Biological Conservation and Stress

The influence of tourist visitation on the heterophyl to lymphocyte ratios and trophic values of Magellanic penguins (Spheniscus magellanicus) at Martillo Island, Argentina

Wildlife tourism is increasing worldwide and monitoring the impact of tourism on wild populations is of the utmost importance for species conservation. The Magellanic penguin Spheniscus magellanicus colony at Martillo Island, Argentina, was studied in the 2016-2020 breeding seasons. In all seasons, adults and chicks belonged to: (i) an area close to or within the tourist trail or (ii) an area far from the tourist trail and out of sight of the tourists. Blood samples were taken for carbon and nitrogen stable isotope composition, in order to estimate trophic niches, and for smears that were made in situ and were then stained in the laboratory where leucocyte counts and differentiation were made under optical microscope. Heterophil to lymphocyte ratios were used as proxies of stress. Repeated sampling showed individual stress levels reduced while wintering. In 2017, stress levels and trophic values were lower than 2018 for the same individuals. Trophic levels did not differ between tourism and no tourism areas within each season, and differed between 2017 and the remaining seasons, indicating a possible diet shift that year. Stress levels were higher for the tourism area than the no tourism area for adults and chicks in all years except for 2020, when stress levels in the tourism area were lower and similar to the no tourism area that year and previous years. Vessel transit within the Beagle Channel and tourist visitation to the penguin colony was greatly reduced in 2020 due to the Covid-19 pandemic. A combination of internal characteristics and external factors may be affecting the stress physiology of individuals. Therefore, future research should include sampling of multiple aspects of penguin physiology, behaviour and environmental context in order to evaluate each effect on Magellanic penguin stress and, ultimately, inform the conservation of this iconic species in time.

The Effect of Disease and Injury on Faecal Cortisol Metabolites, as an Indicator of Stress in Wild Hospitalised Koalas, Endangered Australian Marsupials

Loss of habitat, urbanisation, climate change and its consequences are anthropogenic pressures that may cause stress in koalas. Non-invasive monitoring of faecal cortisol metabolites (FCMs) can be utilised to evaluate the impact of stressors. The aim was to determine if the tetrahydrocorticosterone (50c) and cortisol enzyme immunoassays (EIAs) could be effective in measuring FCM values in wild, stressed koalas. This research included 146 koalas from the Australia Zoo Wildlife Hospital (AZWH) and 88 from a study conducted by Endeavour Veterinary Ecology (EVE), Queensland, Australia. Faecal samples of diseased, injured and control koalas were analysed. The effect of hospitalisation on FCM values was also investigated. Diseased and injured koalas had significantly higher FCM values than clinically healthy control animals as measured by the 50c EIA. FCM values with the cortisol EIA differed significantly between control and diseased koalas, but not between control and injured ones. Moreover, only the 50c EIA detected higher absolute values in males compared to females, and also found that females showed a more elevated response to stress manifested by injury and disease compared to males. The 50c EIA detected stress during hospitalisation better than the cortisol EIA. The cortisol EIA was also found unreliable in detecting stress in rehabilitated koalas treated with synthetic glucocorticoids as it cross-reacts with these steroids providing artificially high values.

Factors influencing the welfare of dairy goats

A variety of stressful situations commonly occur on dairy farms which can impair the well-being of the animals. The aim of this study was to analyse the concentration of cortisol in the saliva of dairy goats and on the basis thereof to determine the degree of stress experienced by them in relation to selected situations on farms. The following situations were selected as stressful: first visit to the milking parlour; weaning off; loading and transport; deworming; and the disruption of social hierarchy. We examined 344 samples from 100 animals using cotton swabs for the saliva collection. Commercially available ELISA kits (Cortisol EIA Kit, BosterBio, California, USA) which can detect cortisol in the saliva of all animal species, were used for the analysis. During the first visit to the milking parlour, weaning off, deworming and disruption of social hierarchy there was a significant (P < 0.05) increase in cortisol concentrations compared to the basal values. For loading and transport there was a highly significant (P < 0.01) increase in cortisol concentrations compared to the basal values. Although these situations are inevitable on farms, efforts should be made to eliminate them as much as possible due to the stress the animals experience in them.

Fecal glucocorticoids and gastrointestinal parasite infections in wild western lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) involved in ecotourism

Wildlife ecotourism can offer a source of revenue which benefits local development and conservation simultaneously. However, habituation of wildlife for ecotourism can cause long-term elevation of glucocorticoid hormones, which may suppress immune function and increase an animal's vulnerability to disease. We have previously shown that western lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) undergoing habituation in Dzanga-Sangha Protected Areas, Central African Republic, have higher fecal glucocorticoid metabolite (FGCM) levels than both habituated and unhabituated gorillas. Here, we tested the relationship between FGCM levels and strongylid infections in the same gorillas. If high FGCM levels suppress the immune system, we predicted that FGCM levels will be positively associated with strongylid egg counts and that gorillas undergoing habituation will have the highest strongylid egg counts, relative to both habituated and unhabituated gorillas. We collected fecal samples over 12 months in two habituated gorilla groups, one group undergoing habituation and completely unhabituated gorillas. We established FGCM levels and fecal egg counts of Necator/Oesophagostomum spp. and Mammomonogamus sp. Controlling for seasonal variation and age-sex category in strongylid infections we found no significant relationship between FGCMs and Nectator/Oesophagostomum spp. or Mammomonogamus sp. egg counts in a within group comparison in either a habituated group or a group undergoing habituation. However, across groups, egg counts of Nectator/Oesophagostomum spp. were lowest in unhabituated animals and highest in the group undergoing habituation, matching the differences in FGCM levels among these gorilla groups. Our findings partially support the hypothesis that elevated glucocorticoids reduce a host's ability to control the extent of parasitic infections, and show the importance of non-invasive monitoring of endocrine function and parasite infection in individuals exposed to human pressure including habituation process and ecotourism.

