1
|
Cheng R, Song X, Song W, Yu Z. A New Perspective: Revealing the Algicidal Properties of Bacillus subtilis to Alexandrium pacificum from Bacterial Communities and Toxins. Mar Drugs 2022; 20:md20100624. [PMID: 36286448 PMCID: PMC9605167 DOI: 10.3390/md20100624] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2022] [Revised: 09/23/2022] [Accepted: 09/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Algicidal bacteria are important in the control of toxic dinoflagellate blooms, but studies on the environmental behavior of related algal toxins are still lacking. In this study, Bacillus subtilis S3 (S3) showed the highest algicidal activity against Alexandrium pacificum (Group IV) out of six Bacillus strains. When treated with 0.5% (v/v) S3 bacterial culture and sterile supernatant, the algicidal rates were 69.74% and 70.22% at 12 h, respectively, and algicidal substances secreted by S3 were considered the mechanism of algicidal effect. During the algicidal process, the rapid proliferation of Alteromonas sp. in the phycosphere of A. pacificum may have accelerated the algal death. Moreover, the algicidal development of S3 released large amounts of intracellular paralytic shellfish toxins (PSTs) into the water, as the extracellular PSTs increased by 187.88% and 231.47% at 12 h, compared with the treatment of bacterial culture and sterile supernatant at 0 h, respectively. Although the total amount of PSTs increased slightly, the total toxicity of the algal sample decreased as GTX1/4 was transformed by S3 into GTX2/3 and GTX5. These results more comprehensively reveal the complex relationship between algicidal bacteria and microalgae, providing a potential source of biological control for harmful algal blooms and toxins.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ruihong Cheng
- Key Laboratory of Marine Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao 266071, China
- Laboratory of Marine Ecology and Environmental Science, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao 266237, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
- Center for Ocean Mega-Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao 266071, China
| | - Xiuxian Song
- Key Laboratory of Marine Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao 266071, China
- Laboratory of Marine Ecology and Environmental Science, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao 266237, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
- Center for Ocean Mega-Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao 266071, China
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +86-532-82898587
| | - Weijia Song
- Key Laboratory of Marine Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao 266071, China
- Laboratory of Marine Ecology and Environmental Science, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao 266237, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
- Center for Ocean Mega-Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao 266071, China
| | - Zhiming Yu
- Key Laboratory of Marine Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao 266071, China
- Laboratory of Marine Ecology and Environmental Science, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao 266237, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
- Center for Ocean Mega-Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao 266071, China
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Dean KJ, Alexander RP, Hatfield RG, Lewis AM, Coates LN, Collin T, Teixeira Alves M, Lee V, Daumich C, Hicks R, White P, Thomas KM, Ellis JR, Turner AD. The Common Sunstar Crossaster papposus-A Neurotoxic Starfish. Mar Drugs 2021; 19:695. [PMID: 34940694 PMCID: PMC8704474 DOI: 10.3390/md19120695] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2021] [Revised: 12/01/2021] [Accepted: 12/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Saxitoxins (STXs) are a family of potent neurotoxins produced naturally by certain species of phytoplankton and cyanobacteria which are extremely toxic to mammalian nervous systems. The accumulation of STXs in bivalve molluscs can significantly impact animal and human health. Recent work conducted in the North Sea highlighted the widespread presence of various saxitoxins in a range of benthic organisms, with the common sunstar (Crossaster papposus) demonstrating high concentrations of saxitoxins. In this study, an extensive sampling program was undertaken across multiple seas surrounding the UK, with 146 starfish and 5 brittlestars of multiple species analysed for STXs. All the common sunstars analysed (n > 70) contained quantifiable levels of STXs, with the total concentrations ranging from 99 to 11,245 µg STX eq/kg. The common sunstars were statistically different in terms of toxin loading to all the other starfish species tested. Two distinct toxic profiles were observed in sunstars, a decarbomylsaxitoxin (dcSTX)-dominant profile which encompassed samples from most of the UK coast and an STX and gonyautoxin2 (GTX2) profile from the North Yorkshire coast of England. Compartmentalisation studies demonstrated that the female gonads exhibited the highest toxin concentrations of all the individual organs tested, with concentrations >40,000 µg STX eq/kg in one sample. All the sunstars, male or female, exhibited the presence of STXs in the skin, digestive glands and gonads. This study highlights that the common sunstar ubiquitously contains STXs, independent of the geographical location around the UK and often at concentrations many times higher than the current regulatory limits for STXs in molluscs; therefore, the common sunstar should be considered toxic hereafter.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Karl J. Dean
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Barrack Road, Weymouth DT4 8UB, UK; (R.P.A.); (R.G.H.); (A.M.L.); (L.N.C.); (T.C.); (M.T.A.); (V.L.); (C.D.); (R.H.); (P.W.); (A.D.T.)
| | - Ryan P. Alexander
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Barrack Road, Weymouth DT4 8UB, UK; (R.P.A.); (R.G.H.); (A.M.L.); (L.N.C.); (T.C.); (M.T.A.); (V.L.); (C.D.); (R.H.); (P.W.); (A.D.T.)
| | - Robert G. Hatfield
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Barrack Road, Weymouth DT4 8UB, UK; (R.P.A.); (R.G.H.); (A.M.L.); (L.N.C.); (T.C.); (M.T.A.); (V.L.); (C.D.); (R.H.); (P.W.); (A.D.T.)
| | - Adam M. Lewis
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Barrack Road, Weymouth DT4 8UB, UK; (R.P.A.); (R.G.H.); (A.M.L.); (L.N.C.); (T.C.); (M.T.A.); (V.L.); (C.D.); (R.H.); (P.W.); (A.D.T.)
| | - Lewis N. Coates
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Barrack Road, Weymouth DT4 8UB, UK; (R.P.A.); (R.G.H.); (A.M.L.); (L.N.C.); (T.C.); (M.T.A.); (V.L.); (C.D.); (R.H.); (P.W.); (A.D.T.)
| | - Tom Collin
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Barrack Road, Weymouth DT4 8UB, UK; (R.P.A.); (R.G.H.); (A.M.L.); (L.N.C.); (T.C.); (M.T.A.); (V.L.); (C.D.); (R.H.); (P.W.); (A.D.T.)
