Expression of c-fos and c-jun mRNA following transient retinal ischemia: an approach using ligation of the retinal central artery in the rat

Crystallin β-b2 promotes retinal ganglion cell protection in experimental autoimmune uveoretinitis

Crystallin βb2 (crybb2) is upregulated in regenerating retinas and in various pathological conditions of the retina, including uveoretinitis. However, the role of crybb2 in this disease is largely unknown. Therefore, we used recombinant crybb2 (rcrybb2) as intravitreal treatment of B10.RIII mice prior to immunization with human interphotoreceptor retinoid-binding protein peptide 161-180 (hIRBPp161-180) in complete Freund's adjuvant (CFA) and concomitant injection of pertussis toxin (PTX) to induce experimental autoimmune uveoretinitis (EAU). In naïve mice, more beta III-tubulin (TUBB3) + and RNA-binding protein with multiple splicing (RBPMS) + cells were found in the ganglion cell layer of the retina than in EAU eyes, suggesting a loss of retinal ganglion cells (RGC) during the development of EAU. At the same time, the number of glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) + cells increased in EAU eyes. RGCs were better protected in EAU eyes treated with rcrybb2, while the number of GFAP+ cells decreased. However, in retinal flatmounts, both retinal ganglion cells and retinal endothelial cells stained positive for TUBB3, indicating that TUBB3 is present in naïve B10.RIII mouse eyes not exclusive to RGCs. A significant decline in the number of RBPMS-positive retinal ganglion cells was observed in retinal flatmounts from EAU retinas in comparison to naïve retinas or EAU retinas with intravitreal rcrybb2 treatment. Whereas no significant decrease in TUBB3 levels was detected using Western blot and RT-qPCR, GFAP level, as a marker for astrocytes, increased in EAU mice compared to naïve mice. Level of Bax and Bcl2 in the retina was altered by treatment, suggesting better cell survival and inhibition of apoptosis. Furthermore, our histologic observations of the eyes showed no change in the incidence and severity of EAU, nor was the immune response affected by intravitreal rcrybb2 treatment. Taken together, these results suggest that intravitreal injection of rcrybb2 reduces retinal RGC death during the course of EAU, independent of local or systemic autoimmune responses. In the future, treating posterior uveitis with rcrybb2 to protect RGCs may offer a promising novel therapeutic strategy.

Profiles of Rho, Opn4, c-Fos, and Birc5 mRNA expression in Wistar rat retinas exposed to white or monochromatic light

Despite concern over potential retinal damage linked to exposure to light-emitting-diode (LED) light (particularly blue light), it remains unknown how exposure to low-intensity monochromatic LED light affects the expression of rhodopsin (Rho, a photopigment that mediates light-induced retinal degeneration), melanopsin (Opn4, a blue-light sensitive photopigment), c-Fos (associated with retinal damage/degeneration), and Birc5 (anti-apoptotic). This study investigated the mRNA expression profiles of these genes under exposure to white and monochromatic light (blue, red, green) in the retinas of albino rats under a cycle of 12 h of light and 12 h of darkness. In each group, 32 Wistar rats were exposed to one type of monochromatic-LED or white-fluorescent light for 7 day (150 lx). Retinal samples were taken for qPCR analysis and light and electron microscopy. Blue and green light exposure markedly decreased expression of Rho and Opn4 mRNA and increased expression of Birc5 and c-Fos mRNA (P < 0.05). In retinas from the blue-light group, loss and vesiculation of photoreceptor outer segments were visible, but not in retinas from the red-light and control group. Measurements of the photoreceptor inner and outer segments length revealed, that this length was significantly decreased in the blue- and green-light exposure groups (P < 0.02), but not in the red-light exposure group. Increased expression of Birc5 and decreased expression of Rho and Opn4 after exposure to blue and green light may be early responses that help to reduce light-induced retinal damage.

