochondrial redox shifts rather than aiming solely at improving the generation of ATP.
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Is There a Link between Mitochondrial Reserve Respiratory Capacity and Aging? J Aging Res 2012; 2012:192503. [PMID: 22720157 PMCID: PMC3375017 DOI: 10.1155/2012/192503] [Citation(s) in RCA: 159] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2012] [Accepted: 04/11/2012] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Oxidative phosphorylation is an indispensable resource of ATP in tissues with high requirement of energy. If the ATP demand is not met, studies suggest that this will lead to senescence and cell death in the affected tissue. The term reserve respiratory capacity or spare respiratory capacity is used to describe the amount of extra ATP that can be produced by oxidative phosphorylation in case of a sudden increase in energy demand. Depletion of the reserve respiratory capacity has been related to a range of pathologies affecting high energy requiring tissues. During aging of an organism, and as a result of mitochondrial dysfunctions, the efficiency of oxidative phosphorylation declines. Based on examples from the energy requiring tissues such as brain, heart, and skeletal muscle, we propose that the age-related decline of oxidative phosphorylation decreases the reserve respiratory capacity of the affected tissue, sensitizes the cells to surges in ATP demand, and increases the risk of resulting pathologies.
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Abel ED, Doenst T. Mitochondrial adaptations to physiological vs. pathological cardiac hypertrophy. Cardiovasc Res 2011; 90:234-42. [PMID: 21257612 DOI: 10.1093/cvr/cvr015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 207] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Cardiac hypertrophy is a stereotypic response of the heart to increased workload. The nature of the workload increase may vary depending on the stimulus (repetitive, chronic, pressure, or volume overload). If the heart fully adapts to the new loading condition, the hypertrophic response is considered physiological. If the hypertrophic response is associated with the ultimate development of contractile dysfunction and heart failure, the response is considered pathological. Although divergent signalling mechanisms may lead to these distinct patterns of hypertrophy, there is some overlap. Given the close relationship between workload and energy demand, any form of cardiac hypertrophy will impact the energy generation by mitochondria, which are the key organelles for cellular ATP production. Significant changes in the expression of nuclear and mitochondrially encoded transcripts that impact mitochondrial function as well as altered mitochondrial proteome composition and mitochondrial energetics have been described in various forms of cardiac hypertrophy. Here, we review mitochondrial alterations in pathological and physiological hypertrophy. We suggest that mitochondrial adaptations to pathological and physiological hypertrophy are distinct, and we shall review potential mechanisms that might account for these differences.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Dale Abel
- Division of Endocrinology, Metabolism and Diabetes, and Program in Molecular Medicine, University of Utah School of Medicine, 15 North 2030 East, Bldg. 533, Rm. 3110B, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, USA.
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Pan CH, Lin JL, Lai LP, Chen CL, Stephen Huang SK, Lin CS. Downregulation of angiotensin converting enzyme II is associated with pacing-induced sustained atrial fibrillation. FEBS Lett 2007; 581:526-34. [PMID: 17254576 DOI: 10.1016/j.febslet.2007.01.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2006] [Accepted: 01/04/2007] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Atrial fibrillation (AF), the most common cardiac arrhythmia, is frequently accompanied by atrial interstitial fibrosis. Angiotensin II (Ang II) dependent signaling pathways have been implicated in interstitial fibrosis during the development of AF. However, Ang II could be further degraded by angiotensin converting enzyme II (ACE2). We examined expression of ACE2 in the fibrillating atria of pigs and its involvement in fibrotic pathogenesis during AF. Nine adult pigs underwent continuous rapid atrial pacing to induce sustained AF and six pigs were sham controls (i.e., sinus rhythm; SR). In the histological examinations, extensive accumulation of extracellular matrix in the interstitial space of the atria, as evidenced by Masson's trichrome stain, were found in fibrillating atria. The relative amount of collagen type I in the atria with AF was significantly increased as compared with that in the SR. Local ACE activity in the fibrillating atria was also markedly higher than that in the SR subjects. ACE2 gene and protein expression in the AF subjects were significantly decreased compared with those in the SR subjects, whereas expression of mitogen-activated/ERK kinase 1/2 (MEK1/2), extracellular signal-regulated protein kinase 2 (ERK2), and activated ERK2 were significantly greater in the AF subjects. We propose that decreasing ACE2 expression during AF may affect the Ang II-dependent signaling pathway. In addition, our results suggest that atrial fibrosis in AF may be induced by antagonistic regulation between ACE and ACE2 expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chun-Hsu Pan