- Department of Chemistry, University of Surrey, Guildford GU2 7XH, UK
| | - Mickael Teixeira Alves
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Barrack Road, Weymouth DT4 8UB, UK; (R.P.A.); (R.G.H.); (A.M.L.); (L.N.C.); (T.C.); (M.T.A.); (V.L.); (C.D.); (R.H.); (P.W.); (A.D.T.)
| | - Vanessa Lee
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Barrack Road, Weymouth DT4 8UB, UK; (R.P.A.); (R.G.H.); (A.M.L.); (L.N.C.); (T.C.); (M.T.A.); (V.L.); (C.D.); (R.H.); (P.W.); (A.D.T.)
- Department of Chemistry, University of Surrey, Guildford GU2 7XH, UK
| | - Caroline Daumich
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Barrack Road, Weymouth DT4 8UB, UK; (R.P.A.); (R.G.H.); (A.M.L.); (L.N.C.); (T.C.); (M.T.A.); (V.L.); (C.D.); (R.H.); (P.W.); (A.D.T.)
| | - Ruth Hicks
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Barrack Road, Weymouth DT4 8UB, UK; (R.P.A.); (R.G.H.); (A.M.L.); (L.N.C.); (T.C.); (M.T.A.); (V.L.); (C.D.); (R.H.); (P.W.); (A.D.T.)
| | - Peter White
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Barrack Road, Weymouth DT4 8UB, UK; (R.P.A.); (R.G.H.); (A.M.L.); (L.N.C.); (T.C.); (M.T.A.); (V.L.); (C.D.); (R.H.); (P.W.); (A.D.T.)
| | - Krista M. Thomas
- Biotoxin Metrology, National Research Council Canada, Halifax, NS B3Z 3H1, Canada;
| | - Jim R. Ellis
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Pakefield Road, Lowestoft NR33 0HT, UK;
| | - Andrew D. Turner
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Barrack Road, Weymouth DT4 8UB, UK; (R.P.A.); (R.G.H.); (A.M.L.); (L.N.C.); (T.C.); (M.T.A.); (V.L.); (C.D.); (R.H.); (P.W.); (A.D.T.)
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
D'Agostino PM, Boundy MJ, Harwood TD, Carmichael WW, Neilan BA, Wood SA. Re-evaluation of paralytic shellfish toxin profiles in cyanobacteria using hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Toxicon 2019; 158:1-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2018.11.301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2018] [Revised: 10/12/2018] [Accepted: 11/18/2018] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
|
4
|
Silva M, Rey V, Botana A, Vasconcelos V, Botana L. Determination of Gonyautoxin-4 in Echinoderms and Gastropod Matrices by Conversion to Neosaxitoxin Using 2-Mercaptoethanol and Post-Column Oxidation Liquid Chromatography with Fluorescence Detection. Toxins (Basel) 2015; 8:E11. [PMID: 26729166 PMCID: PMC4728533 DOI: 10.3390/toxins8010011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2015] [Revised: 12/14/2015] [Accepted: 12/24/2015] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Paralytic Shellfish Toxin blooms are common worldwide, which makes their monitoring crucial in the prevention of poisoning incidents. These toxins can be monitored by a variety of techniques, including mouse bioassay, receptor binding assay, and liquid chromatography with either mass spectrometric or pre- or post-column fluorescence detection. The post-column oxidation liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection method, used routinely in our laboratory, has been shown to be a reliable method for monitoring paralytic shellfish toxins in mussel, scallop, oyster and clam species. However, due to its high sensitivity to naturally fluorescent matrix interferences, when working with unconventional matrices, there may be problems in identifying toxins because of naturally fluorescent interferences that co-elute with the toxin peaks. This can lead to erroneous identification. In this study, in order to overcome this challenge in echinoderm and gastropod matrices, we optimized the conversion of Gonyautoxins 1 and 4 to Neosaxitoxin with 2-mercaptoethanol. We present a new and less time-consuming method with a good recovery (82.2%, RSD 1.1%, n = 3), requiring only a single reaction step.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Marisa Silva
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre, Porto 4619-007, Portugal.
- Interdisciplinary Center of Marine and Environmental Research-CIMAR/CIIMAR, University of Porto, Rua dos Bragas, 289, Porto 4050-123, Portugal.
| | - Verónica Rey
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Science Faculty, University of Santiago of Compostela, Lugo 27002, Spain.
| | - Ana Botana
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Science Faculty, University of Santiago of Compostela, Lugo 27002, Spain.
| | - Vitor Vasconcelos
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre, Porto 4619-007, Portugal.