Urban Hedgehog Behavioural Responses to Temporary Habitat Disturbance versus Permanent Fragmentation

Anthropogenic activities can result in both transient and permanent changes in the environment. We studied spatial and temporal behavioural responses of European hedgehogs (Erinaceus europaeus) to a transient (open-air music festival) and a permanent (highly fragmented area) disturbance in the city of Berlin, Germany. Activity, foraging and movement patterns were observed in two distinct areas in 2016 and 2017 using a "Before & After" and "Control & Impact" study design. Confronted with a music festival, hedgehogs substantially changed their movement behaviour and nesting patterns and decreased the rhythmic synchronization (DFC) of their activity patterns with the environment. These findings suggest that a music festival is a substantial stressor influencing the trade-off between foraging and risk avoidance. Hedgehogs in a highly fragmented area used larger home ranges and moved faster than in low-fragmented and low-disturbed areas. They also showed behaviours and high DFCs similar to individuals in low-fragmented, low disturbed environment, suggesting that fragmentation posed a moderate challenge which they could accommodate. The acute but transient disturbance of a music festival, therefore, had more substantial and severe behavioural effects than the permanent disturbance through fragmentation. Our results are relevant for the welfare and conservation measure of urban wildlife and highlight the importance of allowing wildlife to avoid urban music festivals by facilitating avoidance behaviours.

Fear and stressing in predator-prey ecology: considering the twin stressors of predators and people on mammals

Predators induce stress in prey and can have beneficial effects in ecosystems, but can also have negative effects on biodiversity if they are overabundant or have been introduced. The growth of human populations is, at the same time, causing degradation of natural habitats and increasing interaction rates of humans with wildlife, such that conservation management routinely considers the effects of human disturbance as tantamount to or surpassing those of predators. The need to simultaneously manage both of these threats is particularly acute in urban areas that are, increasingly, being recognized as global hotspots of wildlife activity. Pressures from altered predator-prey interactions and human activity may each initiate fear responses in prey species above those that are triggered by natural stressors in ecosystems. If fear responses are experienced by prey at elevated levels, on top of responses to multiple environmental stressors, chronic stress impacts may occur. Despite common knowledge of the negative effects of stress, however, it is rare that stress management is considered in conservation, except in intensive ex situ situations such as in captive breeding facilities or zoos. We propose that mitigation of stress impacts on wildlife is crucial for preserving biodiversity, especially as the value of habitats within urban areas increases. As such, we highlight the need for future studies to consider fear and stress in predator-prey ecology to preserve both biodiversity and ecosystem functioning, especially in areas where human disturbance occurs. We suggest, in particular, that non-invasive in situ investigations of endocrinology and ethology be partnered in conservation planning with surveys of habitat resources to incorporate and reduce the effects of fear and stress on wildlife.

Boat noise affects the early life history of two damselfishes

Anthropogenic noise can have a negative effect on the physiology and survival of marine fishes. Most research has focused on later life-stages, and few studies have investigated the effects of human-induced noise on embryogenesis. The current study investigated whether playback of motorboat noise affected the embryogenesis of the coral reef damselfishes, Amphiprion melanopus and Acanthochromis polyacanthus. Embryos reared under the playback of boat noise had faster heart rates compared to the ambient reef controls. The effects of noise on morphological development differed between species and the fundamental interrelationships between early life history characteristics changed dramatically under boat noise for Ac. polyacanthus. Noise treatments did not alter the survival rates of embryos under laboratory conditions. Although species specific, our findings suggest that anthropogenic noise causes physiological responses in fishes during embryogenesis and these changes have direct impacts on their development and these alterations may have carry-over effects to later life stages.

An easy, flexible solution to attach devices to hedgehogs (Erinaceus europaeus) enables long-term high-resolution studies

Bio-logging is an essential tool for the investigation of behavior, ecology, and physiology of wildlife. This burgeoning field enables the improvement of population monitoring and conservation efforts, particularly for small, elusive animals where data collection is difficult. Device attachment usually requires species-specific solutions to ensure that data loggers exert minimal influence on the animal's behavior and physiology, and ensure high reliability of data capture. External features or peculiar body shapes often make securing devices difficult for long-term monitoring, as in the case with small spiny mammals. Here, we present a method that enables high-resolution, long-term investigations of European hedgehogs (Erinaceus europaeus) via GPS and acceleration loggers. We collected data from 17 wild hedgehogs with devices attached between 9 and 42 days. Our results showed that hedgehogs behaved naturally; as individuals curled, moved through dense vegetation, slipped under fences and built regular day nests without any indication of impediment. Our novel method makes it possible to not only attach high-precision devices for substantially longer than previous efforts, but enables detachment and reattachment of devices to the same individual. This makes it possible to quickly respond to unforeseen events and exchange devices, and overcomes the issue of short battery life common to many lightweight loggers.

Non-invasive measurement of glucocorticoids: Advances and problems

Glucocorticoids (GCs; i.e. cortisol/corticosterone) are a central component of the stress response and thus their measurement is frequently used to evaluate the impact of stressful situations. Their metabolites from faeces of various animal species are more and more taken as a non-invasive aid to assess GC release and thus adrenocortical activity. The current literature review includes an extensive collection (1327 papers) and evaluation (see also Supplementary Tables) of the literature on faecal cortisol/corticosterone metabolite (FCM) analysis published to date. It aims at giving reference for researchers interested in implementing FCM analysis into their study or seeking to improve such methods by providing background knowledge on GC metabolism and excretion, conveying insights into methodological issues and stating caveats of FCM analysis and by highlighting prerequisites for and some examples of a successful application of such methods. Collecting faecal samples and analysing FCMs may appear simple and straightforward, but researchers have to select and apply methods correctly. They also need to be aware of the many pitfalls and potentially confounding factors and, last but not least, have to carefully interpret results. Applied properly, measurement of FCMs is a powerful non-invasive tool in a variety of research areas, such as (stress) biology, ethology, ecology, animal conservation and welfare, but also biomedicine.