A Mouse Model of Retinal Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury Through Elevation of Intraocular Pressure

Retinal ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) is a pathophysiological process contributing to cellular damage in multiple ocular conditions, including glaucoma, diabetic retinopathy, and retinal vascular occlusions. Rodent models of I/R injury are providing significant insights into mechanisms and treatment strategies for human I/R injury, especially with regard to neurodegenerative damage in the retinal neurovascular unit. Presented here is a protocol for inducing retinal I/R injury in mice through elevation of intraocular pressure (IOP). In this protocol, the ocular anterior chamber is cannulated with a needle, through which flows the drip of an elevated saline reservoir. Using this drip to raise IOP above systolic arterial blood pressure, a practitioner temporarily halts inner retinal blood flow (ischemia). When circulation is reinstated (reperfusion) by removal of the cannula, severe cellular damage ensues, resulting ultimately in retinal neurodegeneration. Recent studies demonstrate inflammation, vascular permeability, and capillary degeneration as additional elements of this model. Compared to alternative retinal I/R methodologies, such as retinal arterial ligation, retinal I/R injury by elevated IOP offers advantages in its anatomical specificity, experimental tractability, and technical accessibility, presenting itself as a valuable tool for examining neuronal pathogenesis and therapy in the retinal neurovascular unit.

Animal models of retinal disease

Diseases of the retina are the leading causes of blindness in the industrialized world. The recognition that animals develop retinal diseases with similar traits to humans has led to not only a dramatic improvement in our understanding of the pathogenesis of retinal disease but also provided a means for testing possible treatment regimes and successful gene therapy trials. With the advent of genetic and molecular biological tools, the association between specific gene mutations and retinal signs has been made. Animals carrying natural mutations usually in one gene now provide well-established models for a host of inherited retinal diseases, including retinitis pigmentosa, Leber congenital amaurosis, inherited macular degeneration, and optic nerve diseases. In addition, the development of transgenic technologies has provided a means by which to study the effects of these and novel induced mutations on retinal structure and function. Despite these advances, there is a paucity of suitable animal models for complex diseases, including age-related macular degeneration (AMD) and diabetic retinopathy, largely because these diseases are not caused by single gene defects, but involve complex genetics and/or exacerbation through environmental factors, epigenetic, or other modes of genetic influence. In this review, we outline in detail the available animal models for inherited retinal diseases and how this information has furthered our understanding of retinal diseases. We also examine how transgenic technologies have helped to develop our understanding of the role of isolated genes or pathways in complex diseases like AMD, diabetes, and glaucoma.

Experimental model of acute ischemia of the retina in rats

We studied the development of retinal ischemia in rat eye after laser coagulation of blood vessels. Typical signs of ischemia manifested in the retina after 24 h: development of stable retinal edema, decrease in the b/a index (ratio of the electroretinogram b and a-wave amplitudes) to 1-2 units, pronounced disorders in the retinal microcirculation system, leading to ischemia of the inner layers of the retina. The proposed model is convenient for studies of the development of acute retinal ischemia, is easily realized, and reproduces some acute ischemic diseases of the retina.

The growth factor response in ischemic rat retina and superior colliculus after brimonidine pre-treatment

The alpha-2-adrenergic receptor agonist brimonidine has been shown to increase survival of retinal ganglion cells following ischemic injury to the rat retina. Increased expression of growth factors has been suggested to be involved in this action. We investigated expressional changes of growth factors and their receptors following transient retinal ischemia induced by selective ligature of ophthalmic vessels in rats pre-treated with vehicle or 0.5% brimonidine. In addition, analysis of expression in retinal samples following unilateral administration of brimonidine to normal tissue was performed. Tissue samples of retina and superior colliculus were collected at time points between 6h and 14 days of retinal reperfusion. Analysis of mRNA levels of the ligands BDNF, NT3, CNTF, FGF1, FGF2, FGF9 and HGF; as well as the receptors TrkB, TrkC, p75(NTR), CNTFRalpha, FGFR1, FGFR3, FGFR4 and HGFR were performed using qRT-PCR. The cell specific markers Thy1 and GFAP were analysed. We report transiently increased retinal levels of BDNF, NT3, p75(NTR), FGFR1 and HGFR and decreased levels of FGF9, HGF, TrkB, TrkC, FGFR4 and Thy1 following ischemia. The decreases were counteracted by brimonidine. Brimonidine treatment gave an increase in BDNF, NT3 and CNTF levels compared to the vehicle treated group. In superior colliculus increased levels of growth factor mRNA were found. In conclusion, transient ischemia has a profound effect on gene expression in rat retina. Alterations can also be seen in the superior colliculus but are smaller. Brimonidine pre-treatment attenuates an acute injury-induced response by decreasing the expression of several genes, among them p75(NTR). Brimonidine also causes a prolonged increase of several growth factors as well as receptors in retina and superior colliculus compared to the ischemic situation. The increased expression of several growth factors represents a coordinated growth factor system response that differs from the ischemia-induced changes and is likely part of the neuroprotective activity that is elicited by BMD pre-treatment.