- Interdisciplinary Center of Marine and Environmental Research-CIMAR/CIIMAR, University of Porto, Rua dos Bragas, 289, Porto 4050-123, Portugal.
| | - Luis Botana
- Department of Pharmacology, Veterinary Faculty, University of Santiago de Compostela, Lugo 27002, Spain.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Bustillos-Guzmán JJ, Band-Schmidt CJ, Durán-Riveroll LM, Hernández-Sandoval FE, López-Cortés DJ, Núñez-Vázquez EJ, Cembella A, Krock B. Paralytic toxin profile of the marine dinoflagellate Gymnodinium catenatum Graham from the Mexican Pacific as revealed by LC-MS/MS. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2015; 32:381-94. [PMID: 25565135 DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2014.1000978] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
The paralytic shellfish toxin (PST) profiles of Gymnodinium catenatum Graham have been reported for several strains from the Pacific coast of Mexico cultured under different laboratory conditions, as well as from natural populations. Up to 15 saxitoxin analogues occurred and the quantity of each toxin depended on the growth phase and culture conditions. Previous analysis of toxin profiles of G. catenatum isolated from Mexico have been based on post-column oxidation liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection (LC-FLD), a method prone to artefacts and non-specificity, leading to misinterpretation of toxin composition. We describe, for the first time, the complete toxin profile for several G. catenatum strains from diverse locations of the Pacific coast of Mexico. The new results confirmed previous reports on the dominance of the less potent sulfocarbamoyl toxins (C1/2); significant differences, however, in the composition (e.g., absence of saxitoxin, gonyautoxin 2/3 and neosaxitoxin) were revealed in our confirmatory analysis. The LC-MS/MS analyses also indicated at least seven putative benzoyl toxin analogues and provided support for their existence. This new toxin profile shows a high similarity (> 80%) to the profiles reported from several regions around the world, suggesting low genetic variability among global populations.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- José J Bustillos-Guzmán
- a Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas del Noroeste (CIBNOR) , La Paz , B.C.S . 23096 , Mexico
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
6
|
Band-Schmidt CJ, Bustillos-Guzmán JJ, Hernández-Sandoval FE, Núñez-Vázquez EJ, López-Cortés DJ. Effect of temperature on growth and paralytic toxin profiles in isolates of Gymnodinium catenatum (Dinophyceae) from the Pacific coast of Mexico. Toxicon 2014; 90:199-212. [PMID: 25151371 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2014.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2014] [Revised: 07/14/2014] [Accepted: 08/07/2014] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
The effects of temperature on growth, cell toxicity, toxin content, and profile of paralytic shellfish toxins was determined in eight isolates of Gymnodinium catenatum from several localities along the Pacific Coast of Mexico. The isolates were cultivated in modified f/2 media with Se (10(-8) M), and a reduced concentration of Cu (10(-8) M), under a 12 h:12 h day-night cycle with an irradiance of 150 μE m(-2) s(-1). Isolates were progressively adapted for three generations to each of the temperatures (16, 19, 22, 24, 27, 30, and 33 °C). The cultures were grown in 125 mL Erlenmeyer flasks with 60 mL of media and harvested by filtration in late exponential growth. Toxins were analyzed by HPLC with a post-column oxidation and fluorescent detection (FLD). G. catenatum isolates tolerate temperatures between 16 and 33 °C, with maximum growth rates of 0.32 and 0.39 div day(-1) at 21 °C and 24 °C, respectively; maximum cell densities of 4700 and 5500 cells mL(-1) were obtained at 27 and 21 °C, respectively. No effect of toxicity per cell with temperature was observed, varying between 10.10 and 28.19 pgSXTeq cell(-1). Ten saxitoxin analogues were detected in all isolates, observing changes in the toxin profile with temperature. C1/2 toxins decreased from 80% mol at 16 °C to 20% mol at 33 °C, B1/2 toxins increased from 19% mol at 16 °C to 42% mol at 33 °C, and decarbamoyl toxins were more abundant at 21 °C. These results show that G. catenatum isolates from different regions of the Pacific coast of Mexico have a similar response to temperature and that this parameter can modify growth rate, cell density, and toxin profile of the species, particularly the decarbamoyl and sulfocarbamoyl toxins.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Christine J Band-Schmidt
- Departamento de Plancton y Ecología Marina, Centro Interdisciplinario de Ciencias Marinas (CICIMAR-IPN), La Paz, B.C.S. 23096, Mexico.
| | - José J Bustillos-Guzmán
- Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas del Noroeste, A. C. (CIBNOR), La Paz, B.C.S. 23096, Mexico
| | | | - Erick J Núñez-Vázquez
- Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas del Noroeste, A. C. (CIBNOR), La Paz, B.C.S. 23096, Mexico
| | - David J López-Cortés
- Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas del Noroeste, A. C. (CIBNOR), La Paz, B.C.S. 23096, Mexico
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Orr RJS, Stüken A, Murray SA, Jakobsen KS. Evolution and distribution of saxitoxin biosynthesis in dinoflagellates. Mar Drugs 2013; 11:2814-28. [PMID: 23966031 PMCID: PMC3766867 DOI: 10.3390/md11082814] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2013] [Revised: 07/04/2013] [Accepted: 07/08/2013] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Numerous species of marine dinoflagellates synthesize the potent environmental neurotoxic alkaloid, saxitoxin, the agent of the human illness, paralytic shellfish poisoning. In addition, certain freshwater species of cyanobacteria also synthesize the same toxic compound, with the biosynthetic pathway and genes responsible being recently reported. Three theories have been postulated to explain the origin of saxitoxin in dinoflagellates: The production of saxitoxin by co-cultured bacteria rather than the dinoflagellates themselves, convergent evolution within both dinoflagellates and bacteria and horizontal gene transfer between dinoflagellates and bacteria. The discovery of cyanobacterial saxitoxin homologs in dinoflagellates has enabled us for the first time to evaluate these theories. Here, we review the distribution of saxitoxin within the dinoflagellates and our knowledge of its genetic basis to determine the likely evolutionary origins of this potent neurotoxin.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Russell J. S. Orr
- Microbial Evolution Research Group (MERG), Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, PO Box 1066 Blindern, Oslo 0316, Norway; E-Mails: (R.J.S.O.); (A.S.)
