Immunocytochemical and electrophysiological characterization of GABA receptors in the frog and turtle retina

SYNAPTOTAGMIN-9 IN MOUSE RETINA

Synaptotagmin-9 (Syt9) is a Ca2+ sensor mediating fast synaptic release expressed in various parts of the brain. The presence and role of Syt9 in retina is unknown. We found evidence for Syt9 expression throughout the retina and created mice to conditionally eliminate Syt9 in a cre-dependent manner. We crossed Syt9fl/fl mice with Rho-iCre, HRGP-Cre, and CMV-cre mice to generate mice in which Syt9 was eliminated from rods (rodSyt9CKO), cones (coneSyt9CKO), or whole animals (CMVSyt9). CMVSyt9 mice showed an increase in scotopic electroretinogram (ERG) b-waves evoked by bright flashes with no change in a-waves. Cone-driven photopic ERG b-waves were not significantly different in CMVSyt9 knockout mice and selective elimination of Syt9 from cones had no effect on ERGs. However, selective elimination from rods decreased scotopic and photopic b-waves as well as oscillatory potentials. These changes occurred only with bright flashes where cone responses contribute. Synaptic release was measured in individual rods by recording anion currents activated by glutamate binding to presynaptic glutamate transporters. Loss of Syt9 from rods had no effect on spontaneous or depolarization-evoked release. Our data show that Syt9 is acts at multiple sites in the retina and suggest that it may play a role in regulating transmission of cone signals by rods.

GABAergic neurotransmission and retinal ganglion cell function

Ganglion cells are the output retinal neurons that convey visual information to the brain. There are ~20 different types of ganglion cells, each encoding a specific aspect of the visual scene as spatial and temporal contrast, orientation, direction of movement, presence of looming stimuli; etc. Ganglion cell functioning depends on the intrinsic properties of ganglion cell's membrane as well as on the excitatory and inhibitory inputs that these cells receive from other retinal neurons. GABA is one of the most abundant inhibitory neurotransmitters in the retina. How it modulates the activity of different types of ganglion cells and what is its significance in extracting the basic features from visual scene are questions with fundamental importance in visual neuroscience. The present review summarizes current data concerning the types of membrane receptors that mediate GABA action in proximal retina; the effects of GABA and its antagonists on the ganglion cell light-evoked postsynaptic potentials and spike discharges; the action of GABAergic agents on centre-surround organization of the receptive fields and feature related ganglion cell activity. Special emphasis is put on the GABA action regarding the ON-OFF and sustained-transient ganglion cell dichotomy in both nonmammalian and mammalian retina.

Ionotropic GABA Receptors and Distal Retinal ON and OFF Responses

In the vertebrate retina, visual signals are segregated into parallel ON and OFF pathways, which provide information for light increments and decrements. The segregation is first evident at the level of the ON and OFF bipolar cells in distal retina. The activity of large populations of ON and OFF bipolar cells is reflected in the b- and d-waves of the diffuse electroretinogram (ERG). The role of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), acting through ionotropic GABA receptors in shaping the ON and OFF responses in distal retina, is a matter of debate. This review summarized current knowledge about the types of the GABAergic neurons and ionotropic GABA receptors in the retina as well as the effects of GABA and specific GABAA and GABAC receptor antagonists on the activity of the ON and OFF bipolar cells in both nonmammalian and mammalian retina. Special emphasis is put on the effects on b- and d-waves of the ERG as a useful tool for assessment of the overall function of distal retinal ON and OFF channels. The role of GABAergic system in establishing the ON-OFF asymmetry concerning the time course and absolute and relative sensitivity of the ERG responses under different conditions of light adaptation in amphibian retina is also discussed.