Optic nerve and neuroprotection strategies

BACKGROUND

Experimental studies have yielded a wealth of information related to the mechanism of ganglion cell death following injury either to the myelinated ganglion cell axon or to the ganglion cell body. However, no suitable animal models exist where injury can be directed to the optic nerve head region, particularly the unmyelinated ganglion cell axons. The process of relating the data from the various animal models to many different types of optic neuropathies in man must, therefore, be cautious.

RESULTS

Extensive studies on the isolated optic nerve have yielded valuable information on the way white matter is affected by ischaemia and how certain types of compounds can attenuate the process. Moreover, there are now persuasive data on how ganglion cell survival is affected when the ocular blood flow is reduced in various animal models. As a consequence, the molecular mechanisms involved in ganglion cell death are fairly well understood and various pharmacological agents have been shown to blunt the process when delivered before or shortly after the insult.

CONCLUSIONS

A battery of agents now exist that can blunt animal ganglion cell death irrespective of whether the insult was to the ganglion cell body or the myelinated axon. Whether this information can be applied for use in patients remains a matter of debate, and major obstacles need to be overcome before the laboratory studies may be applied clinically. These include the delivery of the pharmacological agents to the site of ganglion cell injury and side effects to the patients. Moreover, it is necessary to establish whether effective neuroprotection is only possible when the drug is administered at a defined time after injury to the ganglion cells. This information is essential in order to pursue the idea that a neuroprotective strategy can be applied to a disease like glaucoma, where ganglion cell death appears to occur at different times during the lifetime of the patient.

Retinal ischemia: mechanisms of damage and potential therapeutic strategies

Retinal ischemia is a common cause of visual impairment and blindness. At the cellular level, ischemic retinal injury consists of a self-reinforcing destructive cascade involving neuronal depolarisation, calcium influx and oxidative stress initiated by energy failure and increased glutamatergic stimulation. There is a cell-specific sensitivity to ischemic injury which may reflect variability in the balance of excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitter receptors on a given cell. A number of animal models and analytical techniques have been used to study retinal ischemia, and an increasing number of treatments have been shown to interrupt the "ischemic cascade" and attenuate the detrimental effects of retinal ischemia. Thus far, however, success in the laboratory has not been translated to the clinic. Difficulties with the route of administration, dosage, and adverse effects may render certain experimental treatments clinically unusable. Furthermore, neuroprotection-based treatment strategies for stroke have so far been disappointing. However, compared to the brain, the retina exhibits a remarkable natural resistance to ischemic injury, which may reflect its peculiar metabolism and unique environment. Given the increasing understanding of the events involved in ischemic neuronal injury it is hoped that clinically effective treatments for retinal ischemia will soon be available.