Environmental and biological context modulates the physiological stress response of bats to human disturbance

Environmental and biological context play significant roles in modulating physiological stress responses of individuals in wildlife populations yet are often overlooked when evaluating consequences of human disturbance on individual health and fitness. Furthermore, most studies gauge individual stress responses based on a single physiological biomarker, typically circulating glucocorticoid concentrations, which limits interpretation of the complex, multifaceted responses of individuals to stressors. We selected four physiological biomarkers to capture short-term and prolonged stress responses in a widespread cave-roosting bat, Hipposideros diadema, across multiple gradients of human disturbance in and around caves in the Philippines. We used conditional inference trees and random forest analysis to determine the role of environmental quality (cave complexity, available roosting area), assemblage composition (intra- and interspecific associations and species richness), and intrinsic characteristics of individuals (sex and reproductive status) in modulating responses to disturbance. Direct cave disturbance (hunting pressure and human visitation) was the primary driver of neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratios, with lower ratios associated with increased disturbance, while context-specific factors were more important in explaining total leukocyte count, body condition, and ectoparasite load. Moreover, conditional inference trees revealed complex interactions among human disturbance and modulating factors. Cave complexity often ameliorated individual responses to human disturbance, whereas conspecific abundance often compounded responses. Our study demonstrates the importance of an integrated approach that incorporates environmental and biological context when identifying drivers of physiological responses, and that assesses responses to gradients of direct and indirect disturbance using multiple complementary biomarkers.

Subspecies-specific response to ACTH challenge test in the house mouse (Mus musculus)

Long term changes in hormonal levels of small and rare animal species can be effectively monitored by non-invasive methods such as immunoenzymatic analysis. These methods generally analyze metabolites instead of the hormone itself and thus do not invade the organism. However, they can be influenced by many factors, so before they are used, they need to be validated. For this purpose we used the "ACTH challenge" test based on stimulating the animal's adrenocortical activity and measuring the consequent increase of the level of its glucocorticoid ("stress") hormones. Specifically, we measured concentrations of fecal glucocorticoid metabolites of two house mouse subspecies, Mus musculus musculus and M. m. domesticus. Using polyclonal antibody we investigated the mice's naturally occurring circadian fluctuation and their reaction to the adrenal stimulation. This study confirmed that the selected method is suitable for analysis of fecal corticosterone metabolites in the wild house mouse. More importantly, we revealed a subspecies-specific stress response at the level of corticosterone production: while the significant effect of ACTH was proved in both subspecies, a notable adrenocortical reaction was also elicited by injecting the saline solution in M. m. domesticus. Our results thus highlight the importance of considering potential cryptic variation within the species under study when designing projects on adrenal stress hormone assessments.

Stressful colours: corticosterone concentrations in a free-living songbird vary with the spectral composition of experimental illumination

Organisms have evolved under natural daily light/dark cycles for millions of years. These cycles have been disturbed as night-time darkness is increasingly replaced by artificial illumination. Investigating the physiological consequences of free-living organisms in artificially lit environments is crucial to determine whether nocturnal lighting disrupts circadian rhythms, changes behaviour, reduces fitness and ultimately affects population numbers. We make use of a unique, large-scale network of replicated field sites which were experimentally illuminated at night using lampposts emanating either red, green, white or no light to test effect on stress hormone concentrations (corticosterone) in a songbird, the great tit (Parus major). Adults nesting in white-light transects had higher corticosterone concentrations than in the other treatments. We also found a significant interaction between distance to the closest lamppost and treatment type: individuals in red light had higher corticosterone levels when they nested closer to the lamppost than individuals nesting farther away, a decline not observed in the green or dark treatment. Individuals with high corticosterone levels had fewer fledglings, irrespective of treatment. These results show that artificial light can induce changes in individual hormonal phenotype. As these effects vary considerably with light spectrum, it opens the possibility to mitigate these effects by selecting street lighting of specific spectra.

Beyond a Simple Effect: Variable and Changing Responses to Anthropogenic Noise

A growing number of experimental studies have demonstrated that exposure to anthropogenic noise can affect the behavior and physiology of a variety of aquatic organisms. However, work in other fields suggests that responses are likely to differ between species, individuals, and situations and across time. We suggest that issues such as interspecific and intrapopulation variation, context dependency, repeated exposure and prior experience, and recovery and compensation need to be considered if we are to gain a full understanding of the impacts of this global pollutant.

Rapid recovery following short-term acoustic disturbance in two fish species

Noise from human activities is known to impact organisms in a variety of taxa, but most experimental studies on the behavioural effects of noise have focused on examining responses associated with the period of actual exposure. Unlike most pollutants, acoustic noise is generally short-lived, usually dissipating quickly after the source is turned off or leaves the area. In a series of experiments, we use established experimental paradigms to examine how fish behaviour and physiology are affected, both during short-term (2 min) exposure to playback of recordings of anthropogenic noise sources and in the immediate aftermath of noise exposure. We considered the anti-predator response and ventilation rate of juvenile European eels (Anguilla anguilla) and ventilation rate of juvenile European seabass (Dicentrarchus labrax). As previously found, additional-noise exposure decreased eel anti-predator responses, increased startle latency and increased ventilation rate relative to ambient-noise-exposed controls. Our results show for the first time that those effects quickly dissipated; eels showed rapid recovery of startle responses and startle latency, and rapid albeit incomplete recovery of ventilation rate in the 2 min after noise cessation. Seabass in both laboratory and open-water conditions showed an increased ventilation rate during playback of additional noise compared with ambient conditions. However, within 2 min of noise cessation, ventilation rate showed complete recovery to levels equivalent to ambient-exposed control individuals. Care should be taken in generalizing these rapid-recovery results, as individuals might have accrued other costs during noise exposure and other species might show different recovery times. Nonetheless, our results from two different fish species provide tentative cause for optimism with respect to recovery following short-duration noise exposure, and suggest that considering periods following noise exposures could be important for mitigation and management decisions.

