The pestivirus Erns glycoprotein interacts with E2 in both infected cells and mature virions

The Erns Carboxyterminus: Much More Than a Membrane Anchor

Pestiviruses express the unique essential envelope protein E^rns, which exhibits RNase activity, is attached to membranes by a long amphipathic helix, and is partially secreted from infected cells. The RNase activity of E^rns is directly connected with pestivirus virulence. Formation of homodimers and secretion of the protein are hypothesized to be important for its role as a virulence factor, which impairs the host's innate immune response to pestivirus infection. The unusual membrane anchor of E^rns raises questions with regard to proteolytic processing of the viral polyprotein at the E^rns carboxy-terminus. Moreover, the membrane anchor is crucial for establishing the critical equilibrium between retention and secretion and ensures intracellular accumulation of the protein at the site of virus budding so that it is available to serve both as structural component of the virion and factor controlling host immune reactions. In the present manuscript, we summarize published as well as new data on the molecular features of E^rns including aspects of its interplay with the other two envelope proteins with a special focus on the biochemistry of the E^rns membrane anchor.

Recent Advances on the Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus Molecular Pathogenesis, Immune Response, and Vaccines Development

The bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) consists of two species and various subspecies of closely related viruses of varying antigenicity, cytopathology, and virulence-induced pathogenesis. Despite the great ongoing efforts to control and prevent BVDV outbreaks and the emergence of new variants, outbreaks still reported throughout the world. In this review, we are focusing on the molecular biology of BVDV, its molecular pathogenesis, and the immune response of the host against the viral infection. Special attention was paid to discuss some immune evasion strategies adopted by the BVDV to hijack the host immune system to ensure the success of virus replication. Vaccination is one of the main strategies for prophylaxis and contributes to the control and eradication of many viral diseases including BVDV. We discussed the recent advances of various types of currently available classical and modern BVDV vaccines. However, with the emergence of new strains and variants of the virus, it is urgent to find some other novel targets for BVDV vaccines that may overcome the drawbacks of some of the currently used vaccines. Effective vaccination strategy mainly based on the preparation of vaccines from the homologous circulating strains. The BVDV-E2 protein plays important role in viral infection and pathogenesis. We mapped some important potential neutralizing epitopes among some BVDV genomes especially the E2 protein. These novel epitopes could be promising targets against the currently circulating strains of BVDV. More research is needed to further explore the actual roles of these epitopes as novel targets for the development of novel vaccines against BVDV. These potential vaccines may contribute to the global eradication campaign of the BVDV.

P108 and T109 on E2 Glycoprotein Domain I Are Critical for the Adaptation of Classical Swine Fever Virus to Rabbits but Not for Virulence in Pigs

The classical swine fever virus (CSFV) live attenuated vaccine C-strain is adaptive to rabbits and attenuated in pigs, in contrast with the highly virulent CSFV Shimen strain. Previously, we demonstrated that P108 and T109 on the E2 glycoprotein (E2^P108-T109) in domain I (E2^DomainI) rather than R132, S133, and D191 in domain II (E2^DomainII) determine C-strain's adaptation to rabbits (ATR) (Y. Li, L. Xie, L. Zhang, X. Wang, C. Li, et al., Virology 519:197-206, 2018). However, it remains elusive whether these critical amino acids affect the ATR of the Shimen strain and virulence in pigs. In this study, three chimeric viruses harboring E2^P108-T109, E2^DomainI, or E2^DomainII of C-strain based on the non-rabbit-adaptive Shimen mutant vSM-HCLVE^rns carrying the E^rns glycoprotein of C-strain were generated and evaluated. We found that E2^P108-T109 or E2^DomainI but not E2^DomainII of C-strain renders vSM-HCLVE^rns adaptive to rabbits, suggesting that E2^P108-T109 in combination with the E^rns glycoprotein (E2^P108-T109-E^rns) confers ATR on the Shimen strain, creating new rabbit-adaptive CSFVs. Mechanistically, E2^P108-T109-E^rns of C-strain mediates viral entry during infection in rabbit spleen lymphocytes, which are target cells of C-strain. Notably, pig experiments showed that E2^P108-T109-E^rns of C-strain does not affect virulence compared with the Shimen strain. Conversely, the substitution of E2^DomainII and E^rns of C-strain attenuates the Shimen strain in pigs, indicating that the molecular basis of the CSFV ATR and that of virulence in pigs do not overlap. Our findings provide new insights into the mechanism of adaptation of CSFV to rabbits and the molecular basis of CSFV adaptation and attenuation.IMPORTANCE Historically, live attenuated vaccines produced by blind passage usually undergo adaptation in cell cultures or nonsusceptible hosts and attenuation in natural hosts, with a classical example being the classical swine fever virus (CSFV) lapinized vaccine C-strain, which was developed by hundreds of passages in rabbits. However, the mechanism of viral adaptation to nonsusceptible hosts and the molecular basis for viral adaptation and attenuation remain largely unknown. In this study, we demonstrated that P108 and T109 on the E2 glycoprotein together with the E^rns glycoprotein of the rabbit-adaptive C-strain confer adaptation to rabbits on the highly virulent CSFV Shimen strain by affecting viral entry during infection but do not attenuate the Shimen strain in pigs. Our results provide vital information on the different molecular bases of CSFV adaptation to rabbits and attenuation in pigs.