- Centre for Ecological and Evolutionary Synthesis (CEES), Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, PO Box 1066 Blindern, Oslo 0316, Norway
| | - Anke Stüken
- Microbial Evolution Research Group (MERG), Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, PO Box 1066 Blindern, Oslo 0316, Norway; E-Mails: (R.J.S.O.); (A.S.)
| | - Shauna A. Murray
- Plant Functional Biology and Climate Change Cluster (C3), University of Technology, Sydney, PO Box 123 Broadway, NSW 2007, Australia; E-Mail:
- Sydney Institute of Marine Science, Mosman, NSW 2088, Australia
| | - Kjetill S. Jakobsen
- Microbial Evolution Research Group (MERG), Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, PO Box 1066 Blindern, Oslo 0316, Norway; E-Mails: (R.J.S.O.); (A.S.)
- Centre for Ecological and Evolutionary Synthesis (CEES), Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, PO Box 1066 Blindern, Oslo 0316, Norway
- Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mail: ; Tel.: +47-22854602; Fax: +47-22854001
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Zhang D, Hu C, Wang G, Li D, Li G, Liu Y. Zebrafish neurotoxicity from aphantoxins--cyanobacterial paralytic shellfish poisons (PSPs) from Aphanizomenon flos-aquae DC-1. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY 2013; 28:239-254. [PMID: 21710505 DOI: 10.1002/tox.20714] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2010] [Accepted: 02/20/2011] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Aphanizomenon flos-aquae (A. flos-aquae), a cyanobacterium frequently encountered in water blooms worldwide, is source of neurotoxins known as PSPs or aphantoxins that present a major threat to the environment and to human health. Although the molecular mechanism of PSP action is well known, many unresolved questions remain concerning its mechanisms of toxicity. Aphantoxins purified from a natural isolate of A. flos-aquae DC-1 were analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), the major component toxins were the gonyautoxins1 and 5 (GTX1 and GTX5, 34.04% and 21.28%, respectively) and the neosaxitoxin (neoSTX, 12.77%). The LD50 of the aphantoxin preparation was determined to be 11.33 μg/kg (7.75 μg saxitoxin equivalents (STXeq) per kg) following intraperitoneal injection of zebrafish (Danio rerio). To address the neurotoxicology of the aphantoxin preparation, zebrafish were injected with low and high sublethal doses of A. flos-aquae DC-1 toxins 7.73 and 9.28 μg /kg (5.3 and 6.4 μg STXeq/kg, respectively) and brain tissues were analyzed by electron microscopy and RT-PCR at different timepoints postinjection. Low-dose aphantoxin exposure was associated with chromatin condensation, cell-membrane blebbing, and the appearance of apoptotic bodies. High-dose exposure was associated with cytoplasmic vacuolization, mitochondrial swelling, and expansion of the endoplasmic reticulum. At early timepoints (3 h) many cells exhibited characteristic features of both apoptosis and necrosis. At later timepoints apoptosis appeared to predominate in the low-dose group, whereas necrosis predominated in the high-dose group. RT-PCR revealed that mRNA levels of the apoptosis-related genes encoding p53, Bax, caspase-3, and c-Jun were upregulated after aphantoxin exposure, but there was no evidence of DNA laddering; apoptosis could take place by pathways independent of DNA fragmentation. These results demonstrate that aphantoxin exposure can cause cell death in zebrafish brain tissue, with low doses inducing apoptosis and higher doses inducing necrosis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Delu Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, Institute of Hydrobiology, The Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430072, People's Republic of China.
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
9
|
Dowsett N, Hallegraeff G, van Ruth P, van Ginkel R, McNabb P, Hay B, O'Connor W, Kiermeier A, Deveney M, McLeod C. Uptake, distribution and depuration of paralytic shellfish toxins from Alexandrium minutum in Australian greenlip abalone, Haliotis laevigata. Toxicon 2011; 58:101-11. [PMID: 21640130 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2011.05.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2011] [Revised: 05/10/2011] [Accepted: 05/17/2011] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Farmed greenlip abalone Haliotis laevigata were fed commercial seaweed-based food pellets or feed pellets supplemented with 8 × 10⁵ Alexandrium minutum dinoflagellate cells g⁻¹ (containing 12 ± 3.0 μg STX-equivalent 100 g⁻¹, which was mainly GTX-1,4) every second day for 50 days. Exposure of abalone to PST supplemented feed for 50 days did not affect behaviour or survival but saw accumulation of up to 1.6 μg STX-equivalent 100 g⁻¹ in the abalone foot tissue (muscle, mouth without oesophagus and epipodial fringe), which is ∼50 times lower than the maximum permissible limit (80 μg 100 g⁻¹ tissue) for PSTs in molluscan shellfish. The PST levels in the foot were reduced to 0.48 μg STX-equivalent 100 g⁻¹ after scrubbing and removal of the pigment surrounding the epithelium of the epipodial fringe (confirmed by both HPLC and LC-MS/MS). Thus, scrubbing the epipodial fringe, a common procedure during commercial abalone canning, reduced PST levels by ∼70%. Only trace levels of PSTs were detected in the viscera (stomach, gut, heart, gonad, gills and mantle) of the abalone. A toxin reduction of approximately 73% was observed in STX-contaminated abalone held in clean water and fed uncontaminated food over 50 days. The low level of PST uptake when abalone were exposed to high numbers of A. minutum cells over a prolonged period may indicate a low risk of PSP poisoning to humans from the consumption of H. laevigata that has been exposed to a bloom of potentially toxic A. minutum in Australia. Further research is required to establish if non-dietary accumulation can result in significant levels of PSTs in abalone.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Natalie Dowsett
- South Australian Research and Development Institute, GPO Box 397, Adelaide, South Australia 5001, Australia
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
10
|
Stüken A, Orr RJS, Kellmann R, Murray SA, Neilan BA, Jakobsen KS. Discovery of nuclear-encoded genes for the neurotoxin saxitoxin in dinoflagellates. PLoS One 2011; 6:e20096. [PMID: 21625593 PMCID: PMC3097229 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0020096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 153] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2011] [Accepted: 04/12/2011] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Saxitoxin is a potent neurotoxin that occurs in aquatic environments worldwide.