Disturbance of wildlife by outdoor winter recreation: allostatic stress response and altered activity-energy budgets

Anthropogenic disturbance of wildlife is of growing conservation concern, but we lack comprehensive approaches of its multiple negative effects. We investigated several effects of disturbance by winter outdoor sports on free-ranging alpine Black Grouse by simultaneously measuring their physiological and behavioral responses. We experimentally flushed radio-tagged Black Grouse from their snow burrows, once a day, during several successive days, and quantified their stress hormone levels (corticosterone metabolites in feces [FCM] collected. from individual snow burrows). We also measured feeding time allocation (activity budgets reconstructed from radio-emitted signals) in response to anthropogenic disturbance. Finally, we estimated the related extra energy expenditure that may be incurred: based on activity budgets, energy expenditure was modeled from measures of metabolism obtained from captive birds subjected to different ambient temperatures. The pattern of FCM excretion indicated the existence of a funneling effect as predicted by the allostatic theory of stress: initial stress hormone concentrations showed a wide inter-individual variation, which decreased during experimental flushing. Individuals with low initial pre-flushing FCM values augmented their concentration, while individuals with high initial FCM values lowered it. Experimental disturbance resulted in an extension of feeding duration during the following evening foraging bout, confirming the prediction that Black Grouse must compensate for the extra energy expenditure elicited by human disturbance. Birds with low initial baseline FCM concentrations were those that spent more time foraging. These FCM excretion and foraging patterns suggest that birds with high initial FCM concentrations might have been experiencing a situation of allostatic overload. The energetic model provides quantitative estimates of extra energy expenditure. A longer exposure to ambient temperatures outside the shelter of snow burrows, following disturbance, could increase the daily energy expenditure by > 10%, depending principally on ambient temperature and duration of exposure. This study confirms the predictions of allostatic theory and, to the best of our knowledge, constitutes the first demonstration of a funneling effect. It further establishes that winter recreation activities incur costly allostatic behavioral and energetic adjustments, which call for the creation of winter refuge areas together with the implementation of visitor-steering measures for sensitive wildlife.

Ambient temperature and air pressure modulate hormones and behaviour in Greylag geese (Anser anser) and Northern bald ibis (Geronticus eremita)

Ambient temperature and air pressure are relevant stimuli that can elicit hormonal responses in alignment with adjusting individuals' physiology and behaviour. This study investigated possible changes in corticosterone (C) and testosterone (T) and contingencies with behaviour in response to ambient temperature and air pressure, and it evaluated the temporal response dynamics of these hormones in 12 individual Greylag geese (Anser anser) over 26 and 12 individual Northern bald ibis (Geronticus eremita) over 27 days, during late winter. Immunoreactive metabolites of C and T were analysed non-invasively from 626 fecal samples by means of group-specific antibodies and correlated to behaviour and weather factors. In both species, high C levels correlated with low temperatures 24h before sampling, but low C levels correlated with high air pressure 6-12h before sampling. In both species, C levels and behavioural activity were negatively correlated. In addition, temperature had a positive influence on T levels in both species 12-24h before sampling. The fact that weather conditions influenced changes in levels of C, while social interactions did not, is indicative of a general mechanism of graduated physiological adjustment to environmental variations affecting metabolism, stress responses and behaviour.

Increased noise levels have different impacts on the anti-predator behaviour of two sympatric fish species

Animals must avoid predation to survive and reproduce, and there is increasing evidence that man-made (anthropogenic) factors can influence predator−prey relationships. Anthropogenic noise has been shown to have a variety of effects on many species, but work investigating the impact on anti-predator behaviour is rare. In this laboratory study, we examined how additional noise (playback of field recordings of a ship passing through a harbour), compared with control conditions (playback of recordings from the same harbours without ship noise), affected responses to a visual predatory stimulus. We compared the anti-predator behaviour of two sympatric fish species, the three-spined stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus) and the European minnow (Phoxinus phoxinus), which share similar feeding and predator ecologies, but differ in their body armour. Effects of additional-noise playbacks differed between species: sticklebacks responded significantly more quickly to the visual predatory stimulus during additional-noise playbacks than during control conditions, while minnows exhibited no significant change in their response latency. Our results suggest that elevated noise levels have the potential to affect anti-predator behaviour of different species in different ways. Future field-based experiments are needed to confirm whether this effect and the interspecific difference exist in relation to real-world noise sources, and to determine survival and population consequences.

Validation and application of noninvasive glucocorticoid and thyroid hormone measures in free-ranging Hawaiian monk seals

We validate fecal glucocorticoid (GC) and thyroid (T3) hormone metabolite measures in the Critically Endangered Hawaiian monk seal for the first time, and examine variation in the concentrations of these hormones in individuals across the species' range. We test hypotheses that monk seals from declining subpopulations have relatively high GCs and low T3 on average suggesting impacts of food limitation, and that this hormone pattern is more apparent in immature animals compared to adults, as food limitation is specifically indicated as a principal cause of poor body condition and survival of juvenile monk seals. We opportunistically sampled scat from 84 individually identifiable monk seals during the 2010 breeding season from two geographic regions, the main Hawaiian Islands (MHI) and the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands (NWHI). The MHI subpopulation of monk seals is growing, whereas subpopulations at many sites in the NWHI are in decline. Best fit general linear models predicting variation in GCs and T3 (examined separately) were similar (after accounting for significantly elevated hormone concentrations associated with molt and possibly lactation); both included sample date, region, and monk seal age as predictors. GC concentrations were significantly lower in MHI versus NWHI monk seals and decreased as the breeding season progressed. T3 concentrations were significantly lower in immature monk seals compared to adults. GC and T3 concentrations were positively correlated at 4 NWHI sites; prey may be adequate for physiological growth or maintenance at these sites but relatively stressful to acquire. GCs were highest at French Frigate Shoals, (a NWHI site) while T3 was relatively low here, indicating a possible signal of food limitation. GCs were lowest in the MHI. Disturbance associated with living near a high human population in the MHI appears to impact monk seal physiology less than other stressors encountered in the remote and highly protected NWHI where human presence is extremely low.