Effects of picrotoxin on light adapted frog electroretinogram are not due entirely to its action in proximal retina

In order to evaluate the site of action of picrotoxin (antagonist of ionotropic GABA receptors) on the electroretinographic (ERG) b- and d-waves, in this study we compared its effects on the intensity-response function of the ERG waves in intact light adapted frog eyecup preparations with its effects in eyecups, where the activity of proximal neurons was blocked by 1 mMN-methyl-d-aspartate (MNDA). Picrotoxin markedly enhanced the b- and d-wave amplitude and slowed the time course of the responses at all stimulus intensities in the intact eyecups. Perfusion with NMDA alone caused significant enhancement of the b-wave amplitude and diminution of the d-wave amplitude without altering their time course in the entire intensity range. When picrotoxin was applied in combination with NMDA, an enhancement of the b-wave amplitude and slowing of its time course were observed at all stimulus intensities. The increase of the b-wave amplitude was significantly higher than that seen in NMDA group. Combined application of picrotoxin and NMDA caused an enhancement of the d-wave amplitude at the lower stimulus intensities and its diminution at the higher ones, while the d-wave time course was delayed over the entire intensity range. The results obtained indicate that a part of picrotoxin effects on the amplitude and time course of the photopic ERG b- and d-waves are due to its action in the distal frog retina.

GABAa and GABAc receptor mediated influences on the intensity-response functions of the b- and d-wave in the frog ERG

We assessed the contribution of GABAa and GABAc receptors to GABAergic effects on b- and d-wave in frog ERG in a wide range of light stimulation conditions. The amplitude of both b- and d-wave was increased during GABAa receptor blockade by bicuculline as well as during additional GABAc receptor blockade by picrotoxin. The effects of GABAa receptor blockade were more pronounced in light adaptation conditions. They strongly depended on stimulus intensity and showed considerable ON/OFF-response asymmetry. The effects of GABAc receptor blockade were more pronounced in dark adaptation conditions. They didn't vary much with stimulus intensity and showed little ON/OFF-response asymmetry.

AMPA and kainate receptors in turtle retina: an immunocytochemical study

1. Glutamate is one of the main neurotransmitters in the retina. Its effects are mediated by a large number of ionotropic and metabotropic receptors.2. The distribution of ionotropic AMPA receptor subunits GluR1-4, kainate receptor subunits GluR5-7 and KA2, as well as delta receptors 1-2 was studied in turtle retina. Indirect immunofluorescence was used to localize the different receptor subunits viewed using light microscopy.3. Results show that all subunits, with exception of GluR1 and GluR5, are widely distributed in the turtle retina.4. They are mainly located in the both plexiform layers of the retina where punctate staining, a sign for synaptic localization, is observed.5. The vast majority of the subunits possess specific pattern of staining that allow to suppose that they are involved in different retinal circuits.6. It can be assumed that the GluR2/3 and GluR6/7 subunits are expressed on the dendrites of a subpopulation of bipolar cells that are immunopositive for alpha-isoform of protein kinase C (PKCalpha). The GluR2/3 and GluR6/7 subunits are most probably used by the same PKCalpha immunopositive bipolar cells in their synaptic contacts with the third-order retinal neurons, the amacrine and ganglion cells.

Non-NMDA receptors in frog retina: an immunocytochemical study

Glutamate is one of the main neurotransmitters in the retina. Its effects are mediated by a large number of ionotropic and metabotropic membrane receptors. The distribution of ionotropic AMPA receptor subunits GluR1-4, kainate receptor subunits GluR5-7 and KA2, delta receptors 1-2, as well as the metabotropic receptor mGluR6 were studied in the frog retina. Indirect immunofluorescence was used to localize the different receptor subunits. Results showed that all subunits, with the exception of GluR1 and GluR5, are widely distributed in the retina. They are mainly located in both plexiform layers: the outer (OPL) and the inner one (IPL), where punctate labelling, a sign of synaptic localization, is observed. The metabotropic receptor mGluR6 is localised only in the OPL. The AMPA receptor subunit GluR4 is localised on the glial Müller cells of the retina. The vast majority of the subunits possess specific patterns of labelling that indicate that they are involved with different retinal functions. The significance of the AMPA receptors and involvement of glia in modulation of synaptic transmission are discussed.

