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Abdallah MF, Recote JM, Van Camp C, Van Hassel WHR, Pedroni L, Dellafiora L, Masquelier J, Rajkovic A. Potential (co-)contamination of dairy milk with AFM1 and MC-LR and their synergistic interaction in inducing mitochondrial dysfunction in HepG2 cells. Food Chem Toxicol 2024; 192:114907. [PMID: 39111684 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2024.114907] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2024] [Revised: 07/23/2024] [Accepted: 08/03/2024] [Indexed: 08/11/2024]
Abstract
Several toxic metabolites, such as aflatoxin M1 (AFM1), are known to contaminate dairy milk. However, as mentioned in an external EFSA report, there is a knowledge gap regarding the carry-over of certain emerging toxins such as microcystin-LR (MC-LR). Therefore, this work aimed to develop an LC-MS/MS method for MC-LR quantification in dairy milk. Also, the method included AFM1 as a common fungal metabolite and applied to analyze 113 dairy milk samples collected directly after the end of the summer peak. Both toxins were below their LODs, keeping the question on MC-LR carry-over still unanswered. Moreover, an in silico analysis, using a 3D molecular modeling was performed, pointing to a possible interaction between MC-LR and milk proteins, especially β-lactoglobulin. Since AFM1 and MC-LR are hepatotoxic, their interaction in inducing mitochondrial dysfunction in HepG2 cells was investigated at low (subcytotoxic) concentrations. Live cell imaging-based assays showed an inhibition in cell viability, without involvement of caspase-3/7, and a hyperpolarization in the mitochondrial membrane potential after the exposure to a mixture of 100 ng mL-1 AFM1 and 1000 ng mL-1 MC-LR for 48h. Extracellular flux analysis revealed inhibitions of several key parameters of mitochondrial function (basal respiration, ATP-linked respiration, and spare respiratory capacity).
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohamed F Abdallah
- Department of Food Technology, Safety and Health, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Belgium; Department of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Assiut University, Egypt.
| | - Jessa May Recote
- Department of Food Technology, Safety and Health, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Belgium
| | - Camille Van Camp
- Unit Toxins, Organic Contaminants and Additives, Sciensano, Belgium
| | | | | | | | | | - Andreja Rajkovic
- Department of Food Technology, Safety and Health, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Belgium
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Chen L, Giesy JP, Adamovsky O, Svirčev Z, Meriluoto J, Codd GA, Mijovic B, Shi T, Tuo X, Li SC, Pan BZ, Chen J, Xie P. Challenges of using blooms of Microcystis spp. in animal feeds: A comprehensive review of nutritional, toxicological and microbial health evaluation. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2021; 764:142319. [PMID: 33069479 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.142319] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2020] [Revised: 09/01/2020] [Accepted: 09/07/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Microcystis spp., are Gram-negative, oxygenic, photosynthetic prokaryotes which use solar energy to convert carbon dioxide (CO2) and minerals into organic compounds and biomass. Eutrophication, rising CO2 concentrations and global warming are increasing Microcystis blooms globally. Due to its high availability and protein content, Microcystis biomass has been suggested as a protein source for animal feeds. This would reduce dependency on soybean and other agricultural crops and could make use of "waste" biomass when Microcystis scums and blooms are harvested. Besides proteins, Microcystis contain further nutrients including lipids, carbohydrates, vitamins and minerals. However, Microcystis produce cyanobacterial toxins, including microcystins (MCs) and other bioactive metabolites, which present health hazards. In this review, challenges of using Microcystis blooms in feeds are identified. First, nutritional and toxicological (nutri-toxicogical) data, including toxicity of Microcystis to mollusks, crustaceans, fish, amphibians, mammals and birds, is reviewed. Inclusion of Microcystis in diets caused greater mortality, lesser growth, cachexia, histopathological changes and oxidative stress in liver, kidney, gill, intestine and spleen of several fish species. Estimated daily intake (EDI) of MCs in muscle of fish fed Microcystis might exceed the provisional tolerable daily intake (TDI) for humans, 0.04 μg/kg body mass (bm)/day, as established by the World Health Organization (WHO), and is thus not safe. Muscle of fish fed M. aeruginosa is of low nutritional value and exhibits poor palatability/taste. Microcystis also causes hepatotoxicity, reproductive toxicity, cardiotoxicity, neurotoxicity and immunotoxicity to mollusks, crustaceans, amphibians, mammals and birds. Microbial pathogens can also occur in blooms of Microcystis. Thus, cyanotoxins/xenobiotics/pathogens in Microcystis biomass should be removed/degraded/inactivated sufficiently to assure safety for use of the biomass as a primary/main/supplemental ingredient in animal feed. As an ameliorative measure, antidotes/detoxicants can be used to avoid/reduce the toxic effects. Before using Microcystis in feed ingredients/supplements, further screening for health protection and cost control is required.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liang Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Eco-hydraulics in Northwest Arid Region, Faculty of Water Resources and Hydroelectric Engineering, Xi'an University of Technology, Xi'an 710048, China; Donghu Experimental Station of Lake Ecosystems, State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, Institute of Hydrobiology (IHB), Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), Wuhan 430072, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences (UCAS), Beijing 100049, China.