Ingestion of vector species can lead to paralytic shellfish poisoning, a severe
human illness that may lead to paralysis and death. In freshwaters, the toxin is
produced by prokaryotic cyanobacteria; in marine waters, it is associated with
eukaryotic dinoflagellates. However, several studies suggest that saxitoxin is
not produced by dinoflagellates themselves, but by co-cultured bacteria. Here,
we show that genes required for saxitoxin synthesis are encoded in the nuclear
genomes of dinoflagellates. We sequenced >1.2×106 mRNA
transcripts from the two saxitoxin-producing dinoflagellate strains
Alexandrium fundyense CCMP1719 and A.
minutum CCMP113 using high-throughput sequencing technology. In
addition, we used in silico transcriptome analyses, RACE, qPCR
and conventional PCR coupled with Sanger sequencing. These approaches
successfully identified genes required for saxitoxin-synthesis in the two
transcriptomes. We focused on sxtA, the unique starting gene of
saxitoxin synthesis, and show that the dinoflagellate transcripts of
sxtA have the same domain structure as the cyanobacterial
sxtA genes. But, in contrast to the bacterial homologs, the
dinoflagellate transcripts are monocistronic, have a higher GC content, occur in
multiple copies, contain typical dinoflagellate spliced-leader sequences and
eukaryotic polyA-tails. Further, we investigated 28 saxitoxin-producing and
non-producing dinoflagellate strains from six different genera for the presence
of genomic sxtA homologs. Our results show very good agreement
between the presence of sxtA and saxitoxin-synthesis, except in
three strains of A. tamarense, for which we amplified
sxtA, but did not detect the toxin. Our work opens for
possibilities to develop molecular tools to detect saxitoxin-producing
dinoflagellates in the environment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anke Stüken
- Microbial Evolution Research Group (MERG), Department of Biology,
University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Russell J. S. Orr
- Microbial Evolution Research Group (MERG), Department of Biology,
University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Ralf Kellmann
- Department of Molecular Biology, University of Bergen, Bergen,
Norway
| | - Shauna A. Murray
- School of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences and Australian Centre
for Astrobiology, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
- Sydney Institute of Marine Sciences, Mosman, New South Wales,
Australia
| | - Brett A. Neilan
- School of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences and Australian Centre
for Astrobiology, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
- Sydney Institute of Marine Sciences, Mosman, New South Wales,
Australia
| | - Kjetill S. Jakobsen
- Microbial Evolution Research Group (MERG), Department of Biology,
University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
- Department of Biology, Centre for Ecological and Evolutionary Synthesis
(CEES), University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
- * E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Etheridge SM. Paralytic shellfish poisoning: Seafood safety and human health perspectives. Toxicon 2010; 56:108-22. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2009.12.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 163] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2009] [Revised: 11/12/2009] [Accepted: 12/11/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
|
12
|
Wiese M, D’Agostino PM, Mihali TK, Moffitt MC, Neilan BA. Neurotoxic alkaloids: saxitoxin and its analogs. Mar Drugs 2010; 8:2185-211. [PMID: 20714432 PMCID: PMC2920551 DOI: 10.3390/md8072185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 429] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2010] [Revised: 07/12/2010] [Accepted: 07/16/2010] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Saxitoxin (STX) and its 57 analogs are a broad group of natural neurotoxic alkaloids, commonly known as the paralytic shellfish toxins (PSTs). PSTs are the causative agents of paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) and are mostly associated with marine dinoflagellates (eukaryotes) and freshwater cyanobacteria (prokaryotes), which form extensive blooms around the world. PST producing dinoflagellates belong to the genera Alexandrium, Gymnodinium and Pyrodinium whilst production has been identified in several cyanobacterial genera including Anabaena, Cylindrospermopsis, Aphanizomenon Planktothrix and Lyngbya. STX and its analogs can be structurally classified into several classes such as non-sulfated, mono-sulfated, di-sulfated, decarbamoylated and the recently discovered hydrophobic analogs--each with varying levels of toxicity. Biotransformation of the PSTs into other PST analogs has been identified within marine invertebrates, humans and bacteria. An improved understanding of PST transformation into less toxic analogs and degradation, both chemically or enzymatically, will be important for the development of methods for the detoxification of contaminated water supplies and of shellfish destined for consumption. Some PSTs also have demonstrated pharmaceutical potential as a long-term anesthetic in the treatment of anal fissures and for chronic tension-type headache. The recent elucidation of the saxitoxin biosynthetic gene cluster in cyanobacteria and the identification of new PST analogs will present opportunities to further explore the pharmaceutical potential of these intriguing alkaloids.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Maria Wiese
- School of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, 2052, Australia; E-Mails: (M.W.); (T.K.M.)
| | - Paul M. D’Agostino
- School of Biomedical and Health Sciences, University of Western Sydney, Campbelltown, NSW, 2560, Australia; E-Mails: (P.M.D.); (M.C.M.)
| | - Troco K. Mihali
- School of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, 2052, Australia; E-Mails: (M.W.); (T.K.M.)
| | - Michelle C. Moffitt
- School of Biomedical and Health Sciences, University of Western Sydney, Campbelltown, NSW, 2560, Australia; E-Mails: (P.M.D.); (M.C.M.)
| | - Brett A. Neilan
- School of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, 2052, Australia; E-Mails: (M.W.); (T.K.M.)
