Patients with high cholesterol levels benefit most from early withdrawal of corticosteroids

Changes in clinical indicators related to the transition from dialysis to kidney transplantation-data from the ERA-EDTA Registry

Background

Kidney transplantation should improve abnormalities that are common during dialysis treatment, like anaemia and mineral and bone disorder. However, its impact is incompletely understood. We therefore aimed to assess changes in clinical indicators after the transition from chronic dialysis to kidney transplantation.

Methods

We used European Renal Association–European Dialysis and Transplant Association Registry data and included adult dialysis patients for whom data on clinical indicators before and after transplantation (2005–15) were available. Linear mixed models were used to quantify the effect of transplantation and of time after transplantation for each indicator.

Results

In total, 16 312 patients were included. The mean age at transplantation was 50.1 (standard deviation 14.2) years, 62.9% were male and 70.2% were on haemodialysis before transplantation. Total, low-density lipoprotein (LDL) and high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol and triglycerides increased right after transplantation but decreased thereafter. All other indicators normalized or approached the target range soon after transplantation and these improvements were sustained for the first 4 years of follow-up. In patients with higher estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) levels (30–60 and >60 mL/min/1.73 m²), the improvement of haemoglobin, ferritin, ionized calcium, phosphate, parathyroid hormone, HDL cholesterol, triglycerides, albumin and C-reactive protein levels was more pronounced than in patients with a lower eGFR (<30 mL/min/1.73 m²).

Conclusions

Except for total cholesterol, LDL cholesterol and triglycerides, all clinical indicators improved after transplantation. These improvements were related to eGFR. Nevertheless, values remained out of range in a considerable proportion of patients and anaemia and hyperparathyroidism were still common problems. Further research is needed to understand the complex relationship between eGFR and the different clinical indicators.

Interventions for preventing bone disease in kidney transplant recipients

BACKGROUND

People who have chronic kidney disease (CKD) have important changes to bone structure, strength, and metabolism. Children experience bone deformity, pain, and delayed or impaired growth. Adults experience limb and vertebral fractures, avascular necrosis, and pain. The fracture risk after kidney transplantation is four times that of the general population and is related to Chronic Kidney Disease-Mineral and Bone Disorder (CKD-MBD) occurring with end-stage kidney failure, steroid-induced bone loss, and persistent hyperparathyroidism after transplantation. Fractures may reduce quality of life and lead to being unable to work or contribute to community roles and responsibilities. Earlier versions of this review have found low certainty evidence for effects of treatment. This is an update of a review first published in 2005 and updated in 2007.

OBJECTIVES

This review update evaluates the benefits and harms of interventions for preventing bone disease following kidney transplantation.

SEARCH METHODS

We searched the Cochrane Kidney and Transplant Register of Studies up to 16 May 2019 through contact with the Information Specialist using search terms relevant to this review. Studies in the Register are identified through searches of CENTRAL, MEDLINE, and EMBASE, conference proceedings, the International Clinical Trials Register (ICTRP) Search Portal and ClinicalTrials.gov.

SELECTION CRITERIA

RCTs and quasi-RCTs evaluating treatments for bone disease among kidney transplant recipients of any age were eligible.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Two authors independently assessed trial risks of bias and extracted data. Statistical analyses were performed using random effects meta-analysis. The risk estimates were expressed as a risk ratio (RR) for dichotomous variables and mean difference (MD) for continuous outcomes together with the corresponding 95% confidence interval (CI). The primary efficacy outcome was bone fracture. The primary safety outcome was acute graft rejection. Secondary outcomes included death (all cause and cardiovascular), myocardial infarction, stroke, musculoskeletal disorders (e.g. skeletal deformity, bone pain), graft loss, nausea, hyper- or hypocalcaemia, kidney function, serum parathyroid hormone (PTH), and bone mineral density (BMD).