Gycine and GABA interact to regulate the nitric oxide/cGMP signaling pathway in the turtle retina

Nitric oxide (NO) is a free radical that is important in retinal signal transduction and cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) is a critical downstream messenger of NO. The NO/cGMP signaling pathway has been shown to modulate neurotransmitter release and gap junction coupling in horizontal cells and amacrine cells, and increase the gain of the light response in photoreceptors. However, many of the mechanisms controlling the production of NO and cGMP remain unclear. Previous studies have shown activation of NO/cGMP production in response to stimulation with N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) or nicotine, and the differential modulation of cGMP production by GABA(A) and GABA(C) receptors (GABA(A)Rs and GABA(C)Rs). This study used cGMP immunocytochemistry and NO imaging to investigate how the inhibitory GABAergic and glycinergic systems modulate the production of NO and cGMP. Our data show that blocking glycine receptors (GLYR) with strychnine (STRY) produced moderate increases in cGMP-like immunoreactivity (cGMP-LI) in select types of amacrine and bipolar cells, and strong increases in NO-induced fluorescence (NO-IF). TPMPA, a selective GABACR antagonist, greatly reduced the increases in cGMP-LI stimulated by STRY, but did not influence the increase in NO-IF stimulated by STRY. Bicuculline (BIC), a GABA(A)R antagonist, however, enhanced the increases in both the cGMP-LI and NO-IF stimulated by STRY. CNQX, a selective antagonist for alpha-Amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazoleproprionic acid hydrobromide/kainic acid (AMPA/KA) receptors, eliminated both the increases in cGMP-LI and NO-IF stimulated by STRY, while MK801, a selective antagonist for NMDA receptors, slightly increased the cGMP-LI and slightly decreased the NO-IF stimulated by STRY. Finally, double labeling of NO-stimulated cGMP and either GLY or GABA indicated that cGMP predominantly colocalized with GLY. Taken together, these findings support the hypothesis that GLY and GABA interact in the regulation of the NO/cGMP signaling pathway, where GLY primarily inhibits NO production and GABA has a greater effect on cGMP production. Such interacting inhibitory pathways could shape the course of signal transduction of the NO/cGMP pathway under different physiological situations.

Functional GABA(B) receptors are expressed at the cone photoreceptor terminals in bullfrog retina

GABA(B) receptors at the cone terminals in bullfrog retina were characterized by immunocytochemical and whole-cell patch clamp techniques in retinal slice preparations. Somata, axons and synaptic terminals (pedicles) of cones were both GABA(B) receptor (GABA(B)R) 1 and GABA(B)R2 immunoreactive. Physiologically, barium/calcium currents of cones to voltage steps were significantly reduced in size when GABA was puffed to cone terminals in the presence of picrotoxin that is supposed to block both GABA(A) and GABA(C) receptors. Similar reduction in barium currents was obtained with puff application of baclofen to cone terminals. These results suggest the presence of functional GABA(B) receptors at the bullfrog cone terminals. Suppression of barium currents of cones by baclofen was dose-dependent. Moreover, barium currents of cones were potentiated by background illumination, as compared with those recorded in the dark. 6,7-Dinitroquinoxaline-2,3-dione, an antagonist of non-NMDA receptors that hyperpolarizes horizontal cells and reduces GABA release from these cells, and saclofen, a GABA(B) receptor antagonist, both potentiated barium currents of cones in the dark, thereby mimicking the effects of background illumination. It is suggested that changes in calcium influx into the cone synaptic terminals due to activation of GABA(B) receptors may provide a negative feedback mechanism for regulating signal transmission between cones and second-order neurons in the retina by modifying the amount of glutamate released from the cones.

