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Bouteiller P, Lance E, Guérin T, Biré R. Analysis of Total-Forms of Cyanotoxins Microcystins in Biological Matrices: A Methodological Review. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14080550. [PMID: 36006212 PMCID: PMC9416067 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14080550] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2022] [Revised: 07/22/2022] [Accepted: 08/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Microcystins (MCs) are cyclic heptapeptidic toxins produced by many cyanobacteria. Microcystins can be accumulated in various matrices in two forms: a free cellular fraction and a covalently protein-bound form. To detect and quantify the concentration of microcystins, a panel of techniques on various matrices (water, sediments, and animal tissues) is available. The analysis of MCs can concern the free or the total (free plus covalently bound) fractions. Free-form analyses of MCs are the most common and easiest to detect, whereas total-form analyses are much less frequent and more complex to achieve. The objective of this review is to summarize the different methods of extraction and analysis that have been developed for total forms. Four extraction methods were identified: MMPB (2-methyl-3-methoxy-4-phenylbutyric acid) method, deconjugation at basic pH, ozonolysis, and laser irradiation desorption. The study of the bibliography on the methods of extraction and analysis of the total forms of MCs showed that the reference method for the subject remains the MMPB method even if alternative methods and, in particular, deconjugation at basic pH, showed results encouraging the continuation of the methodological development on different matrices and on naturally-contaminated samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pierre Bouteiller
- Université de Reims Champagne-Ardenne, UMR-I 02 INERIS-URCA-ULH SEBIO, Unité Stress Environnementaux et BIOsurveillance des Milieux Aquatiques (SEBIO), BP 1039, CEDEX 2, F-51687 Reims, France
- Laboratory for Food Safety, ANSES, F-94701 Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - Emilie Lance
- Université de Reims Champagne-Ardenne, UMR-I 02 INERIS-URCA-ULH SEBIO, Unité Stress Environnementaux et BIOsurveillance des Milieux Aquatiques (SEBIO), BP 1039, CEDEX 2, F-51687 Reims, France
- UMR MNHN/CNRS MCAM, Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle, F-75005 Paris, France
- Correspondence:
| | - Thierry Guérin
- Strategy and Programs Department, ANSES, F-94701 Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - Ronel Biré
- Laboratory for Food Safety, ANSES, F-94701 Maisons-Alfort, France
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Cruz AADL, Lynch TJ, Dionysiou DD. The Effects of Sample Matrices on Immunoassays to Detect Microcystin-LR in Water. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2012. [DOI: 10.4236/jep.2012.310145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Development and validation of a liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry assay for the simultaneous quantitation of microcystin-RR and its metabolites in fish liver. J Chromatogr A 2010; 1217:1455-62. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2009.12.068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2009] [Revised: 12/20/2009] [Accepted: 12/23/2009] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Xiao FG, Zhao XL, Tang J, Gu XH, Zhang JP, Niu WM. Necessity of screening water chestnuts for microcystins after cyanobacterial blooms break out. ARCHIVES OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINATION AND TOXICOLOGY 2009; 57:256-263. [PMID: 19125218 DOI: 10.1007/s00244-008-9275-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2008] [Accepted: 12/15/2008] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Water chestnut is one of the most popular vegetables in Asian countries that grows in shallow water. Eighteen water chestnut samples were collected from Lake Tai and six samples were bought at markets in Wuxi, China, in October 2007. Extraction solution of water chestnut was cleaned up with a solid phase extraction column and immunoaffinity chromatography cartridges, then the microcystin (MC) level was detected by indirect competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS). The results of ELISA showed that there were six samples collected from Lake Tai which contained MCs; the highest level of total MCs was 7.02 ng/g. The results of LC-MS confirmed that MC-LR and MC-RR were present in five samples. The highest level of MC-LR was 1.02 ng/g and that of MC-RR was 4.44 ng/g. Heavy cyanobacterial blooms had occurred, and MCs were detected in water at the points in Lake Tai where MCs occurred in water chestnuts collected in 2007. MCs were not detected in the six samples bought at Wuxi markets. The results suggest that MCs can accumulate in water chestnuts, which is a potential hazard for human health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fu-Gang Xiao
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, 1800 Lihu Road, 214122 Wuxi, China
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Wei D, Lin Z, Kameya T, Urano K, Du Y. Application of biological safety index in two Japanese watersheds using a bioassay battery. CHEMOSPHERE 2008; 72:1303-1308. [PMID: 18534658 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2008.04.062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2008] [Revised: 04/10/2008] [Accepted: 04/16/2008] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