Long-term monitoring of microsporidia, Cryptosporidium and Giardia infections in western Lowland Gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) at different stages of habituation in Dzanga Sangha Protected Areas, Central African Republic

BACKGROUND

Infectious diseases pose one of the greatest threats to endangered species, and a risk of gastrointestinal parasite transmission from humans to wildlife has always been considered as a major concern of tourism. Increased anthropogenic impact on primate populations may result in general changes in communities of their parasites, and also in a direct exchange of parasites between humans and primates.

AIMS

To evaluate the impact of close contact with humans on the occurrence of potentially zoonotic protists in great apes, we conducted a long-term monitoring of microsporidia, Cryptosporidium and Giardia infections in western lowland gorillas at different stages of the habituation process, humans, and other wildlife in Dzanga-Sangha Protected Areas in the Central African Republic.

RESULTS

We detected Encephalitozoon cuniculi genotypes I and II (7.5%), Enterocytozoon bieneusi genotype D and three novel genotypes (gorilla 1-3) (4.0%), Giardia intestinalis subgroup A II (2.0%) and Cryptosporidium bovis (0.5%) in gorillas, whereas in humans we found only G. intestinalis subgroup A II (2.1%). In other wild and domestic animals we recorded E. cuniculi genotypes I and II (2.1%), G. intestinalis assemblage E (0.5%) and C. muris TS03 (0.5%).

CONCLUSION

Due to the non-specificity of E. cuniculi genotypes we conclude that detection of the exact source of E. cuniculi infection is problematic. As Giardia intestinalis was recorded primarily in gorilla groups with closer human contact, we suggest that human-gorilla transmission has occurred. We call attention to a potentially negative impact of habituation on selected pathogens which might occur as a result of the more frequent presence of humans in the vicinity of both gorillas under habituation and habituated gorillas, rather than as a consequence of the close contact with humans, which might be a more traditional assumption. We encourage to observe the sections concerning hygiene from the IUCN best practice guidelines for all sites where increased human-gorilla contact occurs.

Development of a versatile enzyme immunoassay for non-invasive assessment of glucocorticoid metabolites in a diversity of taxonomic species

Endocrinology is a useful tool for conservation biologists and animal managers, and measuring glucocorticoids can help understand biological mechanisms associated with species decline and animal welfare. The current study describes the development and optimization of a glucocorticoid enzyme immunoassay (EIA) to non-invasively assess adrenal activity in a variety of taxa. The antiserum (CJM006) was raised in rabbits to a corticosterone-3-CMO-BSA immunogen and used in a standard competitive EIA system. However, the EIA initially produced results with unacceptably high inter-assay variation, attributed to consistent patterns observed within the optical density of developing plates. To determine the cause of this variability, a number of factors were examined using synthetic corticosterone standard and endogenous faecal extract, including: plate type (Nunc MaxiSorp® II versus Immulon IB plates); the use of non-specific secondary antibody; type (artificial versus natural) and presence (light versus dark) of light during incubation; plate loading temperature (4°C versus room temperature); and substrate reagent temperature (4°C versus room temperature). Results indicated that variability was associated with plate location effects, which were not initially detected because control samples were always run in the same positions across plates. Light and temperature were the two major factors that affected EIA reliability. For this assay, the standard protocol required slight modification, with the optimal protocol using Nunc MaxiSorp® plates, room temperature substrate reagents and dark incubation conditions. Following optimization, this EIA was then validated biochemically for 38 species, through parallel displacement curves and interference assessment tests of faecal and urine samples. Additionally, biological validation was performed opportunistically in a subset of species, with use of this EIA demonstrating significant elevations in faecal glucocorticoid metabolites following potentially challenging events. In summary, this glucocorticoid EIA cross-reacts with excreted glucocorticoid metabolites across a wide range of taxa, including ungulates, primates, felids, birds, rodents and amphibians. We conclude that when used with optimal reagent and incubation conditions, this EIA will be useful for non-invasive monitoring of adrenal activity in a wide range of wildlife species.

Validation of an enzyme immunoassay for the measurement of faecal glucocorticoid metabolites in spotted hyenas (Crocuta crocuta)

The use of enzyme immunoassays (EIAs) to measure faecal glucocorticoid metabolites (fGCM) is a useful non-invasive technique to monitor adrenocortical activity in vertebrates. The first objective of this study was to validate an 'in-house' EIA (cortisol-3-CMO) for the measurement of fGCM concentrations in spotted hyenas. High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) was used to characterise fGCM in samples from a captive hyena that received an i.v. injection of [(3)H] cortisol. All HPLC fractions were analysed with the EIA for the presence and quantities of radiolabelled fGCM. Radiolabelled fGCM consisted of substances with a higher polarity than cortisol and substances of lower polarity that eluted between cortisol and corticosterone. Authentic radiolabelled cortisol was not detected. The EIA measured substantial amounts of immunoreactivity corresponding to the radioactive peaks. It also detected a significant increase in fGCMs after an adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) challenge in two other captive animals and a significant increase in fGCMs in a fourth captive animal after anaesthesia. The second objective was to investigate an age effect on fGCM: we conducted pairwise comparisons of fGCM concentrations in individual free-ranging juvenile spotted hyenas when less than 6 months of age and when between 6 and 24 months of age. We expected juveniles to experience a more unpredictable and therefore more stressful environment when younger than when older. When younger, juveniles had significantly higher fGCM concentrations than when they were older. Our results demonstrate that our assay can be used to assess adrenocortical activity in spotted hyenas.