Synchronized retinal oscillations encode essential information for escape behavior in frogs

Synchronized oscillatory activity is generated among visual neurons in a manner that depends on certain key features of visual stimulation. Although this activity may be important for perceptual integration, its functional significance has yet to be explained. Here we find a very strong correlation between synchronized oscillatory activity in a class of frog retinal ganglion cells (dimming detectors) and a well-known escape response, as shown by behavioral tests and multi-electrode recordings from isolated retinas. Escape behavior elicited by an expanding dark spot was suppressed and potentiated by intraocular injection of GABA(A) receptor and GABA(C) receptor antagonists, respectively. Changes in escape behavior correlated with antagonist-evoked changes in synchronized oscillatory activity but not with changes in the discharge rate of dimming detectors. These antagonists did not affect the expanding dark spot-induced responses in retinal ganglion cells other than dimming detectors. Thus, synchronized oscillations in the retina are likely to encode escape-related information in frogs.

Nitric oxide stimulates gamma-aminobutyric acid release and inhibits glycine release in retina

Nitric oxide (NO) modulates the uptake and/or release of neurotransmitters through a variety of cellular mechanisms. However, the pharmacological and biochemical processes underlying these neurochemical effects of NO often remain unclear. In our study, we used immunocytochemical methods to study the effects of NO, cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP), and peroxynitrite on the uptake and release of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and glycine in the turtle retina. In addition, we examined the involvement of glutamate receptors, calcium, and the GABA transporter in this GABA uptake and release. We also tested for interactions between the GABAergic and glycinergic systems. In general, we show that NO stimulated GABA release and inhibited glycine release. The NO-stimulated GABA release involved calcium-dependent or calcium-independent synaptic release or reversal of the GABA transporter. Some effects of NO on GABA release involved glutamate, cGMP, or peroxynitrite. NO promoted glycine uptake and inhibited its release, and this inhibition of glycine release was influenced by GABAergic modulation. These findings indicate that NO modulates the levels of the inhibitory transmitters GABA and glycine through several specific biochemical mechanisms in different retinal cell types and layers. Thus it appears that some of the previously described reciprocal interactions between GABA and glycine in the retina function through specific NO signaling pathways.

Light-evoked oscillatory discharges in retinal ganglion cells are generated by rhythmic synaptic inputs

In the visual system, optimal light stimulation sometimes generates gamma-range (ca. 20 approximately 80 Hz) synchronous oscillatory spike discharges. This phenomenon is assumed to be related to perceptual integration. Applying a planar multi-electrode array to the isolated frog retina, Ishikane et al. demonstrated that dimming detectors, off-sustained type ganglion cells, generate synchronous oscillatory spike discharges in response to diffuse dimming illumination. In the present study, applying the whole cell current-clamp technique to the isolated frog retina, we examined how light-evoked oscillatory spike discharges were generated in dimming detectors. Light-evoked oscillatory ( approximately 30 Hz) spike discharges were triggered by rhythmic ( approximately 30 Hz) fluctuations superimposed on a depolarizing plateau potential. When a suprathreshold steady depolarizing current was injected into a dimming detector, only a few spikes were evoked at the stimulus onset. However, repetitive spikes were triggered by a gamma-range sinusoidal current superimposed on the steady depolarizing current. Thus the light-evoked rhythmic fluctuations are likely to be generated presynaptically. The light-evoked rhythmic fluctuations were suppressed not by intracellular application of N-(2,6-dimethyl-phenylcarbamoylmethyl)triethylammonium bromide (QX-314), a Na(+) channel blocker, to the whole cell clamped dimming detector but by bath-application of tetrodotoxin to the retina. The light-evoked rhythmic fluctuations were suppressed by a GABA(A) receptor antagonist but potentiated by a GABA(C) receptor antagonist, whereas these fluctuations were little affected by a glycine receptor antagonist. Because amacrine cells are spiking neurons and because GABA is one of the main transmitters released from amacrine cells, amacrine cells may participate in generating rhythmically fluctuated synaptic input to dimming detectors.