In order to integratedly evaluate the biological safety as a water quality index, an assessment method based on three toxicity tests (algae growth inhibition, daphnia immobilization and larval fish toxicity) was developed. In this study, the developed method was used to screen, evaluate and rank the biological safety of small rivers near agricultural, industrial and residential areas. Twenty-seven representative water samples were collected from the Kaname River watershed and the Hinata River watershed in Kanagawa Prefecture, Japan. The results indicated that (1) the biological safety of water from the Hinata River ranked much higher than those from the Suzu River and the Shibuta River due to less human activities, (2) the biological safety from outlets of paddy fields ranked much worse than those from point source discharges of toxic pollutants, (3) the use of pesticides significantly affected the water quality of nearby small rivers and ditches during the pesticide application season, (4) the effects of different kinds of pesticides could successfully be classified using one toxicity test component of the bioassay battery, and (5) there was no significant quantitative relationship between the toxicity and dissolved organic carbon (DOC) for the studied water samples. The toxicities of water samples in this study were in agreement with the concentrations of pesticides determined with chemical methods by other researchers, which demonstrated that the developed assessment method was reliable to screen site contaminated with organic chemicals for priority management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dongbin Wei
- Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Haidian District, Beijing, PR China.
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Abstract
Blue-green algae are found in lakes, ponds, rivers and brackish waters throughout the world. In case of excessive growth such as bloom formation, these bacteria can produce inherent toxins in quantities causing toxicity in mammals, including humans. These cyanotoxins include cyclic peptides and alkaloids. Among the cyclic peptides are the microcystins and the nodularins. The alkaloids include anatoxin-a, anatoxin-a(S), cylindrospermopsin, saxitoxins (STXs), aplysiatoxins and lyngbyatoxin. Both biological and chemical methods are used to determine cyanotoxins. Bioassays and biochemical assays are nonspecific, so they can only be used as screening methods. HPLC has some good prospects. For the subsequent detection of these toxins different detectors may be used, ranging from simple UV-spectrometry via fluorescence detection to various types of MS. The main problem in the determination of cyanobacterial toxins is the lack of reference materials of all relevant toxins. In general, toxicity data on cyanotoxins are rather scarce. A majority of toxicity data are known to be of microcystin-LR. For nodularins, data from a few animal studies are available. For the alkaloids, limited toxicity data exist for anatoxin-a, cylindrospermopsin and STX. Risk assessment for acute exposure could be relevant for some types of exposure. Nevertheless, no acute reference doses have formally been derived thus far. For STX(s), many countries have established tolerance levels in bivalves, but these limits were set in view of STX(s) as biotoxins, accumulating in marine shellfish. Official regulations for other cyanotoxins have not been established, although some (provisional) guideline values have been derived for microcystins in drinking water by WHO and several countries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marian E van Apeldoorn
- Centre for Substances and Integrated Risk Assessment, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment, Bilthoven, the Netherlands
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Liu R, Kameya T, Kobayashi T, Sugimura Y, Kubo T, Sawai A, Urano K. Evaluating the fish safety level of river water and wastewater with a larval medaka assay. CHEMOSPHERE 2007; 66:452-9. [PMID: 16857238 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2006.06.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2006] [Revised: 06/02/2006] [Accepted: 06/08/2006] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
A larval medaka (Oryzias latipes) assay was proposed to evaluate the fish safety level of river waters and wastewaters. Organic toxicants were 10-100 times concentrated with adsorption cartridges from 4 l of river water or 1-10 times concentrated from 400 ml of wastewater. Toxicity of these concentrated solutions was determined by exposing 48-72 h post-hatch age larvae for 48 h. The method effectively revealed a variation of the median lethal concentration ratio (LCR50) from 13 to >100 in 125 river water samples, and from <1 to >10 in five typical wastewater samples. Ayase River, which takes water mostly from agricultural or household discharge, showed significantly (P<0.001) lower LCR50 than Sagami River that takes natural water as the source. Safety Levels in both Sagami River and Ayase River were influenced by the irrigation activity, LCR50 at some sites showing a seasonal-specific decrease in winter. Pollution from pulp and paper industries contributed to the low LCR50 in several tributaries of Ayase River. Required little manpower in sampling, pretreatment and testing, the proposed larval medaka assay was proved as an efficient tool for screening those high risk sites for priority management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rui Liu
- Graduate School of Environment and Information Sciences, Yokohama National University, 79 Tokiwadai, Hodogaya-ku, Yokohama 240-8501, Japan.