Transient ischemia of the retina results in massive degeneration of the retinotectal projection: long-term neuroprotection with brimonidine

In adult rats, we have induced retinal ischemia and investigated anterogradely labeled surviving retinal ganglion cell (RGC) afferents to the contralateral superior colliculus (SC). The animals received topically in their left eyes two 5-microl drops of saline or saline-containing 0.5% brimonidine (BMD), 1 h before 90 min of retinal ischemia induced by ligature of the left ophthalmic vessels. Two months after ischemia, the anterogradely transported neuronal tracer cholera toxin B subunit (CTB) was injected in the ischemic eyes and animals were processed 4 days later. As controls and for comparison, the retinotectal innervation of unlesioned age-matched control rats was also examined with CTB. In control and experimental animals, serial coronal sections of the mesencephalon and brainstem were immunoreacted for CTB and the area and thickness of the two most superficial layers of the SC containing densely CTB-labeled profiles were estimated with an image analysis system. Ninety minutes of ischemia resulted 2 months later in reduced density of CTB-labeled profiles in the contralateral SC of the vehicle-treated rats, representing less than one half the area occupied by CTB-labeled profiles in control rats. This resulted in shrinkage of these layers and in the presence of areas virtually devoid of CTB immunoreactivity, suggesting orthograde degeneration of retinal terminals and/or decrease of anterograde axonal transport. Topical pretreatment with BMD resulted 2 months later in CTB immunoreactivity that occupied the superficial layers of the contralateral SC in an area of approximately 86% of that observed in the unlesioned control group of animals, indicating that BMD protects against ischemia-induced degeneration of the retinotectal projection, and preserves anterograde axonal transport.

Deficiency in matrix metalloproteinase gelatinase B (MMP-9) protects against retinal ganglion cell death after optic nerve ligation

Loss of retinal ganglion cells is the final end point in blinding diseases of the optic nerve such as glaucoma. To enable the use of mouse genetics to investigate mechanisms underlying ganglion cell loss, we adapted an experimental model of optic nerve ligation to the mouse and further characterized post-surgical outcome. We made the novel finding that apoptosis of retinal ganglion cells correlates with specific degradation of laminin from the underlying inner limiting membrane and an increase in gelatinolytic metalloproteinase activity. These changes co-localize with a specific increase in levels of the matrix metalloproteinase, gelatinase B (GelB; MMP-9). Using a transgenic mouse line harboring a reporter gene driven by the GelB promoter, we further show that increased GelB is controlled by activation of the GelB promoter. These findings led us to hypothesize that GelB activity plays a role in ganglion cell death and degradation of laminin. Applying the genetic approach, we demonstrate that GelB-deficient mice are protected against these pathological changes. This is the first report demonstrating a causal connection between GelB activity and pathological changes to the inner retina after optic nerve ligation.

Transient ischemia of the retina results in altered retrograde axoplasmic transport: neuroprotection with brimonidine

In adult rats we have induced retinal ischemia and investigated retrograde axonal transport in ganglion cells. The animals received in their left eyes, 1 h prior to ischemia, two 5-microl drops of saline or 0.5% brimonidine (BMD). Retinal ischemia was induced by transient ligature of the left ophthalmic vessels for 90 min. One hour or 1 week after ischemia, Fluorogold (FG) was applied to both superior colliculi, the animals were processed 1 week after FG application, and FG-labeled retinal ganglion cell (RGC) densities were estimated in the right control and left experimental retinas. In the left retinas of the saline-pretreated animals, RGC densities diminished to 39 or 30% of the densities found in their right control retinas, 7 or 14 days after ischemia, respectively. Because in a previous similar study in which FG was applied 7 days before ischemia, the percentages of FG-labeled RGCs were 54 and 48%, 7 and 14 days after ischemia, respectively, this suggests that retrograde axonal transport was impaired in some surviving RGCs. This was confirmed in an additional group of rats in which 1,1'-dioctadecyl-3,3,3',3'-tetramethylindocarbocyanine perchlorate was applied to both SCi 3 weeks before ischemia, and FG was applied to the intraorbitally cut optic nerve 9 days after ischemia and 5 days before euthanization. In the left retinas of the BMD-pretreated animals, RGC densities amounted to 90% of the RGC population 7 or 14 days after ischemia and were comparable to those obtained in their contralateral nonischemic retinas. Retinal ischemia causes RGC loss and induces alterations of retrograde axonal transport in a proportion of surviving RGCs. BMD rescues RGCs from ischemia-induced cell death and preserves retrograde axonal transport in surviving RGCs.