- Department of Biological Science and Technology, National Chiao Tung University, 75 Po-Ai Street, Hsinchu 30005, Taiwan
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Kuo WW, Chu CY, Wu CH, Lin JA, Liu JY, Ying TH, Lee SD, Hsieh YH, Chu CH, Lin DY, Hsu HH, Huang CY. The profile of cardiac cytochrome c oxidase (COX) expression in an accelerated cardiac-hypertrophy model. J Biomed Sci 2005; 12:601-10. [PMID: 16132109 DOI: 10.1007/s11373-005-7373-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2005] [Accepted: 05/17/2005] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
The contribution of the mitochondrial components, the main source of energy for the cardiac hypertrophic growth induced by pressure overload, is not well understood. In the present study, complete coarctation of abdominal aorta was used to induce the rapid development of cardiac hypertrophy in rats. One to two days after surgery, we observed significantly higher blood pressure and cardiac hypertrophy, which remained constantly high afterwards. We found an early increased level of cytochrome c oxidase (COX) mRNA determined by in-situ hybridization and dot blotting assays in the hypertrophied hearts, and a drop to the baseline 20 days after surgery. Similarly, mitochondrial COX protein level and enzyme activity increased and, however, dropped even lower than baseline 20 days following surgery. In addition, in natural hypertension-induced hypertrophic hearts in genetically hypertensive rats, the COX protein was significantly lower than in normotensive rats. Taken together, the lower efficiency of mitochondrial activity in the enlarged hearts of long-term complete coarcted rats or genetically hypertensive rats could be, at least partially, the cause of hypertensive cardiac disease. Additionally, the rapid complete coarctation-induced cardiac hypertrophy was accompanied by a disproportionate COX activity increase, which was suggested to maintain the cardiac energy-producing capacity in overloaded hearts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei-Wen Kuo
- Institute of Biochemistry, Chung-Shan Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan, ROC
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Wellner M, Dechend R, Park JK, Shagdarsuren E, Al-Saadi N, Kirsch T, Gratze P, Schneider W, Meiners S, Fiebeler A, Haller H, Luft FC, Muller DN. Cardiac gene expression profile in rats with terminal heart failure and cachexia. Physiol Genomics 2005; 20:256-67. [PMID: 15623567 DOI: 10.1152/physiolgenomics.00165.2004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
About one-half of double transgenic rats (dTGR) overexpressing the human renin and angiotensinogen genes die by age 7 wk of terminal heart failure (THF); the other (preterminal) one-half develop cardiac damage but survive. Our study’s aim was to elucidate cardiac gene expression differences in dTGR-THF compared with dTGR showing compensated cardiac hypertrophy but not yet THF. dTGR treated with losartan (LOS) and nontransgenic rats (SD) served as controls. THF-dTGR body weight was significantly lower than for all other groups. At death, THF-dTGR had blood pressures of 228 ± 7 mmHg (cardiac hypertrophy index 6.2 ± 0.1 mg/g). Tissue Doppler showed reduced peak early (Ea) to late (Aa) diastolic expansion in THF-dTGR, indicating diastolic function. Preterminal dTGR had blood pressures of 197 ± 5 mmHg (cardiac hypertrophy index 5.1 ± 0.1 mg/g); Ea < Aa compared with LOS-dTGR (141 ± 6 mmHg; 3.7±0.1 mg/g; Ea > Aa) and SD (112 ± 4 mmHg; 3.6 ± 0.1 mg/g; Ea > Aa). Left ventricular RNA was isolated for the Affymetrix system and TaqMan RT-PCR. THF-dTGR and dTGR showed upregulation of hypertrophy markers and α/β-myosin heavy chain switch to the fetal isoform. THF-dTGR (vs. dTGR) showed upregulation of 239 and downregulation of 150 genes. Various genes of mitochodrial respiratory chain and lipid catabolism were reduced. In addition, genes encoding transcription factors (CEBP-β, c-fos, Fra-1), coagulation, remodeling/repair components (HSP70, HSP27, heme oxygenase), immune system (complement components, IL-6), and metabolic pathway were differentially expressed. In contrast, LOS-dTGR and SD had similar expression profiles. These data demonstrate that THF-dTGR show an altered expression profile compared with preterminal dTGR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maren Wellner
- HELIOS Klinikum-Berlin, Franz Volhard Clinic, and Medical Faculty of the Charité, Humboldt University of Berlin, Germany
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