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Sangolkar LN, Maske SS, Chakrabarti T. Methods for determining microcystins (peptide hepatotoxins) and microcystin-producing cyanobacteria. WATER RESEARCH 2006; 40:3485-96. [PMID: 17014889 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2006.08.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2006] [Revised: 07/27/2006] [Accepted: 08/20/2006] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
Episodes of cyanobacterial toxic blooms and fatalities to animals and humans due to cyanobacterial toxins (CBT) are known worldwide. The hepatotoxins and neurotoxins (cyanotoxins) produced by bloom-forming cyanobacteria have been the cause of human and animal health hazards and even death. Prevailing concentration of cell bound endotoxin, exotoxin and the toxin variants depend on developmental stages of the bloom and the cyanobacterial (CB) species involved. Toxic and non-toxic strains do not show any predictable morphological difference. The current instrumental, immunological and molecular methods applied for determining microcystins (peptide hepatotoxins) and microcystin-producing cyanobacteria are reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lalita N Sangolkar
- Environmental Biotechnology Division, National Environmental Engineering Research Institute, Nehru Marg, Nagpur 440 020, India.
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Kondo F, Harada K, Ueno Y. Method for Quantifying Microcystins in Fish Using Immunoaffinity Purification. J LIQ CHROMATOGR R T 2006. [DOI: 10.1080/10826070500295062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Fumio Kondo
- a Aichi Prefectural Institute of Public Health , Nagoya, Japan
| | | | - Yoshio Ueno
- c Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences , Science University of Tokyo , Tokyo, Japan
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Ruangyuttikarn W, Miksik I, Pekkoh J, Peerapornpisal Y, Deyl Z. Reversed-phase liquid chromatographic–mass spectrometric determination of microcystin-LR in cyanobacteria blooms under alkaline conditions. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2004; 800:315-9. [PMID: 14698272 DOI: 10.1016/s1570-0232(03)00595-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Reversed-phase HPLC coupled to the atmospheric pressure ionization-electrospray ionization (API-ESI) MS was used for microcystin-LR detection and quantitation in samples of dried Microcystis aeruginosa cells. An alkaline linear gradient (20 mmol/l ammonium hydroxide-acetonitrile, pH 9.7) was used for elution of the toxic peptides. Limit of detection was 1 microg/ml (20 ng per injection) in the scan mode of MS and 0.1 microg/ml (2 ng per injection) in the case of selective ion monitoring.
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Affiliation(s)
- Werawan Ruangyuttikarn
- Department of Forensic Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
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Aranda-Rodriguez R, Kubwabo C, Benoit FM. Extraction of 15 microcystins and nodularin using immunoaffinity columns. Toxicon 2003; 42:587-99. [PMID: 14602114 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2003.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Microcystins (MCYSTs) were isolated from surface water using reusable immunoaffinity columns. Individual MCYST were determined by high performance liquid chromatography equipped with a photo-diode array detector (HPLC-PDA, 200-300 nm). Subsequent analysis of the samples by liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (LC-ESMS) provided molecular weight information, which was used to tentatively identify individual MCYST variants for which standards were not available. Results obtained using immunoaffinity columns (IAC)-HPLC-PDA were compared to those obtained using solid phase extraction (SPE) Oasis HLB-HPLC-PDA. This is the first report of the extraction of 15 microcystins and nodularin using immunoaffinity columns. Whereas previous reports demonstrates the use of IAC for four microcystins, we found that IAC selectively extracted the following microcystins: MCYST-RR, [D-Asp3]MCYST-RR, MCYST-YR, MCYST-LR, 3 MCYST-LR variants, MCYST-AR, MCYST-FR, MCYST-WR, MCYST-LA, MCYST-LA variant, the less polar microcystins such as MCYST-LF, MCYST-LW and nodularin. The IAC extracts were free of interferences which enabled better detection and identification of MCYSTs. Based on the amount loaded to the cartridges, the method detection limit was 10-14 ng when using IAC and 25 ng for SPE of each MCYST-RR, MCYST-YR and MCYST-LR. Reproducibilities expressed as relative standard deviation were 6-10% for SPE and 4-17% for IAC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rocio Aranda-Rodriguez
- Health Canada, Health Environments and Consumer Safety Branch, Safe Environments Programme, Chemistry Research Division, Tunney's Pasture, Ottawa, Ont. KIA OL2, Canada.