MAIN RESULTS

In this 2019 update, 65 studies (involving 3598 participants) were eligible; 45 studies contributed data to our meta-analyses (2698 participants). Treatments included bisphosphonates, vitamin D compounds, teriparatide, denosumab, cinacalcet, parathyroidectomy, and calcitonin. Median duration of follow-up was 12 months. Forty-three studies evaluated bone density or bone-related biomarkers, with more recent studies evaluating proteinuria and hyperparathyroidism. Bisphosphonate therapy was usually commenced in the perioperative transplantation period (within 3 weeks) and regardless of BMD. Risks of bias were generally high or unclear leading to lower certainty in the results. A single study reported outcomes among 60 children and adolescents. Studies were not designed to measure treatment effects on fracture, death or cardiovascular outcomes, or graft loss.Compared to placebo, bisphosphonate therapy administered over 12 months in transplant recipients may prevent fracture (RR 0.62, 95% CI 0.38 to 1.01; low certainty evidence) although the 95% CI included the possibility that bisphosphonate therapy might make little or no difference. Fracture events were principally vertebral fractures identified during routine radiographic surveillance. It was uncertain whether any other drug class decreased fracture (low or very low certainty evidence). It was uncertain whether interventions for bone disease in kidney transplantation reduce all-cause or cardiovascular death, myocardial infarction or stroke, or graft loss in very low certainty evidence. Bisphosphonate therapy may decrease acute graft rejection (RR 0.70, 95% CI 0.55 to 0.89; low certainty evidence), while it is uncertain whether any other treatment impacts graft rejection (very low certainty evidence). Bisphosphonate therapy may reduce bone pain (RR 0.20, 95% CI 0.04 to 0.93; very low certainty evidence), while it was very uncertain whether bisphosphonates prevent spinal deformity or avascular bone necrosis (very low certainty evidence). Bisphosphonates may increase to risk of hypocalcaemia (RR 5.59, 95% CI 1.00 to 31.06; low certainty evidence). It was uncertain whether vitamin D compounds had any effect on skeletal, cardiovascular, death, or transplant function outcomes (very low certainty or absence of evidence). Evidence for the benefits and harms of all other treatments was of very low certainty. Evidence for children and young adolescents was sparse.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

Bisphosphonate therapy may reduce fracture and bone pain after kidney transplantation, however low certainty in the evidence indicates it is possible that treatment may make little or no difference. It is uncertain whether bisphosphonate therapy or other bone treatments prevent other skeletal complications after kidney transplantation, including spinal deformity or avascular bone necrosis. The effects of bone treatment for children and adolescents after kidney transplantation are very uncertain.

Steroid avoidance or withdrawal for kidney transplant recipients

BACKGROUND

Steroid-sparing strategies have been attempted in recent decades to avoid morbidity from long-term steroid intake among kidney transplant recipients. Previous systematic reviews of steroid withdrawal after kidney transplantation have shown a significant increase in acute rejection. There are various protocols to withdraw steroids after kidney transplantation and their possible benefits or harms are subject to systematic review. This is an update of a review first published in 2009.

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate the benefits and harms of steroid withdrawal or avoidance for kidney transplant recipients.

SEARCH METHODS

We searched the Cochrane Kidney and Transplant Specialised Register to 15 February 2016 through contact with the Information Specialist using search terms relevant to this review.

SELECTION CRITERIA

All randomised and quasi-randomised controlled trials (RCTs) in which steroids were avoided or withdrawn at any time point after kidney transplantation were included.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Assessment of risk of bias and data extraction was performed by two authors independently and disagreement resolved by discussion. Statistical analyses were performed using the random-effects model and dichotomous outcomes were reported as relative risk (RR) and continuous outcomes as mean difference (MD) with 95% confidence intervals.

MAIN RESULTS

We included 48 studies (224 reports) that involved 7803 randomised participants. Of these, three studies were conducted in children (346 participants). The 2009 review included 30 studies (94 reports, 5949 participants). Risk of bias was assessed as low for sequence generation in 19 studies and allocation concealment in 14 studies. Incomplete outcome data were adequately addressed in 22 studies and 37 were free of selective reporting.The 48 included studies evaluated three different comparisons: steroid avoidance or withdrawal compared with steroid maintenance, and steroid avoidance compared with steroid withdrawal. For the adult studies there was no significant difference in patient mortality either in studies comparing steroid withdrawal versus steroid maintenance (10 studies, 1913 participants, death at one year post transplantation: RR 0.68, 95% CI 0.36 to 1.30) or in studies comparing steroid avoidance versus steroid maintenance (10 studies, 1462 participants, death at one year after transplantation: RR 0.96, 95% CI 0.52 to 1.80). Similarly no significant difference in graft loss was found comparing steroid withdrawal versus steroid maintenance (8 studies, 1817 participants, graft loss excluding death with functioning graft at one year after transplantation: RR 1.17, 95% CI 0.72 to 1.92) and comparing steroid avoidance versus steroid maintenance (7 studies, 1211 participants, graft loss excluding death with functioning graft at one year after transplantation: RR 1.09, 95% CI 0.64 to 1.86). The risk of acute rejection significantly increased in patients treated with steroids for less than 14 days after transplantation (7 studies, 835 participants: RR 1.58, 95% CI 1.08 to 2.30) and in patients who were withdrawn from steroids at a later time point after transplantation (10 studies, 1913 participants, RR 1.77, 95% CI 1.20 to 2.61). There was no evidence to suggest a difference in harmful events, such as infection and malignancy, in adult kidney transplant recipients. The effect of steroid withdrawal in children is unclear.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