HCV Pit Stop at the Lipid Droplet: Refuel Lipids and Put on a Lipoprotein Coat before Exit

The replication cycle of the liver-tropic hepatitis C virus (HCV) is tightly connected to the host lipid metabolism, during the virus entry, replication, assembly and egress stages, but also while the virus circulates in the bloodstream. This interplay coins viral particle properties, governs viral cell tropism, and facilitates immune evasion. This review summarizes our knowledge of these interactions focusing on the late steps of the virus replication cycle. It builds on our understanding of the cell biology of lipid droplets and the biosynthesis of liver lipoproteins and attempts to explain how HCV hijacks these organelles and pathways to assemble its lipo-viro-particles. In particular, this review describes (i) the mechanisms of viral protein translocation to and from the lipid droplet surface and the orchestration of an interface between replication and assembly complexes, (ii) the importance of the triglyceride mobilization from the lipid droplets for HCV assembly, (iii) the interplay between HCV and the lipoprotein synthesis pathway including the role played by apolipoproteins in virion assembly, and finally (iv) the consequences of these complex virus–host interactions on the virion composition and its biophysical properties. The wealth of data accumulated in the past years on the role of the lipid metabolism in HCV assembly and its imprint on the virion properties will guide vaccine design efforts and reinforce our understanding of the hepatic lipid metabolism in health and disease.

Complex Virus-Host Interactions Involved in the Regulation of Classical Swine Fever Virus Replication: A Minireview

Classical swine fever (CSF), caused by classical swine fever virus (CSFV), is one of the most devastating epizootic diseases of pigs in many countries. Viruses are small intracellular parasites and thus rely on the cellular factors for replication. Fundamental aspects of CSFV-host interactions have been well described, such as factors contributing to viral attachment, modulation of genomic replication and translation, antagonism of innate immunity, and inhibition of cell apoptosis. However, those host factors that participate in the viral entry, assembly, and release largely remain to be elucidated. In this review, we summarize recent progress in the virus-host interactions involved in the life cycle of CSFV and analyze the potential mechanisms of viral entry, assembly, and release. We conclude with future perspectives and highlight areas that require further understanding.

Structure of the membrane anchor of pestivirus glycoprotein E(rns), a long tilted amphipathic helix

E(rns) is an essential virion glycoprotein with RNase activity that suppresses host cellular innate immune responses upon being partially secreted from the infected cells. Its unusual C-terminus plays multiple roles, as the amphiphilic helix acts as a membrane anchor, as a signal peptidase cleavage site, and as a retention/secretion signal. We analyzed the structure and membrane binding properties of this sequence to gain a better understanding of the underlying mechanisms. CD spectroscopy in different setups, as well as Monte Carlo and molecular dynamics simulations confirmed the helical folding and showed that the helix is accommodated in the amphiphilic region of the lipid bilayer with a slight tilt rather than lying parallel to the surface. This model was confirmed by NMR analyses that also identified a central stretch of 15 residues within the helix that is fully shielded from the aqueous layer, which is C-terminally followed by a putative hairpin structure. These findings explain the strong membrane binding of the protein and provide clues to establishing the E(rns) membrane contact, processing and secretion.

Crystal structure of the pestivirus envelope glycoprotein E(rns) and mechanistic analysis of its ribonuclease activity

Pestiviruses, which belong to the Flaviviridae family of RNA viruses, are important agents of veterinary diseases causing substantial economical losses in animal farming worldwide. Pestivirus particles display three envelope glycoproteins at their surface: E(rns), E1, and E2. We report here the crystal structure of the catalytic domain of E(rns), the ribonucleolytic activity of which is believed to counteract the innate immunity of the host. The structure reveals a three-dimensional fold corresponding to T2 ribonucleases from plants and fungi. Cocrystallization experiments with mono- and oligonucleotides revealed the structural basis for substrate recognition at two binding sites previously identified for T2 RNases. A detailed analysis of poly-U cleavage products using (31)P-NMR and size exclusion chromatography, together with molecular docking studies, provides a comprehensive mechanistic picture of E(rns) activity on its substrates and reveals the presence of at least one additional nucleotide binding site.