The conservation-welfare nexus in reintroduction programmes: a role for sensory ecology

Since reintroduction programmes involve moving animals from captive or wild environments and releasing them into novel environments, there are sure to be a number of challenges to the welfare of the individuals involved. Behavioural theory can help us develop reintroductions that are better for both the welfare of the individual and the conservation of populations. In addition to modifying captive environments to prepare animals for release to the wild, it is possible to modify the animals’ experience in the post-release environment. For releases to be more successful, they need to better accommodate the ecological and psychological needs of individuals. A better understanding of sensory ecology — how animals acquire and respond to information in their environment — is needed to develop new, more successful management strategies for reintroductions. Sensory ecology integrates ecological and psychological processes, calling for better synergy among researchers with divergent backgrounds in conservation and animal welfare science. This integrative approach leads to new topics of investigation in reintroduction biology, including more careful consideration of post-release stress and the role of social support. Reintroductions are essentially exercises in ‘forced’ dispersal; thus, an especially promising avenue of research is the role of proximate mechanisms governing dispersal and habitat selection decisions. Reintroduction biologists have much to gain from the study of mechanism because mechanisms, unlike function or adaptive value, can be manipulated to enhance conservation and welfare goals.

Regulation of stress response is heritable and functionally linked to melanin-based coloration

Sexual selection theory posits that ornaments can signal the genetic quality of an individual. Eumelanin-based coloration is such an ornament and can signal the ability to cope with a physiological stress response because the melanocortin system regulates eumelanogenesis as well as physiological stress responses. In the present article, we experimentally investigated whether the stronger stress sensitivity of light than dark eumelanic individuals stems from differential regulation of stress hormones. Our study shows that darker eumelanic barn owl nestlings have a lower corticosterone release after a stressful event, an association, which was also inherited from the mother (but not the father) to the offspring. Additionally, nestlings sired by darker eumelanic mothers more quickly reduced experimentally elevated corticosterone levels. This provides a solution as to how ornamented individuals can be more resistant to various sources of stress than drab conspecifics. Our study suggests that eumelanin-based coloration can be a sexually selected signal of resistance to stressful events.

Spreading free-riding snow sports represent a novel serious threat for wildlife

Stress generated by humans on wildlife by continuous development of outdoor recreational activities is of increasing concern for biodiversity conservation. Human disturbance often adds to other negative impact factors affecting the dynamics of vulnerable populations. It is not known to which extent the rapidly spreading free-riding snow sports actually elicit detrimental stress (allostatic overload) upon wildlife, nor what the potential associated fitness and survival costs are. Using a non-invasive technique, we evaluated the physiological stress response induced by free-riding snow sports on a declining bird species of Alpine ecosystems. The results of a field experiment in which radiomonitored black grouse (Tetrao tetrix) were actively flushed from their snow burrows once a day during four consecutive days showed an increase in the concentration of faecal stress hormone (corticosterone) metabolites after disturbance. A large-scale comparative analysis across the southwestern Swiss Alps indicated that birds had higher levels of these metabolites in human-disturbed versus undisturbed habitats. Disturbance by snow sport free-riders appears to elevate stress, which potentially represents a new serious threat for wildlife. The fitness and survival costs of allostatic adjustments have yet to be estimated.

High faecal glucocorticoid levels predict mortality in ring-tailed lemurs (Lemur catta)

Glucocorticoid levels are commonly used as measures of stress in wild animal populations, but their relevance to individual fitness in a wild population has not been demonstrated. In this study I followed 93 ring-tailed lemurs (Lemur catta) at Berenty Reserve in Madagascar, collecting 1089 faecal samples from individually recognized animals, and recording their survival over a 2 year period. I evaluated faecal glucocorticoid levels as predictors of individual survival to the end of the study. Animals with high glucocorticoid levels had a significantly higher mortality rate. This result suggests that glucocorticoid measures can be useful predictors of individual survival probabilities in wild populations. The 'stress landscape' indicated by glucocorticoid patterns may approximate the fitness landscape to which animals adapt.

Effects of reproductive status and management on cortisol secretion and fertility of oestrous horse mares

Stressful events may contribute to low reproductive efficiency due to glucocorticoid-mediated inhibition of hormone secretion in a variety of species. We therefore investigated effects of stress related to management of mares around artificial insemination on secretion of cortisol and fertility parameters. To avoid further disturbance of mares by frequent blood sampling, faecal cortisol metabolites (fCM) were determined instead (sample collection at 8-h intervals). A total of 50 mares (16 maiden, 17 barren, 12 foaling, 5 teaching mares) were included in the study. Mares were brought to the AI centre in vans or trailers (driving time between 30 min and 5 h). Teaching mares were housed in the clinic and had therefore not to be transported. Mares were inseminated either with fresh/cooled-shipped or frozen semen. Rectal palpations and ultrasound examinations were performed at 24- to 48-h intervals, in animals inseminated with frozen semen at 6-h intervals during the last 48 h before ovulation. In maiden, barren and foaling mares, fCM concentrations in faeces tended to be higher than in teaching mares at all times after arrival at the AI centre. At 24 and 48 h after arrival, fCM concentrations in maiden mares were significantly higher than in teaching mares (24h: maiden mares 12.3+/-3.1 ng/g, barren mares 8.5+/-1.2 ng/g, foaling mares 11.0+/-2.4 ng/g, teaching mares 3.8+/-0.6 ng/g, p<0.05). The time from arrival at the AI centre to detection of ovulation did not differ among the different groups of mares and was 4.5+/-0.4, 5.0+/-0.5, 3.8+/-0.5 and 5.6+/-0.9 days in maiden, barren, foaling and teaching mares, respectively (n.s.). Pregnancy rates were 53, 53, 55 and 60%, respectively (n.s.). The time from arrival at the AI centre to detection of ovulation was 4.4+/-0.3 days and 4.9+/-0.3 days in mares inseminated with fresh/shipped (n=39) or frozen semen (n=11; n.s.), respectively. The frequency of follicular checks influenced fCM secretion and was statistically significant at 16 h before ovulation (fresh/shipped semen: fCM 6.9+/-0.7 ng/g faeces, frozen semen: fCM 16.9+/-5.2 ng/g faeces, p<0.01). In the mare, gynaecological examinations seem to act as stressors and may increase cortisol secretion. However, this does not negatively influence fertility and in animals familiar with that procedure fCM concentrations are not elevated.