This updated review increases the evidence that steroid avoidance and withdrawal after kidney transplantation significantly increase the risk of acute rejection. There was no evidence to suggest a difference in patient mortality or graft loss up to five year after transplantation, but long-term consequences of steroid avoidance and withdrawal remain unclear until today, because prospective long-term studies have not been conducted.

Steroid avoidance or withdrawal after renal transplantation increases the risk of acute rejection but decreases cardiovascular risk. A meta-analysis

INTRODUCTION

The morbidity related to long-term steroid therapy has led to continued interest in withdrawal of steroids from immunosuppressant regimens after renal transplantation. A number of recent trials have provided long-term information regarding the risks and benefits of steroid avoidance or withdrawal (SAW).

METHODS

A literature search was performed using Ovid Medline, Embase, the Cochrane Library, and the Transplant Library. Randomized controlled trials comparing a maintenance steroid group with complete avoidance or withdrawal of steroids were selected. All studies were assessed for methodological quality. Trials were pooled by meta-analysis to provide summary effects (relative risk [RR] or weighted mean difference) with 95% confidence intervals (CI).

RESULTS

Thirty-four studies including 5,637 patients met the inclusion criteria. SAW regimens significantly increased the risk of acute rejection (AR) over maintenance steroids (RR 1.56, CI 1.31-1.87, P<0.0001). No significant differences in corticosteroid resistant AR, patient survival, or graft survival were observed. Serum creatinine was increased and creatinine clearance was reduced with SAW. Cardiovascular risk factors including incidence of hypertension (RR 0.90, CI 0.85-0.94, P<0.0001), new onset diabetes (RR 0.64, CI 0.50-0.83, P=0.0006), and hypercholesterolemia (RR 0.76, CI 0.67-0.87, P<0.0001) were reduced significantly by SAW.

CONCLUSION

Despite an increase in the risk of AR with SAW protocols, there is only a small effect on graft function with no measurable effect on graft or patient survival. There are significant benefits in cardiovascular risk profiles after SAW. SAW protocols would seem justified with current immunosuppressive protocols in low-risk recipients.

Steroid avoidance or withdrawal for kidney transplant recipients

BACKGROUND

Steroid-sparing strategies have been attempted during the last two decades in order to avoid morbidity in kidney transplant recipients. Previous systematic reviews of steroid withdrawal after kidney transplantation have shown significant increases in acute rejection and an increase in graft failure rates. Steroid avoidance in kidney transplantation is increasingly attempted and the possible benefits or harms have never been a subject of a systematic review.

OBJECTIVES

To assess the safety and efficacy of steroid withdrawal or avoidance in patients receiving a kidney transplant.

SEARCH STRATEGY

We searched CENTRAL, MEDLINE and EMBASE, references lists and abstracts from international transplantation society scientific meetings.

SELECTION CRITERIA

Randomised controlled studies (RCTs) of steroid avoidance or withdrawal were included providing that one treatment arm consisted in steroid avoidance or withdrawal and intention-to-treat rates of acute rejection and graft failure were clearly established after steroid avoidance or use or withdrawal or continuation. Observational studies were tabulated.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Two authors independently assessed trial quality and extracted data. Statistical analyses were performed using the random effects model and results expressed as risk ratio (RR) or mean difference (MD) with 95% confidence intervals (CI).