Characterization of receptors for glutamate and GABA in retinal neurons

Glutamate and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) are major excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters in the vertebrate retina, "a genuine neural center" (Ramón y Cajal, 1964, Recollections of My Life, C.E. Horne (Translater) MIT Press, Cambridge, MA). Photoreceptors, generating visual signals, and bipolar cells, mediating signal transfer from photoreceptors to ganglion cells, both release glutamate, which induces and/or changes the activity of the post-synaptic neurons (horizontal and bipolar cells for photoreceptors; amacrine and ganglion cells for bipolar cells). Horizontal and amacrine cells, which mediate lateral interaction in the outer and inner retina respectively, use GABA as a principal neurotransmitter. In recent years, glutamate receptors and GABA receptors in the retina have been extensively studied, using multi-disciplinary approaches. In this article some important advances in this field are reviewed, with special reference to retinal information processing. Photoreceptors possess metabotropic glutamate receptors and several subtypes of GABA receptors. Most horizontal cells express AMPA receptors, which may be predominantly assembled from flop slice variants. In addition, these cells also express GABAA and GABAC receptors. Signal transfer from photoreceptors to bipolar cells is rather complicated. Whereas AMPA/KA receptors mediate transmission for OFF type bipolar cells, several subtypes of glutamate receptors, both ionotropic and metabotropic, are involved in the generation of light responses of ON type bipolar cells. GABAA and GABAC receptors with distinct kinetics are differentially expressed on dendrites and axon terminals of both ON and OFF bipolar cells, mediating inhibition from horizontal cells and amacrine cells. Amacrine cells possess ionotropic glutamate receptors, whereas ganglion cells express both ionotropic and metabotropic glutamate receptors. GABAA receptors exist in amacrine and ganglion cells. Physiological data further suggest that GABAC receptors may be involved in the activity of these neurons. Moreover, responses of these retinal third order neurons are modulated by GABAB receptors, and in ganglion cells there exist several subtypes of GABAB receptors. A variety of glutamate receptor and GABA receptor subtypes found in the retina perform distinct functions, thus providing a wide range of neural integration and versatility of synaptic transmission. Perspectives in this research field are presented.

GABA(A) and GABA(C) receptor antagonists increase retinal cyclic GMP levels through nitric oxide synthase

The nitric oxide (NO)/cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) signal transduction pathway plays a role in every retinal cell type. Previous studies have shown that excitatory glutamatergic synaptic pathways can increase cGMP-like immunoreactivity (cGMP-LI) in retina through stimulation of NO production, but little is known about the role of synaptic inhibition in the modulation of cGMP-LI. Gamma-amino-n-butyric acid (GABA) plays critical roles in modulating excitatory synaptic pathways in the retina. Therefore, we used GABA receptor antagonists to explore the role of GABAergic inhibitory synaptic pathways on the modulation of the NO/cGMP signal-transduction system. Cyclic GMP immunocytochemistry was used to investigate the effects of the GABA receptor antagonists bicuculline, picrotoxin, and (1,2,5,6-tetrahyropyridin-4-yl) methylphosphinic acid (TPMPA) on levels of cGMP-LI. Cyclic GMP-LI was strongly increased in response to the GABA(A) receptor antagonist bicuculline, while the GABA(C) receptor antagonist TPMPA had little effect on cGMP-LI. The GABA(A)/GABA(C) receptor antagonist, picrotoxin, caused a moderate increase in cGMP-LI, which was mimicked by the combination of bicuculline and TPMPA. The nitric oxide synthase inhibitor, S-methyl-L-thiocitrulline (SMTC), blocked the increased cGMP-LI in response to stimulation with either bicuculline or picrotoxin. Treatments with either of the glutamate receptor antagonists (5R,10S)-(+)-5-methyl-10,11-dihydro-5H-dibenzo[a,d]cyclohepten-5,10-imine (MK-801) or 6-cyano-7-nitroquinoxaline-2,3-dione (CNQX) partially blocked the increases in cGMP-LI seen in response to bicuculline, but a combination of MK-801 and CNQX completely eliminated these increases. These results suggest that inhibitory synaptic pathways involving both types of GABA receptors work through excitatory glutamatergic receptors to regulate the NO/cGMP signal-transduction pathway in retina.