Stress hormones in mammals and birds: comparative aspects regarding metabolism, excretion, and noninvasive measurement in fecal samples

A multitude of endocrine mechanisms are involved in coping with challenges. Front-line hormones to overcome stressful situations are glucocorticoids (GCs) and catecholamines (CAs). These hormones are usually determined in plasma samples as parameters of adrenal activity and thus of disturbance. GCs (and CAs) are extensively metabolized and excreted afterwards. Therefore, the concentration of GCs (or their metabolites) can be measured in various body fluids or excreta. Above all, fecal samples offer the advantages of easy collection and a feedback-free sampling procedure. However, large differences exist among species regarding the route and time course of excretion, as well as the types of metabolites formed. Based on information gained from radiometabolism studies (reviewed in this paper), we recently developed and successfully validated different enzyme immunoassays that enable the noninvasive measurement of groups of cortisol or corticosterone metabolites in animal feces. The determination of these metabolites in fecal samples can be used as a powerful tool to monitor GC production in various species of domestic, wildlife, and laboratory animals.

Measuring Corticosterone Metabolites in Droppings of Capercaillies (Tetrao urogallus)

The capercaillie (Tetrao urogallus), the largest grouse species in the world, is decreasing in numbers in major parts of its distribution range. Disturbances by human outdoor activities are discussed as a possible reason for this population decline. An indicator for disturbances is the increase of the glucocorticoid corticosterone, a stress hormone, which helps to cope with life-threatening situations. However, repeated disturbances might result in a long-term increase of the basal corticosterone concentration, which can result in detrimental effects like reduced fitness and survival of an animal. To measure corticosterone metabolites (CMs) noninvasively in the droppings of free-living capercaillies, first an enzyme immunoassay (EIA) in captive birds had to be selected and validated. Therefore, the excretion pattern of intravenously injected radiolabeled corticosterone was determined and 3H metabolites were characterized. High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) separations of the samples containing peak concentrations revealed that corticosterone was extensively metabolized. The HPLC fractions were tested in several EIAs for glucocorticoid metabolites. The physiological relevance of this method was proved after pharmacological stimulation of the adrenocortical activity. Only the recently established cortisone assay, measuring CMs with a 3,11-dione structure, detected an expressed increase of concentrations following ACTH stimulation. To set up a sampling protocol suited for the field, we examined the influence of various storage conditions and time of day on concentrations of CMs.

Conservation physiology

Conservation biologists increasingly face the need to provide legislators, courts and conservation managers with data on causal mechanisms underlying conservation problems such as species decline. To develop and monitor solutions, conservation biologists are progressively using more techniques that are physiological. Here, we review the emerging discipline of conservation physiology and suggest that, for conservation strategies to be successful, it is important to understand the physiological responses of organisms to their changed environment. New physiological techniques can enable a rapid assessment of the causes of conservation problems and the consequences of conservation actions.

Effects of elevated egg corticosterone levels on behavior, growth, and immunity of yellow-legged gull (Larus michahellis) chicks

Eggs of vertebrates contain steroid hormones of maternal origin that may influence offspring performance. Recently, it has been shown that glucocorticoids, which are the main hormones mediating the stress response in vertebrates, are transmitted from the mother to the egg in birds. In addition, mothers with experimentally elevated corticosterone levels lay eggs with larger concentrations of the hormone, which produce slow growing offspring with high activity of the hypothalamo-adrenal axis under acute stress. However, the effects and function of transfer of maternal corticosterone to the eggs are largely unknown. In the present study, we injected corticosterone in freshly laid eggs of yellow-legged gulls (Larus michahellis), thus increasing the concentration of the hormone within its natural range of variation, and analyzed the effect of manipulation on behavioral, morphological, and immune traits of the offspring in the wild. Eggs injected with corticosterone had similar hatching success to controls, but hatched later. Mass loss during incubation was greater for corticosterone-treated eggs, except for the last laid ones. Corticosterone injection reduced rate and loudness of late embryonic vocalizations and the intensity of chick begging display. Tonic immobility response, reflecting innate fearfulness, was unaffected by hormone treatment. Elevated egg corticosterone concentrations depressed T-cell-mediated immunity but had no detectable effects on humoral immune response to a novel antigen, viability at day 10, or growth. Present results suggest that egg corticosterone can affect the behavior and immunity of offspring in birds and disclose a mechanism mediating early maternal effects whereby stress experienced by females may negatively translate to offspring phenotypic quality.

Validation of a minimally invasive blood-sampling technique for the analysis of hormones in domestic rabbits, Oryctolagus cuniculus (Lagomorpha)

Previous studies in small mammals showed that blood-sucking bugs (Reduviidae, Heteroptera) can be used to obtain blood from veins difficult to access by human experimenters. In the present study, we validated the use of reduviid bugs for endocrinological studies in endotherms using domestic rabbits as a model organism. Two processes could alter the hormone concentrations in the blood ingested by the bug: (1) Mixing of ingested blood with saliva, gut fluid, or hemolymph and (2) digestive processes. We compared concentrations of progesterone, testosterone, and hydrocortisone in blood samples that were acquired from domestic rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) by bugs (Dipetalogaster maxima) with hormone concentrations in blood obtained from the same individual rabbits with a conventional method, i.e., syringe. We found no significant differences in hormone concentrations between the two methods. Thus, the mixing effect is negligible immediately after the blood meal. In addition, we also could not find significant changes in concentrations of progesterone and hydrocortisone for up to 8h after the blood meal. Whereas levels of hydrocortisone remained unchanged for even 24h, progesterone levels significantly increased between eight and 24h. Thus, the bugs' excretory apparatus did not fractionate between water and hormones. Thirdly, we hypothesized that reduviid bugs impose less stress on the rabbits than the conventional method. We showed that deviations in hydrocortisone concentrations between the two blood sampling routines were lower when the bug method was used first and higher when the conventional method was used first. Thus, bugs imposed less stress on the study animals than the conventional method. Overall, we conclude that reduviid bugs present a minimally invasive method for obtaining blood from endotherm animals for endocrinological studies.