MAIN RESULTS

We included 30 RCTs (5949 participants). Steroid-sparing strategies showed no effect on mortality or graft loss including death. Patients on any steroid-sparing strategy showed a higher risk of graft loss excluding death than those with conventional steroid use (RR 1.23, 95% CI 1.00 to 1.52), especially in those not receiving MMF/Myf or everolimus (RR 1.70, 95% CI 1.00 to 2.90). Acute rejection was more frequent with a steroid-sparing strategy (RR 1.27, 95% CI 1.14 to 1.40) and more frequent after steroid withdrawal or avoidance when compared with standard steroid treatment when cyclosporin (CsA) was used. Steroid-sparing and withdrawal strategies showed benefits in reducing antihypertensive drug need, serum cholesterol, antihyperlipidaemic drug need, new-onset diabetes after transplantation (NODAT) requiring any treatment and cataracts. Steroid avoidance did not alter serum cholesterol, but was associated with less frequent NODAT requiring any treatment. Cardiovascular events were reduced with steroid avoidance. Reduced antihypertensive drug need and serum cholesterol were similar with CsA or tacrolimus (TAC). Reduced antihyperlipidaemic drug need was only evident with TAC, whereas the reduction in NODAT requiring any treatment was only evident with CsA. Infection was lower in steroid-sparing patients using CsA (RR 0.88, 95% CI 0.78 to 1.00). NODAT requiring any treatment was less frequent with steroid avoidance than with steroid withdrawal.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

This review confirms that steroid avoidance and steroid withdrawal strategies in kidney transplantation are not associated with increased mortality or graft loss despite an increase in acute rejection. These immunosuppression strategies may allow safe steroid avoidance or elimination a few days after kidney transplantation if antibody induction treatment is prescribed or after three to six months if such induction is not used.

Rapid steroid discontinuation for pediatric renal transplantation: a single center experience

To determine the outcomes of pediatric renal transplant recipients who received immunosuppression consisting of early withdrawal of corticosteroids at a single Northern California center. Protocols using minimal steroid exposure have been recently reported in adult transplant recipients with successful results. We examined the outcomes of pediatric renal transplant recipients who were managed at our center using a protocol with very early discontinuation of steroids after renal transplantation. We retrospectively studied the medical records of all renal transplant recipients followed at the Children's Hospital at the University of California, Davis Medical Center from 01/2004 to 12/2005. All patients were less than 18 yr of age at the time of transplantation. The immunosuppressive protocol included three tapering daily doses of methylprednisolone, together with five doses of thymoglobulin followed by maintenance therapy with tacrolimus and MMF. Eight patients with equal numbers of males and females were transplanted during this time period. There were equal numbers of Caucasians, African-Americans, Hispanics, and Asians. A total of 37.5% (3/8) of the subjects received preemptive transplantation, 25% (2/8) received peritoneal, and 37.5% (3/8) received hemodialysis before transplantation. The median (range) age at transplantation was 12.3 (3.1-16.0) year with a follow-up of 1.7 (0.9-2.8) year. At one yr post-transplantation, 57% (4/7) of patients still required anti-hypertensives. Three children required erythropoietin supplementation after transplantation. The mean delta height standard deviation score at 12 months was 0.20 +/- 0.56. There were no episodes of clinical acute rejection. One patient switched from tacrolimus to sirolimus due to biopsy-proven CAN. No patient became diabetic or required hypoglycemic agents. Surveillance biopsies showed no subclinical acute rejection in any patient. Steroid-free immunosuppression is safe in children after renal transplantation. Larger number of patients and longer follow-up are required to further confirm the effectiveness and safety of immunosuppression with rapid steroid discontinuation.

Steroid-free immunosuppression regime reduces both long-term cardiovascular morbidity and patient mortality in renal transplant recipients

The aim of this retrospective study was to assess the impact of steroid therapy on cardiovascular disease (CVD) and patient mortality, in 486 on-CsA renal transplant recipients, with a follow-up of 9.5 +/- 4.3 yr. Two hundred and one patients had their steroids permanently withdrawn at sixth month after transplantation (G1); 285 patients did not (G2) as they were unable (acute rejection after suspension) or unsuitable (because of clinical criteria or immunosuppressive protocols). The CVD considered were coronary artery disease diagnosed by angiography and myocardial infarction. G1 and G2 patients were well-matched regarding CVD risk factors, except for age (G1: 44 +/- 14 yr; G2: 40 +/- 12 yr; p < 0.003), incidence of male (G1: 62%; G2: 72%, p < 0.02) incidence of acute rejection (G1: 39%; G2: 83%, p < 0.0001). Both CVD and deaths occurring during the first year of transplantation were excluded from the analysis. At 20 yr, the cumulative probability of developing a CVD, was 3.8% in G1; 23.8% in G2 (p < 0.0005). Patient survival rate was 95% in G1; 62% in G2 (p < 0.003). Mortality caused by CVD was higher in G2 (4.2% vs. 0.5%; p < 0.03). The Cox analysis identified in steroid therapy the main independent risk factors for both CVD (hazard ratio 9.56 p < 0.0001) and patient mortality (hazard ratio 5.99, p < 0.0001). At 10th and 15th year after transplantation, the mean-daily dose of steroids was 4.2 mg. In the long-term, steroid therapy, even in low-doses, increases significantly both the rate of CVD and patient mortality. This retrospective study suggests that steroid-free regime should always be recommended for the prevention of post-transplant CVD. This relevant statement should be followed by a long-term prospective study.