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Pearson L, Mihali T, Moffitt M, Kellmann R, Neilan B. On the chemistry, toxicology and genetics of the cyanobacterial toxins, microcystin, nodularin, saxitoxin and cylindrospermopsin. Mar Drugs 2010; 8:1650-80. [PMID: 20559491 PMCID: PMC2885083 DOI: 10.3390/md8051650] [Citation(s) in RCA: 329] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2010] [Revised: 05/02/2010] [Accepted: 05/06/2010] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The cyanobacteria or "blue-green algae", as they are commonly termed, comprise a diverse group of oxygenic photosynthetic bacteria that inhabit a wide range of aquatic and terrestrial environments, and display incredible morphological diversity. Many aquatic, bloom-forming species of cyanobacteria are capable of producing biologically active secondary metabolites, which are highly toxic to humans and other animals. From a toxicological viewpoint, the cyanotoxins span four major classes: the neurotoxins, hepatotoxins, cytotoxins, and dermatoxins (irritant toxins). However, structurally they are quite diverse. Over the past decade, the biosynthesis pathways of the four major cyanotoxins: microcystin, nodularin, saxitoxin and cylindrospermopsin, have been genetically and biochemically elucidated. This review provides an overview of these biosynthesis pathways and additionally summarizes the chemistry and toxicology of these remarkable secondary metabolites.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Leanne Pearson
- School of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, 2052, Australia; E-Mails:
(L.P.);
(T.M.)
| | - Troco Mihali
- School of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, 2052, Australia; E-Mails:
(L.P.);
(T.M.)
| | - Michelle Moffitt
- School of Biomedical and Health Sciences, The University of Western Sydney, Campbelltown, NSW, 2560, Australia; E-Mail:
(M.M.)
| | - Ralf Kellmann
- Department of Molecular Biology, The University of Bergen, P.O. Box 7803, 5020 Bergen, Norway; E-Mail:
(R.K.)
| | - Brett Neilan
- School of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, 2052, Australia; E-Mails:
(L.P.);
(T.M.)
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Kellmann R, Stüken A, Orr RJS, Svendsen HM, Jakobsen KS. Biosynthesis and molecular genetics of polyketides in marine dinoflagellates. Mar Drugs 2010; 8:1011-48. [PMID: 20479965 PMCID: PMC2866473 DOI: 10.3390/md8041011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2010] [Revised: 03/17/2010] [Accepted: 03/26/2010] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Marine dinoflagellates are the single most important group of algae that produce toxins, which have a global impact on human activities. The toxins are chemically diverse, and include macrolides, cyclic polyethers, spirolides and purine alkaloids. Whereas there is a multitude of studies describing the pharmacology of these toxins, there is limited or no knowledge regarding the biochemistry and molecular genetics involved in their biosynthesis. Recently, however, exciting advances have been made. Expressed sequence tag sequencing studies have revealed important insights into the transcriptomes of dinoflagellates, whereas other studies have implicated polyketide synthase genes in the biosynthesis of cyclic polyether toxins, and the molecular genetic basis for the biosynthesis of paralytic shellfish toxins has been elucidated in cyanobacteria. This review summarises the recent progress that has been made regarding the unusual genomes of dinoflagellates, the biosynthesis and molecular genetics of dinoflagellate toxins. In addition, the evolution of these metabolic pathways will be discussed, and an outlook for future research and possible applications is provided.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ralf Kellmann
- University of Bergen, Department of Molecular Biology, 5020 Bergen, Norway; E-Mail:
| | - Anke Stüken
- University of Oslo, Department of Biology, Centre for Ecological and Evolutionary Synthesis (CEES), 0316 Oslo, Norway; E-Mails:
(A.S.);
(K.S.J.)
- University of Oslo, Department of Biology, Microbial Evolution Research Group (MERG), 0316 Oslo, Norway; E-Mail:
| | - Russell J. S. Orr
- University of Oslo, Department of Biology, Microbial Evolution Research Group (MERG), 0316 Oslo, Norway; E-Mail:
| | - Helene M. Svendsen
- University of Bergen, Department of Molecular Biology, 5020 Bergen, Norway; E-Mail:
| | - Kjetill S. Jakobsen
- University of Oslo, Department of Biology, Centre for Ecological and Evolutionary Synthesis (CEES), 0316 Oslo, Norway; E-Mails:
(A.S.);
(K.S.J.)