Functionality of Chimeric E2 Glycoproteins of BVDV and CSFV in Virus Replication

An intriguing difference between the E2 glycoprotein of CSFV and the other groups of pestiviruses (nonCSFV) is a lack of two cysteine residues on positions cysteine 751 and 798. Other groups of pestivirus are not restricted to one species as swine, whereas CSFV is restricted to swine and wild boar. We constructed chimeric CSFV/BVDV E2 genes based on a 2D model of E2 proposed by van Rijn et al. (van Rijn et al. 1994, J Virol 68, 3934–42) and confirmed their expression by immunostaining of plasmid-transfected SK6 cells. No equivalents for the antigenic units B/C and A were found on E2 of BVDVII. This indicates major structural differences in E2. However, the immunodominant BVDVII domain A, containing epitopes with essential amino acids between position 760–764, showed to be dependent on the presence of the region defined by amino acids 684 to 796. As for the A domain of CSFV, the BVDVII A-like domain seemed to function as a separate unit. These combined domains in E2 proved to be the only combination which was functional in viral background of CSFV C-strain. The fitness of this virus (vflc36BVDVII 684–796) seemed to be reduced compared to vflc9 (with the complete antigenic region of BVDVII).

FKBP22 is part of chaperone/folding catalyst complexes in the endoplasmic reticulum ofNeurospora crassa

FKBP22 is a dimeric protein in the lumen of the endoplasmic reticulum, which exhibits a chaperone as well as a PPIase activity. It binds via its FK506 binding protein (FKBP) domain directly to the Hsp70 chaperone BiP that stimulates the chaperone activity of FKBP22. Here we demonstrate additionally the association of FKBP22 with the molecular chaperones and folding catalysts Grp170, alpha-subunit of glucosidase II, PDI, ERp38, and CyP23. These proteins are associated with FKBP22 in at least two protein complexes. Furthermore, we report an essential role for FKBP22 in the development of microconidiophores in Neurospora crassa.

Brefeldin A inhibits pestivirus release from infected cells, without affecting its assembly and infectivity

The enveloped bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) is a member of the Pestivirus genus within the Flaviviridae family. While considerable information has been gathered on virus entry into the host cell, genome structure and protein function, little is known about pestivirus morphogenesis and release from cells. Here, we analyzed the intracellular localization, N-glycan processing and secretion of BVDV using brefeldin A (BFA), which blocks protein export from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and causes disruption of the Golgi complex with subsequent fusion of its cis and medial cisternae with the ER. BFA treatment of infected cells resulted in complete inhibition of BVDV secretion and increased co-localization of the envelope glycoproteins with the cis-Golgi marker GM 130. Processing of the N-linked glycans was affected by BFA, however, virus assembly was not perturbed and intracellular virions were fully infectious, suggesting that trafficking beyond the cis-Golgi is not a prerequisite for pestivirus infectivity.

Dimerization of glycoprotein E(rns) of classical swine fever virus is not essential for viral replication and infection

The pestivirus glycoprotein E(rns), a ribonuclease, is expressed on the surface of virions and in infected cells as a disulfide-linked homodimer. E(rns) is involved in the infection process and its RNase activity is probably involved in viral replication and pathogenesis. The most C-terminal cysteine residue forms an intermolecular disulfide bond with another E(rns) monomer, resulting in an E(rns) dimer. To study the function of dimerisation of E(rns) for viral replication, the cysteine residue at amino acid position 438 was mutated into a serine residue. The mutated C438S gene was cloned into a vector containing an infectious cDNA copy of the CSFV C-strain genome. Using reverse genetics, a mutant virus was generated that only expressed monomeric E(rns), confirming that Cys 438 is essential for homo-dimerization. Characterization of this mutant virus and of a baculovirus-expressed C438S mutant protein indicated that the loss of the dimeric state of E(rns) reduced the affinity of binding of virions and E(rns) to heparan sulphate (HS), the receptor for E(rns) on the cell surface of SK6 cells. This suggests that interaction of virus-bound E(rns) homodimers with membrane associated HS may be a joined action of the two HS-binding domains (one in each monomer) present in the homodimer.