| | - John P Giesy
- Department of Veterinary Biomedical Sciences and Toxicology Centre, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan S7N5B3, Canada; Department of Environmental Science, Baylor University, Waco, TX, United States
| | - Ondrej Adamovsky
- Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment (RECETOX), Masaryk University, Kamenice 753/5, CZ-625 00 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Zorica Svirčev
- Department of Biology and Ecology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Novi Sad, Novi Sad, Serbia; Biochemistry, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Åbo Akademi University, Turku, Finland
| | - Jussi Meriluoto
- Department of Biology and Ecology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Novi Sad, Novi Sad, Serbia; Biochemistry, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Åbo Akademi University, Turku, Finland
| | - Geoffrey A Codd
- School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dundee DD1 5EH, Scotland, UK; Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Stirling, Stirling FK9 4LA, Scotland, UK
| | - Biljana Mijovic
- Faculty of Medicine, University of East Sarajevo, Studentska 5, 73 300 Foča, Republika Srpska, Bosnia and Herzegovina
| | - Ting Shi
- Donghu Experimental Station of Lake Ecosystems, State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, Institute of Hydrobiology (IHB), Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), Wuhan 430072, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences (UCAS), Beijing 100049, China
| | - Xun Tuo
- Donghu Experimental Station of Lake Ecosystems, State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, Institute of Hydrobiology (IHB), Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), Wuhan 430072, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences (UCAS), Beijing 100049, China; College of Chemistry, Nanchang University, Nanchang 330031, China
| | - Shang-Chun Li
- Donghu Experimental Station of Lake Ecosystems, State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, Institute of Hydrobiology (IHB), Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), Wuhan 430072, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences (UCAS), Beijing 100049, China; School of Public Health, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou 646000, China
| | - Bao-Zhu Pan
- State Key Laboratory of Eco-hydraulics in Northwest Arid Region, Faculty of Water Resources and Hydroelectric Engineering, Xi'an University of Technology, Xi'an 710048, China
| | - Jun Chen
- Donghu Experimental Station of Lake Ecosystems, State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, Institute of Hydrobiology (IHB), Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), Wuhan 430072, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences (UCAS), Beijing 100049, China.
| | - Ping Xie
- Donghu Experimental Station of Lake Ecosystems, State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, Institute of Hydrobiology (IHB), Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), Wuhan 430072, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences (UCAS), Beijing 100049, China; State Key Laboratory of Plateau Ecology and Agriculture, Qinghai University, Xining 810016, China; Institute for Ecological Research and Pollution Control of Plateau Lakes, School of Ecology and Environmental Science, Yunnan University, Kunming 650091, China.
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Abstract
Blue-green algae are found in lakes, ponds, rivers and brackish waters throughout the world. In case of excessive growth such as bloom formation, these bacteria can produce inherent toxins in quantities causing toxicity in mammals, including humans. These cyanotoxins include cyclic peptides and alkaloids. Among the cyclic peptides are the microcystins and the nodularins. The alkaloids include anatoxin-a, anatoxin-a(S), cylindrospermopsin, saxitoxins (STXs), aplysiatoxins and lyngbyatoxin. Both biological and chemical methods are used to determine cyanotoxins. Bioassays and biochemical assays are nonspecific, so they can only be used as screening methods. HPLC has some good prospects. For the subsequent detection of these toxins different detectors may be used, ranging from simple UV-spectrometry via fluorescence detection to various types of MS. The main problem in the determination of cyanobacterial toxins is the lack of reference materials of all relevant toxins. In general, toxicity data on cyanotoxins are rather scarce. A majority of toxicity data are known to be of microcystin-LR. For nodularins, data from a few animal studies are available. For the alkaloids, limited toxicity data exist for anatoxin-a, cylindrospermopsin and STX. Risk assessment for acute exposure could be relevant for some types of exposure. Nevertheless, no acute reference doses have formally been derived thus far. For STX(s), many countries have established tolerance levels in bivalves, but these limits were set in view of STX(s) as biotoxins, accumulating in marine shellfish. Official regulations for other cyanotoxins have not been established, although some (provisional) guideline values have been derived for microcystins in drinking water by WHO and several countries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marian E van Apeldoorn
- Centre for Substances and Integrated Risk Assessment, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment, Bilthoven, the Netherlands
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Codd GA, Morrison LF, Metcalf JS. Cyanobacterial toxins: risk management for health protection. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2005; 203:264-72. [PMID: 15737680 DOI: 10.1016/j.taap.2004.02.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 605] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2003] [Accepted: 02/10/2004] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
This paper reviews the occurrence and properties of cyanobacterial toxins, with reference to the recognition and management of the human health risks which they may present. Mass populations of toxin-producing cyanobacteria in natural and controlled waterbodies include blooms and scums of planktonic species, and mats and biofilms of benthic species. Toxic cyanobacterial populations have been reported in freshwaters in over 45 countries, and in numerous brackish, coastal, and marine environments. The principal toxigenic genera are listed. Known sources of the families of cyanobacterial toxins (hepato-, neuro-, and cytotoxins, irritants, and gastrointestinal toxins) are briefly discussed. Key procedures in the risk management of cyanobacterial toxins and cells are reviewed, including derivations (where sufficient data are available) of tolerable daily intakes (TDIs) and guideline values (GVs) with reference to the toxins in drinking water, and guideline levels for toxigenic cyanobacteria in bathing waters. Uncertainties and some gaps in knowledge are also discussed, including the importance of exposure media (animal and plant foods), in addition to potable and recreational waters. Finally, we present an outline of steps to develop and implement risk management strategies for cyanobacterial cells and toxins in waterbodies, with recent applications and the integration of Hazard Assessment Critical Control Point (HACCP) principles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Geoffrey A Codd
- Division of Environmental and Applied Biology, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dundee DD1 4HN, UK.
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