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Prol MJ, Guisande C, Barreiro A, Míguez B, de la Iglesia P, Villar A, Gago-Martínez A, Combarro MP. Evaluation of the production of paralytic shellfish poisoning toxins by extracellular bacteria isolated from the toxic dinoflagellate Alexandrium minutum. Can J Microbiol 2009; 55:943-54. [PMID: 19898534 DOI: 10.1139/w09-047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of the study was to determine if paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) toxins are present in extracellular bacteria isolated from a toxic strain of the dinoflagellate Alexandrium minutum. A quantitative analysis was carried out of viable culturable bacteria attached to the surface of dinoflagellates and of bacteria present in dinoflagellate culture medium. A numerical taxonomy study was undertaken for presumptive identification of bacteria attached to the surface of dinoflagellates. Members of the following genera were detected on the cell surface of A. minutum: Cellulophaga, Marinomonas, Pseudoalteromonas, and Vibrio. The presence of intracellular PSP toxins in bacteria isolated from the cell surface of dinoflagellates was analysed by high-performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection (HPLC-FLD). Compounds that eluted at the same time as the standards of the PSP toxins GTX-2, GTX-3, GTX-4, dcGTX-2, and dcGTX-3 were present in some of the bacterial cell extracts. Natural fluorescent bacterial compounds, coeluting with some PSP toxins, were also detected. The results obtained showed that the fluorescent compounds, identified as putative PSP toxins by HPLC-FLD, did not correspond to any PSP analogue. This allowed us to reject the hypothesis that extracellular bacteria attached to the surface of dinoflagellates produce PSP toxins.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- María Jesús Prol
- Departamento de Bioloxia Funcional e Ciencias da Saude, Universidade de Vigo, Spain
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
16
|
Llewellyn LE. Sodium channel inhibiting marine toxins. PROGRESS IN MOLECULAR AND SUBCELLULAR BIOLOGY 2009; 46:67-97. [PMID: 19184585 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-540-87895-7_3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Saxitoxin (STX), tetrodotoxin (TTX) and their many chemical relatives are part of our daily lives. From killing people who eat seafood containing these toxins, to being valuable research tools unveiling the invisible structures of their pharmacological receptor, their global impact is beyond measure. The pharmacological receptor for these toxins is the voltage-gated sodium channel which transports Na ions between the exterior to the interior of cells. The two structurally divergent families of STX and TTX analogues bind at the same location on these Na channels to stop the flow of ions. This can affect nerves, muscles and biological senses of most animals. It is through these and other toxins that we have developed much of our fundamental understanding of the Na channel and its part in generating action potentials in excitable cells.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lyndon E Llewellyn
- Australian Institute of Marine Science, Townsville MC, QLD 4810, Australia.
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Vale P, Rangel I, Silva B, Coelho P, Vilar A. Atypical profiles of paralytic shellfish poisoning toxins in shellfish from Luanda and Mussulo bays, Angola. Toxicon 2009; 53:176-83. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2008.10.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2008] [Revised: 10/20/2008] [Accepted: 10/24/2008] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
|
18
|
|
19
|
Enzymatic permeabilization of the thecate dinoflagellate Alexandrium minutum (Dinophyceae) yields detection of intracellularly associated bacteria via catalyzed reporter deposition-fluorescence in situ hybridization. Appl Environ Microbiol 2008; 74:2244-7. [PMID: 18263745 DOI: 10.1128/aem.01144-07] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The enzymatic permeabilization procedure described here allows the detection of intracellular bacteria in the thecate dinoflagellate Alexandrium minutum by using catalyzed reporter deposition-fluorescence in situ hybridization. The combined use of propidium iodide and calcofluor for confocal laser scanning microscopy, together with general and specific fluorescent bacterial probes, demonstrated the intracellular presence of bacteria, including members of the phylum Bacteroidetes.
Collapse
|
20
|
Zimmer RK, Ferrer RP. Neuroecology, chemical defense, and the keystone species concept. THE BIOLOGICAL BULLETIN 2007; 213:208-225. [PMID: 18083963 DOI: 10.2307/25066641] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Neuroecology unifies principles from diverse disciplines, scaling from biophysical properties of nerve and muscle cells to community-wide impacts of trophic interactions. Here, these principles are used as a common fabric, woven from threads of chemosensory physiology, behavior, and population and community ecology. The "keystone species" concept, for example, is seminal in ecological theory. It defines a species whose impacts on communities are far greater than would be predicted from its relative abundance and biomass. Similarly, neurotoxins could function in keystone roles. They are rare within natural habitats but exert strong effects on species interactions at multiple trophic levels. Effects of two guanidine alkaloids, tetrodotoxin (TTX) and saxitoxin (STX), coalesce neurobiological and ecological perspectives. These molecules compose some of the most potent natural poisons ever described, and they are introduced into communities by one, or only a few, host species. Functioning as voltage-gated sodium channel blockers for nerve and muscle cells, TTX and STX serve in chemical defense. When borrowed by resistant consumer species, however, they are used either in chemical defense against higher order predators or for chemical communication as chemosensory excitants. Cascading effects of the compounds profoundly impact community-wide attributes, including species compositions and rates of material exchange. Thus, a diverse array of physiological traits, expressed differentially across many species, renders TTX and STX fully functional as keystone molecules, with vast ecological consequences at multiple trophic levels.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Richard K Zimmer
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095-1606, USA.
| | | |
Collapse
|
21
|
Llewellyn LE. Saxitoxin, a toxic marine natural product that targets a multitude of receptors. Nat Prod Rep 2006; 23:200-22. [PMID: 16572228 DOI: 10.1039/b501296c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 239] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Saxitoxin (STX) was discovered early last century and can contaminate seafood and drinking water, and over time has become an invaluable research tool and an internationally regulated chemical weapon. Among natural products, toxins obtain a unique reputation from their high affinity and selectivity for their target pharmacological receptor, which for STX has long been considered to only be the voltage gated sodium channel. In recent times however, STX has been discovered to also bind to calcium and potassium channels, neuronal nitric oxide synthase, STX metabolizing enzymes and two circulatory fluid proteins, namely a transferrin-like family of proteins and a unique protein found in the blood of pufferfish.
Collapse
|
22
|
Robertson A, Stirling D, Robillot C, Llewellyn L, Negri A. First report of saxitoxin in octopi. Toxicon 2004; 44:765-71. [PMID: 15500852 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2004.08.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2004] [Revised: 08/05/2004] [Accepted: 08/23/2004] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
We report for the first time, the presence of saxitoxin (STX) in a common cephalopod, Octopus (Abdopus) sp. 5, collected from Cooke Point on the northern coastline of Western Australia. Sodium channel and saxiphilin based radio-receptor assays detected saxitoxin-like binding in octopi extracts. Further analysis by liquid chromatography-fluorescence detection (LC-FLD) identified STX as the major contributing toxin in these samples. The presence of STX was confirmed by LC-mass spectrometry and comparison of fragmentation patterns with an authentic STX standard. LC-FLD quantitation and conversion of the Octopus sp. 5 extracts revealed toxin concentrations as high as 246 microg STX/100g tissue, more than three times the US, European and Australian regulatory limit for human consumption of shellfish of 80 microg STX/100g tissue. There was no evidence of tetrodotoxin or other paralytic shellfish toxin derivatives. This level and distribution of STX in octopi poses a potential public health risk, particularly when routine toxin screening of wild catch is not regulated.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alison Robertson
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, James Cook University, Townsville, Qld 4811, Australia.