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Dahlmann J, Budakowski WR, Luckas B. Liquid chromatography-electrospray ionisation-mass spectrometry based method for the simultaneous determination of algal and cyanobacterial toxins in phytoplankton from marine waters and lakes followed by tentative structural elucidation of microcystins. J Chromatogr A 2003; 994:45-57. [PMID: 12779218 DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9673(03)00485-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
A liquid chromatography (LC)-based method with mass spectrometric (MS) detection was developed for simultaneous determination of various algal and cyanobacterial toxins extracted from phytoplankton occurring world-wide in marine waters and lakes. The method enables quantification of saxitoxin, anatoxin-A, domoic acid, nodularin, microcystins, okadaic acid and dinophysistoxin-1 with a single chromatographic run. In addition, the applied chromatographic conditions allow isolation and identification of substances suspected to be "new" microcystins (cyclic peptides) by fraction collection, hydrolysis, derivatisation of resulting free amino acids with the modified chiral Marfey's reagent N-alpha-(2,4-dinitro-5-fluorophenyl)-L-valinamide (L-FDVA) and enantioselective analysis of the amino acid derivatives by LC-ESI-MS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jens Dahlmann
- Department of Food Chemistry, Faculty of Biology and Pharmacy, University of Jena, Dornburger Str. 25, 07743 Jena, Germany.
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McElhiney J, Drever M, Lawton LA, Porter AJ. Rapid isolation of a single-chain antibody against the cyanobacterial toxin microcystin-LR by phage display and its use in the immunoaffinity concentration of microcystins from water. Appl Environ Microbiol 2002; 68:5288-95. [PMID: 12406716 PMCID: PMC129936 DOI: 10.1128/aem.68.11.5288-5295.2002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2002] [Accepted: 08/15/2002] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
A naïve (unimmunized) human semisynthetic phage display library was employed to isolate recombinant antibody fragments against the cyanobacterial hepatotoxin microcystin-LR. Selected antibody scFv genes were cloned into a soluble expression vector and expressed in Escherichia coli for characterization against purified microcystin-LR by competition enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The most sensitive single-chain antibody (scAb) isolated was capable of detecting microcystin-LR at levels below the World Health Organization limit in drinking water (1 microg liter(-1)) and cross-reacted with three other purified microcystin variants (microcystin-RR, -LW, and -LF) and the related cyanotoxin nodularin. Extracts of the cyanobacterium Microcystis aeruginosa were assayed by ELISA, and quantifications of microcystins in toxic samples showed good correlation with analysis by high-performance liquid chromatography. Immobilized scAb was also used to prepare immunoaffinity columns, which were assessed for the ability to concentrate microcystin-LR from water for subsequent analysis by high-performance liquid chromatography. Anti-microcystin-LR scAb was immobilized on columns via a hexahistidine tag, ensuring maximum exposure of antigen binding sites, and the performance of the columns was evaluated by directly applying 150 ml of distilled water spiked with 4 micro g of purified microcystin-LR. The procedure was simple, and a recovery rate of 94% was achieved following elution in 1 ml of 100% methanol. Large-scale, low-cost production of anti-microcystin-LR scAb in E. coli is an exciting prospect for the development of biosensors and on-line monitoring systems for microcystins and will also facilitate a range of immunoaffinity applications for the cleanup and concentration of these toxins from environmental samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacqui McElhiney
- School of Life Sciences, The Robert Gordon University, St. Andrew Street, Aberdeen AB25 1HG, United Kingdom
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Kondo F, Ito Y, Oka H, Yamada S, Tsuji K, Imokawa M, Niimi Y, Harada KI, Ueno Y, Miyazaki Y. Determination of microcystins in lake water using reusable immunoaffinity column. Toxicon 2002; 40:893-9. [PMID: 12076642 DOI: 10.1016/s0041-0101(01)00287-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