Measurement of plasma corticosterone and fecal glucocorticoid metabolites in the chicken (Gallus domesticus), the great cormorant (Phalacrocorax carbo), and the goshawk (Accipiter gentilis)

A method for the non-invasive measurement of glucocorticoid metabolites in feces of chickens was established and validated. After high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) the presence of at least two fecal immunoreactives was demonstrated, one co-eluting with authentic corticosterone, whereas the second substance migrates close to corticosterone sulphate. We investigated the relationship between corticosterone in blood plasma obtained by a vena brachialis catheter and fecal samples in groups of five chickens after an ACTH and a dexamethasone injection to stimulate and to suppress adrenal activity. A control group received a saline injection. After ACTH plasma cortisol concentrations increased 16-fold after 1.5 h to levels between 19 and 38 ng/ml and dropped to pre-treatment levels (1.1-2.5 ng/ml) 4h after stimulation. Dexamethasone did not result in a distinct suppression of adrenocortical activity and plasma corticosterone dropped only slightly below pre-treatment levels. The concentrations in fecal metabolites corresponded to the changes in the levels of biological active hormone in plasma. Fecal peak excretion (105-295 ng/g) was obtained with a delay of approximately 4 h compared to plasma. The profile obtained after ACTH challenge reflected a broader and dampened pattern of glucocorticoid secretion and provided a more integrated measure of adrenal activity. Dexamethasone treatment did not induce a measurable decrease in fecal metabolites and concentrations fluctuated around a mean of 30.0+/-9.9 ng/g, almost identical to those obtained from the saline treatment group (29.4+/-13.9 ng/g). In a separate experiment the effect of an alternative capture method (remote-controlled injection system) was investigated in cormorants. Plasma corticosterone measurements revealed a significantly diminished stress reaction compared to traditional trapping (1.24+/-0.78 vs. 10.9+/-12.1 ng/ml). Investigations whether goshawk nestlings infected with Trichomas gallinae differ in fecal corticosterone metabolite concentrations compared to healthy subjects revealed no significant changes. However, a significant correlation was found between the glucocorticoid metabolite concentrations and the number of nestlings per nest. The demonstration that adrenal activity can be detected by the assay is a prerequisite that ecologically meaningful levels of imposed stress can be validated. Therefore, non-invasive measurements of fecal metabolites are a promising perspective to monitor stress in birds.

Human disturbance, nursing behaviour, and lactational pup growth in a declining southern elephant seal (Mirounga leonina) population

We studied lactation behaviour in relation to pup growth in southern elephant seals (Mirounga leonina) at Macquarie Island, and compared harems in areas of high and low human presence to determine if there is an effect attributable to human activities, including scientific research. Pup weaning mass, a known correlate of first–year survival, was positively influenced by suckle bout durations during early and middle lactation and by maternal aggression during late lactation; no other behavioural variables were associated with weaning mass. In the area of high human presence, we observed from a distance the behaviour of mother–pup pairs directly before, during, and after visits to harems by other researchers. Alertness was raised threefold in the presence of people but quickly returned to predisturbance levels after their departure; there were no significant short-term effects on other behavioural variables. In the areas of high and low human presence, we observed the undisturbed behaviour of the seals in the absence of other people. No significant differences in any behavioural variables examined were found, indicating no long-term changes in behaviour resulting from human presence. Human disturbance therefore appears not to have significantly contributed to the population decline observed at Macquarie Island, but the conclusion requires caution given the fairly low power of our analyses.

Hormones as indicators of stress

Animal welfare is of increasing importance and absence of chronic stress is one of its prerequisites. During stress, various endocrine responses are involved to improve the fitness of the individual. The front-line hormones to overcome stressful situations are the glucocorticoids and catecholamines. These hormones are determined as a parameter of adrenal activity and thus of disturbance. The concentration of glucocorticoids (or their metabolites) can be measured in various body fluids or excreta. Above all, fecal samples offer the advantage that they can be easily collected and this procedure is feedback free. Recently, enzyme immunoassays (EIA) have been developed and successfully tested, to enable the measurement of groups of cortisol metabolites in animal feces. The determination of these metabolites in fecal samples is a practical method to monitor glucocorticoid production.

Regular exposure to rabies virus and lack of symptomatic disease in Serengeti spotted hyenas

We report a previously unrecognized complexity to the ecology of rabies in wildlife. Rabies-specific virus-neutralizing antibodies in spotted hyenas, the most numerous large carnivore in the Serengeti ecosystem (Tanzania, East Africa), revealed a high frequency of exposure of 37.0% to rabies virus, and reverse transcriptase (RT) PCR demonstrated rabies RNA in 13.0% of hyenas. Despite this high frequency, exposure neither caused symptomatic rabies nor decreased survival among members of hyena social groups monitored for 9 to 13 years. Repeated, intermittent presence of virus in saliva of 45.5% of seropositive hyenas indicated a "carrier" state. Rabies isolates from Serengeti hyenas differed significantly (8.5% sequence divergence) from those isolated from other Serengeti carnivores, suggesting that at least two separate strains circulate within the Serengeti carnivore community. This finding is consistent with the fact that exposure in hyenas increased with age and social status, following a pattern predicted by intraspecific age and social-status-dependent oral and bite contact rates. High seroprevalence of rabies, low basic reproductive rate of the virus (R(0)) of 1.9, a carrier state, and the absence of symptomatic rabies in a carnivore in an ecosystem with multihost and multistrain maintenance has not been previously demonstrated for rabies. Because of the substantial differences between the hyena viral isolates and those from canids and viverrids in the Serengeti, it is unlikely that spotted hyenas were the source of rabies virus that killed several African wild dog packs in the Serengeti ecosystem in the 1990s.