Retinal ganglion cell death after acute retinal ischemia is an ongoing process whose severity and duration depends on the duration of the insult

In adult Sprague-Dawley rats we have investigated retinal ganglion cell survival after transient intervals of retinal ischemia of 30, 45, 60, 90 or 120 min duration, induced by ligature of the ophthalmic vessels. Animals were killed 5, 7, 14, 21, 30, 60, 90 or 180 days later and densities of surviving retinal ganglion cells were estimated in retinal whole mounts by counting cells labelled with diAsp. This dye was applied, 3 days prior to death, to the ocular stump of the intraorbitally transected optic nerve. We found that retinal ganglion cell loss after retinal ischemia proceeds for different lengths of time. All the ischemic intervals induced loss of retinal ganglion cells whose severity and duration was related to the length of the ischemic interval. Following 30 or 45 min of ischemia, cell loss lasted 14 days and caused the death of 46 or 50%, respectively, of the population of retinal ganglion cells. Sixty, 90 or 120 min of retinal ischemia were followed by a period of cell loss that lasted up to 90 days and caused the death of 75%, 87% or 99%, respectively, of the population of retinal ganglion cells. We conclude that retinal ganglion cell loss after retinal ischemia is an ongoing process that may last up to 3 months after the injury and that its severity and duration are determined by the ischemic interval.

Neuroprotective effects of brimonidine against transient ischemia-induced retinal ganglion cell death: a dose response in vivo study

The purpose of this study was to investigate the dose-response effects of topically administered brimonidine (BMD) on retinal ganglion cell (RGC) survival, short and long periods of time after transient retinal ischemia. In adult Sprague-Dawley rats, RGCs were retrogradely labeled with the fluorescent tracer fluorogold (FG) applied to both superior colliculi. Seven days later, the left ophthalmic vessels were ligated for 90 min. One hr prior to retinal ischemia, two 5 microl drops of saline alone or saline containing 0.0001, 0.001, 0.01 or 0.1% BMD were instilled on the left eye. Rats were processed 7, 14 or 21 days later and densities of surviving RGCs were estimated by counting FG-labeled RGCs in 12 standard regions of each retina. The following have been found. (1) Seven days after 90 min of transient ischemia there is loss of approximately 46% of the RGC population. (2) topical pre-treatment with BMD prevents ischemia-induced RGC death in a dose-dependent manner. Administration of 0.0001% BMD resulted in the loss of approximately 37% of the RGC population and had no significant neuroprotective effects. Administration of higher concentrations of BMD (0.001 or 0.01%) resulted in the survival of 76 or 90%, respectively, of the RGC population, and 0.1% BMD fully prevented RGC death in the first 7 days after ischemia. (3) Between 7 and 21 days after ischemia there was an additional slow cell loss of approximately 25% of the RGC population. Pre-treatment with 0.1% BMD also reduced significantly this slow cell death. These results indicate that the neuroprotective effects of BMD, when administered topically, are dose-dependent and that the 0.1% concentration achieves optimal neuroprotective effects against the early loss of RGCs. Furthermore, this concentration is also effective to diminish the protracted loss of RGCs that occurs with time after transient ischemia.

AP-1 mediated retinal photoreceptor apoptosis is independent of N-terminal phosphorylation of c-Jun