The effect of GABA and the GABA-uptake-blocker NO-711 on the b-wave of the ERG and the responses of horizontal cells to light

BACKGROUND

The effects of GABA in the retina have now become of special interest because the anti-epileptic drug vigabatrin, a GABA analogue, can cause visual field loss in humans. Vigabatrin inhibits the GABA-aminotransferase, which finally results in GABA accumulation in the extracellular space. The b-wave of the electroretinogram (ERG), which originates partly in on-bipolar cells, is influenced by both GABAergic horizontal cells (HCs) and GABAergic amacrine cells (ACs). Their influences, however, are difficult to separate. In an attempt to isolate the effect of GABAergic ACs, use has been made of the specific effect of the GABA-uptake-blocker NO-711, which blocks only the GABA transporter GAT1 of GABAergic ACs.

METHODS

The ERG and the intracellular responses of HCs to light were recorded in the isolated rabbit retina, and the effects of GABA and NO-711, when added separately to the superfusate, were determined.

RESULTS

GABA reduced significantly both the light responses of HCs and the b-wave. NO-711 enlarged the b-wave drastically, but did not affect the responses of HCs to light.

CONCLUSIONS

An increase in the extracellular GABA concentration decreases the b-wave; an impairment of the function of ACs increases the b-wave. These conditions are discussed in the context of the lack of consistent changes to the b-wave during therapy with vigabatrin.

Postsynaptic localization of ?-aminobutyric acid transporters and receptors in the outer plexiform layer of the goldfish retina: An ultrastructural study

The gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)-ergic system in the outer plexiform layer (OPL) of the goldfish retina was studied via light and electron immunohistochemistry. The subcellular distributions of immunoreactivity (-IR) of plasma membrane GABA transporters GAT2 and GAT3, the alpha1 and alpha3 subunits of the ionotropic GABA(A) receptor, and the rho1 subunit of the ionotropic GABA(C) receptor were determined. The localization of the GAT2-IR and GAT3-IR to horizontal cell dendrites at the base of the cone synaptic complex was the main characteristic at the ultrastructural level. Very rarely, GAT2-IR and GAT3-IR were found in horizontal cell dendrites innervating rod spherules. alpha1-IR and alpha3-IR were seen in wide bands in the OPL, whereas rho1-IR appeared as a narrow band in the OPL. Most alpha1-IR was intracellular in rod and cone terminals. Membrane-associated alpha1-IR was observed in cone pedicles but not in rod spherules; postsynaptic elements were also labeled. alpha3-IR was concentrated in the lateral elements of horizontal cell dendrites in cone pedicles. In contrast, rho1-IR was found mainly on the spinules of the horizontal cell dendrites in cone pedicles. In addition, in another type of cone pedicle, rho1-IR was found at the position of OFF-bipolar cell dendrites. alpha3-IR and rho1-IR were rarely found in horizontal cell dendrites innervating rods. We suggest that two GABAergic pathways exist in the outer retina- first, a GABAergic positive loop with GABA receptors mainly on the horizontal cell dendrites and spinules and, second, a GABAergic feedback pathway involving GABA receptors on cone pedicles and GABA transporters on horizontal cells and that this pathway presumably modulates feedback strength from horizontal cells to cones.