Acid-resistant bovine pestivirus requires activation for pH-triggered fusion during entry

The route of internalization of the pestivirus bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) was studied by using different chemical and biophysical inhibitors of endocytosis. Expression of the dominant-negative mutant Dyn(K44A) of the GTPase dynamin in MDBK cells, as well as the treatment of the cells with chlorpromazine and beta-methyl-cyclodextrin inhibited BVDV entry. BVDV infection was also abolished by potassium (K+) depletion, hyperosmolarity, and different inhibitors of endosomal acidification. We conclude that BVDV likely enters the cell by clathrin-dependent endocytosis and that acidification initiates fusion with the endosomal membrane. Further studies revealed that BVDV was unable to undergo "fusion from without" at low pH. The finding that low pH is not sufficient to force adsorbed BVDV into fusion with the plasma membrane is compatible with the remarkable resistance of pestiviruses to inactivation by low pH. The importance of the abundant intra- and intermolecular disulfide bonds in BVDV glycoproteins for virus stability was studied by the use of reducing agents. The combination of dithiothreitol and acidic pH led to partial inactivation of BVDV and allowed fusion from without at low efficiency. Evidence is provided here that acid-resistant BVDV is destabilized during endocytosis to become fusogenic at an endosomal acidic pH. We suggest that destabilization of the virion occurs by breakage of disulfide bonds in the glycoproteins by an unknown mechanism.

Bovine viral diarrhoea virus is internalized by clathrin-dependent receptor-mediated endocytosis

Bovine viral diarrhoea virus (BVDV) is a pestivirus within the family Flaviviridae. In contrast to the members of the genus flavivirus, nothing is known about the viral entry route for pestiviruses. In this study, the process of BVDV infection following attachment to the cell surface was examined. BVDV clearly co-localizes with clathrin, with early endosome antigen-1 (EEA-1), an early endosome marker, and also with lysosomal-associated membrane protein-2 (LAMP-2), a lysosomal marker. BVDV internalization is inhibited by compounds that block clathrin- but not caveolae-dependent endocytosis. These findings demonstrate that BVDV enters the cells via the clathrin-coated pit pathway.

Determinants of virulence of classical swine fever virus strain Brescia

Two related classical swine fever virus (CSFV) strain Brescia clones were isolated from blood samples from an infected pig. Virus C1.1.1 is a cell-adapted avirulent variant, whereas CoBrB is a virulent variant. Sequence analysis revealed 29 nucleic acid mutations in C1.1.1, resulting in 9 amino acid substitutions compared to the sequence of CoBrB (476)R. Using reverse genetics, parts of the genomes of these viruses, which contain differences that lead to amino acid changes, were exchanged. Animal experiments with chimeric viruses derived from C1.1.1 and CoBrB (476)R showed that a combination of amino acid changes in the structural and nonstructural regions reduced the virulence of CSFV in pigs. Moreover, the presence of a Leu at position 710 in structural envelope protein E2 seemed to be an important factor in the virulence of the virus. Changing the Leu at position 710 in the CoBrB (476)S variant into a His residue did not affect virulence. However, the (710)His in the C1.1.1/CoBrB virus, together with adaptive mutations (276)R, (476)R, and (477)I in E(rns), resulted in reduced virulence in pigs. These results indicated that mutations in E(rns) and E2 alone do not determine virulence in pigs. The results of in vitro experiments suggested that a high affinity for heparan sulfate of C1.1.1 E(rns) may reduce the spread of the C1.1.1/CoBrB virus in pigs and together with the altered surface structure of E2 caused by the (710)L-->H mutation may result in a less efficient infection of specific target cells in pigs. Both these features contributed to the attenuation of the C1.1.1/CoBrB virus in vivo.

Role of N-glycan trimming in the folding and secretion of the pestivirus protein Erns

N-glycosylation inhibitors have antiviral effect against bovine viral diarrhea virus. This effect is associated with inhibition of the productive folding pathway of E1 and E2 envelope glycoproteins. E(rns) is the third pestivirus envelope protein, essential for virus infectivity. The protein is heavily glycosylated, its N-linked glycans counting for half of the apparent molecular weight. In this report we address the importance of N-glycan trimming in the biosynthesis, folding, and intracellular trafficking of E(rns). We show that E(rns) folding is not assisted by calnexin and calreticulin; however, the protein strongly interacts with BiP. Consistently, the N-glycan trimming is not a prerequisite for either the acquirement of the E(rns) native conformation, as it retains the RNase enzymatic activity in the presence of alpha-glucosidase inhibitors, or for dimerization. However, E(rns) secretion into the medium is severely impaired suggesting a role for N-glycosylation in the transport of the glycoprotein through the secretory pathway.