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
23
|
Castro D, Vera D, Lagos N, García C, Vásquez M. The effect of temperature on growth and production of paralytic shellfish poisoning toxins by the cyanobacterium Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii C10. Toxicon 2004; 44:483-9. [PMID: 15450922 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2004.06.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2004] [Revised: 05/27/2004] [Accepted: 06/09/2004] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii is a cyanobacterium which produces either cylindrospermopsine or paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) toxins. We studied the effect of temperature on growth and production of PSP toxins by C. raciborskii C10, isolated from a freshwater reservoir in Brazil. We analyzed the extracellular and intracellular content of PSP toxins at two different temperatures: 19 and 25 degrees C. C. raciborskii C10 produces STX, GTX2, and GTX3 at both temperatures. dcSTX was also detected at 25 degrees C in the intracellular extracts obtained at the end of the stationary phase. The growth achieved at 25 degrees C and estimated by optical density at 700 nm was three times greater than at 19 degrees C. However, no significant differences were observed in the content of PSP toxins in either the cells or the extracellular media. The kinetics of accumulation of PSP toxins within the cells rather than in the media suggests an active PSP toxins-export process that is not related to cell lysis. The extracellular accumulation of PSP toxins at 19 degrees C suggested a biotransformation of STX to the epimers GTX2 and GTX3. The stability of the PSP toxins produced by C. raciborskii C10 was high enough for them to remain active in the media after 30 days (at 25 degrees C) or after 50 days (at 19 degrees C).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Daniela Castro
- Laboratorio de Biotecnología, Instituto de Nutrición y Tecnología de los Alimentos, Universidad de Chile, Av. Macul 5540, Casilla 138-11, Santiago
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
24
|
Budzikiewicz H. Siderophores of the Pseudomonadaceae sensu stricto (fluorescent and non-fluorescent Pseudomonas spp.). FORTSCHRITTE DER CHEMIE ORGANISCHER NATURSTOFFE = PROGRESS IN THE CHEMISTRY OF ORGANIC NATURAL PRODUCTS. PROGRES DANS LA CHIMIE DES SUBSTANCES ORGANIQUES NATURELLES 2004; 87:81-237. [PMID: 15079896 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-7091-0581-8_2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/16/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- H Budzikiewicz
- Institut für Organische Chemie, Universität zu Köln, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
25
|
Green DH, Llewellyn LE, Negri AP, Blackburn SI, Bolch CJ. Phylogenetic and functional diversity of the cultivable bacterial community associated with the paralytic shellfish poisoning dinoflagellate Gymnodinium catenatum. FEMS Microbiol Ecol 2004; 47:345-57. [DOI: 10.1016/s0168-6496(03)00298-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 135] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022] Open
|
26
|
Biré R, Krys S, Frémy JM, Dragacci S. Improved solid-phase extraction procedure in the analysis of paralytic shellfish poisoning toxins by liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2003; 51:6386-6390. [PMID: 14558751 DOI: 10.1021/jf030342z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
The analysis of shellfish extracts for the determination of paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) toxins by liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection repeatedly showed the presence of a compound suspected to interfere with gonyautoxin 4. The first aim of this study was to confirm by liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry that this compound was not gonyautoxin 4. The second part of this work was to improve a nonvolumetric C(18) solid-phase extraction (SPE) procedure to evaluate the removal of the interference associated with the recovery of PSP toxins. The cleanup procedure was modified into a volumetric SPE procedure and proved to efficiently and totally remove the interference while recovering from 78 to 85% of the PSP toxins available as commercial standards (saxitoxin, neosaxitoxin, gonyautoxins 1-4) and considered as major PSP toxins in human intoxication, with 85% recovery for gonyautoxin 4. The efficiency of this cleanup procedure was checked on shellfish extracts containing this interference and originating from France and Turkey.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ronel Biré
- Agence Française de Sécurité Sanitaire des Aliments, Unité Toxines Microbiennes, 10 rue Pierre Curie, 94704 Maisons-Alfort Cedex, France.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
27
|
Martins CA, Alvito P, Tavares MJ, Pereira P, Doucette G, Franca S. Reevaluation of production of paralytic shellfish toxin by bacteria associated with dinoflagellates of the Portuguese coast. Appl Environ Microbiol 2003; 69:5693-8. [PMID: 12957964 PMCID: PMC194987 DOI: 10.1128/aem.69.9.5693-5698.2003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Paralytic shellfish toxins (PSTs) are potent neurotoxins produced by certain dinoflagellate and cyanobacterial species. The autonomous production of PSTs by bacteria remains controversial. In this study, PST production by two bacterial strains, isolated previously from toxic dinoflagellates, was evaluated using biological and analytical methods. Analyses were performed under conditions determined previously to be optimal for toxin production and detection. Our data are inconsistent with autonomous bacterial PST production under these conditions, thereby challenging previous findings for the same strains.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Claudia A Martins
- Laboratório de Microbiologia e Ecotoxicologia, Instituto Nacional de Saúde Dr. Ricardo Jorge, 1649-016 Lisbon, Portugal.
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|