A reusable immunoaffinity column for purification of microcystins in lake water was prepared by coupling anti-microcystin-LR monoclonal antibodies to immunoaffinity support. Thanks to spherical shape of the immunoaffinity support Formyl-Cellulofine used in this study, applied solutions passed the column smoothly even when used repeatedly. Reusability of the column was examined by determining the recoveries of spiked microcystins-RR, -YR and -LR (100ng each) from lake water. After extraction with a Sep-Pak PS2 cartridge containing styrene-divinylbenzene copolymer, the extract was purified with the immunoaffinity column. The immunoaffinity column was regenerated by washing with Tris-HCl buffer containing bovine serum albumin for repeated uses. Recoveries of spiked microcystins from the first use of the column were 87-88%, and 83-88% from the second and third uses, and the recoveries gradually dropped to 63-77% from the 4-5th uses, the results of which indicated that the column could be used repeatedly for three times. The present method was applied to determine microcystins in water collected from three different lakes in Japan in 1999. In a sample from Lake Suwa, microcystins-RR and -LR were determined by high performance liquid chromatography with photodiode array detection and electrospray ionization-liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fumio Kondo
- Aichi Prefectural Institute of Public Health, Tsuji-machi, Kita-ku, Nagoya 462-8576, Japan.
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Carmichael WW, An J. Using an enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and a protein phosphatase inhibition assay (PPIA) for the detection of microcystins and nodularins. NATURAL TOXINS 2002; 7:377-85. [PMID: 11122533 DOI: 10.1002/1522-7189(199911/12)7:6<377::aid-nt80>3.0.co;2-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 131] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Cyanotoxins produced by cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) include potent neurotoxins and hepatotoxins. The hepatotoxins include cyclic peptide microcystins and nodularins plus the alkaloid cylindrospermopsins. Among the cyanotoxins the microcystins have proven to be the most widespread, and are most often implicated in animal and human poisonings. This paper presents a practical guide to two widely used methods for detecting and quantifying microcystins and nodularins in environmental samples-the enzyme linked immunosorbant assay (ELISA) and the protein phosphatase inhibition assay (PPIA).
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Affiliation(s)
- W W Carmichael
- Department of Biological Sciences, Wright State University, Dayton OH 45435, USA.
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Zeck A, Weller MG, Niessner R. Multidimensional biochemical detection of microcystins in liquid chromatography. Anal Chem 2001; 73:5509-17. [PMID: 11816581 DOI: 10.1021/ac015511y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The coupling of antibody-, receptor-, or enzyme-based inhibition assays postcolumn to chromatographic systems provides biological detectors with extraordinary high sensitivity and specificity. Three monoclonal antibodies (MC10E7, AD4G2, M8H5) directed against microcystins and protein phosphatase 1 (PP1) were used as off-line detectors for the HPLC separation of microcystins and nodularin in comparison to UV detection. For HPLC/ELISA coupling using antibody MC10E7, a detection limit of 0.04 ng microcystin-LR was achieved. The provisional guideline value for microcystin-LR (1 microg/L, WHO) could be monitored without prior sample concentration, in contrast to UV detection. Quantification of microcystin-LR and two cross-reactants was demonstrated. Furthermore, cross-reactivity or enzyme inhibition of new microcystins, only available in small amounts, can be determined by this method. Using a cyanobacterial extract, HPLC/ELISA coupling was compared to HPLC/UV and electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (ESI-TOFMS).
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Affiliation(s)
- A Zeck
- Institute of Hydrochemistry, Technical University of Munich, München, Germany
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