Cardiovascular complications of immunosuppressive agents in renal transplant recipients

Fatal and nonfatal cardiovascular events are the most important cause of graft loss in patients with a functioning graft following transplantation. The available data indicate that transplant patients have a high prevalence of hypertension, hyperlipidaemia and new onset diabetes mellitus after transplantation. The aetiology and pathogenesis of post-transplant hypertension, hyperlipidaemia and diabetes are multifactorial. In addition, disease of the native kidney and recurrence of renal disease can contribute to the development of cardiovascular disease in transplant recipients. Most transplant patients are at risk of clinically important drug-drug interactions involving immunosuppressive agents. Adverse reactions and drug-drug interactions should not be neglected when selecting an agent for treatment of cardiovascular risk factors in transplant recipients.

Two corticosteroid-free regimens-tacrolimus monotherapy after basiliximab administration and tacrolimus/mycophenolate mofetil-in comparison with a standard triple regimen in renal transplantation: results of the Atlas study

BACKGROUND

The side effects associated with corticosteroids have led to efforts to minimize their use in renal transplant patients. In this study we compared two corticosteroid-free tacrolimus-based regimens with a standard triple therapy.

METHODS

This was a 6-month, phase III, open-label, parallel-group, multicenter study. The total analysis set comprised 451 patients, randomized (1:1:1) to receive tacrolimus (Tac) monotherapy following basiliximab (Bas) administration (n=153), Tac/mycophenolate mofetil (MMF) (n=151), or, Tac/MMF/corticosteroids triple therapy as a control (n=147).

RESULTS

The study was completed by 91.2% (triple therapy), 94.7% (Tac/MMF), and 82.4% (Bas/Tac) of patients. Patient baseline characteristics were similar in all groups. The incidences of biopsy-proven acute rejection were 8.2% (triple therapy), 30.5% (Tac/MMF), and 26.1% (Bas/Tac), p<0.001 (multiple test for comparison with triple therapy); Bas/Tac vs. Tac/MMF, p=ns. The incidences of corticosteroid-resistant acute rejection were 2.0%, 4.0%, and 5.2%, p=ns. Graft survival (95.9%, 96.7%, and 94.7%, p=ns) and patient survival (100%, 99.3%, and 99.3%, p=ns) were similar in all groups. Median serum creatinine at month 6 was 123.0 micromol/L (triple therapy), 134.7 micromol/L (Tac/MMF) and 135.8 micromol/L (Bas/Tac). The overall safety profiles were similar; differences (p<0.05) were reported for anaemia (24.5% vs. 12.6% vs. 14.5%), diarrhoea (12.9% vs. 17.9% vs. 5.9%), and leukopenia (7.5% vs. 18.5% vs. 5.9%) for the triple therapy, Tac/MMF, and Bas/Tac group, respectively. The incidences of new-onset diabetes mellitus were 4.6%, 7.1%, and 1.4%, respectively.

CONCLUSION

Corticosteroid-free immunosuppression was feasible with the Bas/Tac and the Tac/MMF regimens. Both corticosteroid-free regimens were equally effective in preventing acute rejection, with the Bas/Tac therapy offering some safety benefits.

Steroids Can Be Safely Withdrawn from Cyclosporine and Mycophenolate Mofetil-Treated Renal Allograft Recipients: Long-Term Results

BACKGROUND

Discontinuation of steroids has long been a goal of transplant teams. However, whether this strategy is associated or not with a higher risk of long-term graft loss has not been resolved.