Effects of benzodiazepines on frog ERG

Effect of flurazepam (water-soluble benzodiazepine) on the amplitude and time course of ERG waves was investigated in superfused frog eyecups (Rana ridibunda). Flurazepam (50 and 100 microM) had inhibitory effect on the b- and d-wave amplitude, which was not accompanied with significant changes in their implicit time. Flurazepam potentiated the depressant effect of GABA (2.5 and 5 mM) on the b- and d-wave amplitude. The inhibitory effect of flurazepam was not blocked by 50 microM bicuculline (BCC), (GABA(A) antagonist), although the blocker markedly potentiated the b- and d-wave amplitude. The suppressive effect of flurazepam on the b- but not d-wave amplitude was blocked by 100 microM BCC. Our results indicate existence of functional benzodiazepine regulatory sites on GABA(A) receptors in distal frog retina.

Participation of the GABAergic system in the action of 2-amino-4-phosphonobutyrate on the OFF responses of frog retinal ganglion cells

Perfusion of dark adapted frog eyecups with the ON pathway blocker 2-amino-4-phosphonobutyrate (APB) not only abolished the ganglion cells (GCs)' ON responses and the ERG b-wave, but it markedly potentiated the OFF responses of all ON-OFF and phasic OFF GCs and the d-wave amplitude of a simultaneously recorded ERG as well. The blockade of GABA(A) and GABA(C) receptors by picrotoxin eliminated this potentiating effect in 24 out of 41 GCs, although in the rest of the cells it did not produce any change in the APB effect. On the other hand, the d-wave potentiation was preserved during the GABAergic blockade in all experiments. Our results indicate that GABAergic transmission is involved in the inhibition exerted by the ON upon the OFF channel in part of the ON-OFF and phasic OFF GCs in the frog retina. The tonic OFF GCs probably do not receive an inhibitory input from the ON channel, because their light responses were not altered either by APB alone or by APB during blockade of GABA(A) and GABA(C) receptors.

Elimination of the rho1 subunit abolishes GABA(C) receptor expression and alters visual processing in the mouse retina

Inhibition is crucial for normal function in the nervous system. In the CNS, inhibition is mediated primarily by the amino acid GABA via activation of two ionotropic GABA receptors, GABA(A) and GABA(C). GABA(A) receptor composition and function have been well characterized, whereas much less is known about native GABA(C) receptors. Differences in molecular composition, anatomical distributions, and physiological properties strongly suggest that GABA(A) receptors and GABA(C) receptors have distinct functional roles in the CNS. To determine the functional role of GABA(C) receptors, we eliminated their expression in mice using a knock-out strategy. Although native rodent GABA(C) receptors are composed of rho1 and rho2 subunits, we show that after rho1 subunit expression was selectively eliminated there was no GABA(C) receptor expression. We assessed GABA(C) receptor function in the retina because GABA(C) receptors are highly expressed on the axon terminals of rod bipolar cells and because this site modulates the visual signal to amacrine and ganglion cells. In GABA(C)rho1 null mice, GABA-evoked responses, normally mediated by GABA(C) receptors, were eliminated, and signaling from rod bipolar cells to third order cells was altered. These data demonstrate that elimination of the GABA(C)rho1 subunit, via gene targeting, results in the absence of GABA(C) receptors in the retina and selective alterations in normal visual processing.

GABAc feedback pathway modulates the amplitude and kinetics of ERG b-wave in a mammalian retina in vivo

The electroretinogram b-wave is generally believed to reflect mainly light-induced activity of ON-center bipolar cells and Muller cells. Recently, there is increasing evidence that third-order retinal neurons can also contribute significantly to the b-wave. In a previous study (Vis. Res. 40 (2000) 579) we proposed that the GABAc feedback from amacrine cells to bipolar cells can affect both the amplitude and kinetics of the b-wave. Here we show that blocking this feedback has profound effects on b-wave amplitude and kinetics. These results demonstrate that feedback to bipolar cells is an important mechanism through which amacrine cells contribute to b-wave generation. Our results also provide functional evidence that the feedback may be involved in temporal processing in the mammalian retina.