Apoptosis is essential for retinal development but it is also a major mode of cell loss in many human retinal dystrophies. High levels of visible light induce retinal apoptosis in mice and rats. This process is dependent on the induction of the transcription factor AP-1, a dimeric complex composed of c-Fos and c-Jun/JunD phosphoproteins. While c-Fos is essential, JunD is dispensable for light-induced photoreceptor apoptosis. Here we show that N-terminal phosphorylation of c-Jun, the other main partner of c-Fos in induced AP-1 complexes is not required for programmed cell death during retinal development in vivo and is also dispensable for photoreceptor apoptosis induced by the exogenous stimuli "excessive light" and N-nitroso-N-methylurea (MNU). Mice expressing a mutant c-Jun protein (JunAA) that cannot be phosphorylated at its N-terminus are apoptosis competent and their retina is not distinguishable from wild-type mice. Accordingly, Jun kinase, responsible for phosphorylation of wild-type c-Jun protein is at best only marginally induced by the apoptotic stimuli "light" and MNU. Complex composition of light-induced AP-1 complexes is similar in wild-type and JunAA mice. This shows that the mutant c-Jun protein can be part of the DNA binding complex AP-1 and demonstrates that induction of the DNA binding activity of AP-1 after light insult does not depend on N-terminal phosphorylation of c-Jun. Our results suggest that transactivation of target genes by phosphorylated c-jun/AP-1 is not required for MNU- or light-induced apoptosis of photoreceptor cells.

Retinal Ganglion Cell Death Induced by Retinal Ischemia

We have investigated in adult Sprague-Dawley rats the neuroprotective effects of two alpha-2-selective agonists [AGN 191,103 (AGN) and brimonidine tartrate (BMD)] on retinal ganglion cell (RGC) survival after transient retinal ischemia. RGCs were labelled with Fluorogold (FG) applied to both superior colliculi. Seven days later, 90 min of retinal ischemia were induced in the left eyes by ligature of the ophthalmic vessels (LOV). In one group of animals, vehicle or AGN (0.01 mg/kg) were administered systemically 1 hr before ischemia. In another group of animals, two 5 microl drops of vehicle, AGN (0.05%) or BMD (0.1%) were administered topically in the left eye 1 hr before ischemia. The animals were processed 7 or 21 days later. RGC survival was estimated by counting FG-labelled cells in 12 standard areas of each retina. In control retinas of systemically pretreated animals, mean densities of labelled RGCs were 2372 +/- 49 cells/mm(2) (mean +/- SEM; n = 6). In experimental retinas of systemically pretreated animals, mean RGC densities had decreased 7 days after ischemia to 53% (n = 6) or 81% (n = 6) of control in the groups treated with vehicle or AGN, respectively. Twenty-one days after ischemia, mean RGC densities had decreased to 38% (n = 6) or 79% (n = 6) of control in the groups treated with vehicle or AGN, respectively. In control retinas of topically pretreated animals, mean densities of labelled RGCs were 2208 +/- 29 cells/mm(2) (n = 6). In experimental retinas of topically pretreated animals, mean RGC densities had decreased 7 days after ischemia to 54% (n = 6), 95% (n = 6) or 96% (n = 6) of control in the groups treated with vehicle, AGN or BMD, respectively. These results indicate that pretreatment with a single systemic or topical dose of AGN or BMD can prevent completely the early rapid phase of RGC loss and abolish the delayed RGC loss observed after 90 min of retinal ischemia induced by ligature of the ophthalmic vessels.

The potential of neuroprotection in glaucoma treatment

Visual field loss in glaucoma is due to death of retinal ganglion cells. Reducing or slowing down the loss of ganglion cells in glaucoma, a concept known as neuroprotection, would appear to be the only way forward. This does not imply that treatment of risk factors, such as elevated intraocular pressure, must not be continuously implemented. In this paper we point out that very little is known about the mechanisms of ganglion cell death in glaucoma and that data derived from studies on the "ideal animal model for glaucoma" must not be overemphasized. We also propose that the death processes of neurones in various diseases are fundamentally the same but vary in cause. Experimental data show that the death rate of neuronal populations is dependent on the impact of the insult and that neuroprotectants are more likely to benefit a patient in diseases in which the neurones die slowly, as in glaucoma, than in a disease in which the death of a set of neurones is rapid. We conclude that if a putative neuroprotectant can be administered in such a way that it reaches the retina in appropriate amounts and has insignificant side effects, it is likely to attenuate ganglion cell death and thus benefit the glaucoma patient.