METHODS

The authors analyzed a cohort of 91 renal allograft recipients who underwent transplantation between 1993 and 1997. They were treated with cyclosporine and mycophenolate mofetil (MMF) and then had steroids withdrawn. Inclusion criteria were as follows: serum creatinine lower than 133 microM, first or second renal transplants, no or only one acute rejection episode (borderline or Ia grade), and a peak of panel reactive antibodies under 50%. Prednisone was gradually tapered off and then discontinued over a period of 2 to 4 months.

RESULTS

There were no episodes of acute rejection after steroid withdrawal. Whether steroids were withdrawn before (early) or after (late) 6 months of renal transplantation did not influence outcome. By Kaplan-Meier analysis, patient survival was 93.6% and 100% at 5 years and 93.6% and 97.6% at 10 years in the early and late steroid withdrawal groups, respectively. Graft survival was 94.3% and 98.1% at 5 years and 87.6% and 82.4% at 10 years in the early and late steroid-withdrawal groups, respectively. Risk factors for graft loss in multivariate analysis were peak of panel reactive antibodies (relative risk, 1.074; 95% confidence interval, 1.017-1.134; P=0.01) and acute rejection (relative risk, 16.5; 95% confidence interval, 1.8-147; P=0.01).

CONCLUSIONS

Early and late steroid withdrawal in low-immunologic-risk renal allografts treated with cyclosporine and MMF can be achieved without risk of acute rejection and with excellent long-term results.

Corticosteroid-free immunosuppression with tacrolimus, mycophenolate mofetil, and daclizumab induction in renal transplantation

BACKGROUND

Corticosteroid-free maintenance immunosuppression after organ transplantation eliminates the well-known corticosteroid-related side effects and may help to improve long-term outcome. We investigated whether a corticosteroid-free tacrolimus (Tac)/mycophenolate mofetil (MMF) regimen, in combination with daclizumab (Dac) induction therapy, provides adequate immunosuppression after renal transplantation.

METHODS

This 6-month, open-label, multicenter, parallel-group study involved 538 renal patients randomized (1:1) to a Dac/Tac/MMF regimen (n = 260) or a Tac/MMF/corticosteroids regimen (n = 278) as a control group.

RESULTS

Of the patients who completed the study, 88.8% in the Dac/Tac/MMF group were free from corticosteroid therapy at month 6. The incidence of biopsy-proven acute rejection was 16.5% in both treatment groups; the incidence of biopsy-proven corticosteroid-resistant acute rejection was 4.3% and 5.0% with Tac/MMF/corticosteroids and Dac/Tac/MMF, respectively (P = NS for both comparisons). Renal function was also similar in both groups: median serum creatinine at month 6 was 125.0 micromol/L (Tac/MMF/corticosteroids) and 131.0 microml/L (Dac/Tac/MMF), P = 0.277. The overall safety profile was similar with both regimens. However, compared with the Tac/MMF/steroid regimen, a significantly reduced incidence of new-onset insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (5.4% vs. 0.4%, P = 0.003) was found with steroid-free immunosuppression. Moreover, mean total cholesterol concentrations increased from baseline in the Tac/MMF/corticosteroids group by 0.19 mmol/L, whereas in the Dac/Tac/MMF group, levels decreased by 0.19 mmol/L, P = 0.005.

CONCLUSIONS

Corticosteroid-free immunosuppression with a Dac/Tac/MMF regimen is as effective at preventing acute rejection after renal transplantation as a standard triple regimen of Tac/MMF/corticosteroids. Furthermore, the safety benefits reported with Dac/Tac/MMF treatment may help improve the long-term outcome for renal-transplant patients.

Impact of kidney transplantation on the progression of cardiovascular disease

Kidney transplantation, of all the treatment modalities for end-stage renal disease, affords the greatest potential for prolonged survival and improved quality of life. Great strides in immunosuppressant therapy have improved graft survival and forced clinicians to consider other health-care needs of kidney transplant recipients. Chief among these needs is the prevention and treatment of cardiovascular disease. Cardiovascular disease is the most common cause of death among patients with a working renal allograft. Because therapies for primary and secondary prevention are successful in the general population, transplant clinicians are increasingly focused on preventing or limiting the progression of cardiovascular disease. Initiation of aggressive management of conventional atherosclerotic risk factors and uremia-related risk factors, ideally during the early stages of chronic kidney disease (CKD) or after kidney transplantation, and efforts to delay the progression of kidney disease will hopefully reduce the cardiovascular burden in transplant recipients.