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Li B, Ma X, Cheng J, Tian T, Guo J, Wang Y, Pang L. Droplets microfluidics platform-A tool for single cell research. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2023; 11:1121870. [PMID: 37152651 PMCID: PMC10154550 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2023.1121870] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2022] [Accepted: 04/03/2023] [Indexed: 05/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Cells are the most basic structural and functional units of living organisms. Studies of cell growth, differentiation, apoptosis, and cell-cell interactions can help scientists understand the mysteries of living systems. However, there is considerable heterogeneity among cells. Great differences between individuals can be found even within the same cell cluster. Cell heterogeneity can only be clearly expressed and distinguished at the level of single cells. The development of droplet microfluidics technology opens up a new chapter for single-cell analysis. Microfluidic chips can produce many nanoscale monodisperse droplets, which can be used as small isolated micro-laboratories for various high-throughput, precise single-cell analyses. Moreover, gel droplets with good biocompatibility can be used in single-cell cultures and coupled with biomolecules for various downstream analyses of cellular metabolites. The droplets are also maneuverable; through physical and chemical forces, droplets can be divided, fused, and sorted to realize single-cell screening and other related studies. This review describes the channel design, droplet generation, and control technology of droplet microfluidics and gives a detailed overview of the application of droplet microfluidics in single-cell culture, single-cell screening, single-cell detection, and other aspects. Moreover, we provide a recent review of the application of droplet microfluidics in tumor single-cell immunoassays, describe in detail the advantages of microfluidics in tumor research, and predict the development of droplet microfluidics at the single-cell level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bixuan Li
- Xi’an Key Laboratory of Pathogenic Microorganism and Tumor Immunity, Xi’an, China
- School of Basic Medicine, Xi’an Medical University, Xi’an, China
| | - Xi Ma
- Xi’an Key Laboratory of Pathogenic Microorganism and Tumor Immunity, Xi’an, China
- School of Basic Medicine, Xi’an Medical University, Xi’an, China
| | - Jianghong Cheng
- Xi’an Key Laboratory of Pathogenic Microorganism and Tumor Immunity, Xi’an, China
- School of Basic Medicine, Xi’an Medical University, Xi’an, China
| | - Tian Tian
- Xi’an Key Laboratory of Pathogenic Microorganism and Tumor Immunity, Xi’an, China
- School of Basic Medicine, Xi’an Medical University, Xi’an, China
| | - Jiao Guo
- Xi’an Key Laboratory of Pathogenic Microorganism and Tumor Immunity, Xi’an, China
- School of Basic Medicine, Xi’an Medical University, Xi’an, China
| | - Yang Wang
- Xi’an Key Laboratory of Pathogenic Microorganism and Tumor Immunity, Xi’an, China
- School of Basic Medicine, Xi’an Medical University, Xi’an, China
- *Correspondence: Yang Wang,
| | - Long Pang
- Xi’an Key Laboratory of Pathogenic Microorganism and Tumor Immunity, Xi’an, China
- School of Basic Medicine, Xi’an Medical University, Xi’an, China
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2
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Zhou WM, Yan YY, Guo QR, Ji H, Wang H, Xu TT, Makabel B, Pilarsky C, He G, Yu XY, Zhang JY. Microfluidics applications for high-throughput single cell sequencing. J Nanobiotechnology 2021; 19:312. [PMID: 34635104 PMCID: PMC8507141 DOI: 10.1186/s12951-021-01045-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2021] [Accepted: 09/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The inherent heterogeneity of individual cells in cell populations plays significant roles in disease development and progression, which is critical for disease diagnosis and treatment. Substantial evidences show that the majority of traditional gene profiling methods mask the difference of individual cells. Single cell sequencing can provide data to characterize the inherent heterogeneity of individual cells, and reveal complex and rare cell populations. Different microfluidic technologies have emerged for single cell researches and become the frontiers and hot topics over the past decade. In this review article, we introduce the processes of single cell sequencing, and review the principles of microfluidics for single cell analysis. Also, we discuss the common high-throughput single cell sequencing technologies along with their advantages and disadvantages. Lastly, microfluidics applications in single cell sequencing technology for the diagnosis of cancers and immune system diseases are briefly illustrated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wen-Min Zhou
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Target & Clinical Pharmacology , The State & NMPA Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences & the Fifth Affiliated Hospital, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, 511436, People's Republic of China
| | - Yan-Yan Yan
- School of Medicine, Shanxi Datong University, Datong, 037009, People's Republic of China
| | - Qiao-Ru Guo
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Target & Clinical Pharmacology , The State & NMPA Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences & the Fifth Affiliated Hospital, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, 511436, People's Republic of China
| | - Hong Ji
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Target & Clinical Pharmacology , The State & NMPA Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences & the Fifth Affiliated Hospital, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, 511436, People's Republic of China
| | - Hui Wang
- Guangzhou Institute of Pediatrics/Guangzhou Women and Children's Medical Center, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, 510623, People's Republic of China
| | - Tian-Tian Xu
- Guangzhou Institute of Pediatrics/Guangzhou Women and Children's Medical Center, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, 510623, People's Republic of China
| | - Bolat Makabel
- Xinjiang Institute of Materia Medica, Urumqi, 830004, People's Republic of China
| | - Christian Pilarsky
- Department of Surgery, Friedrich-Alexander University of Erlangen-Nuremberg (FAU), University Hospital of Erlangen, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Gen He
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Target & Clinical Pharmacology , The State & NMPA Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences & the Fifth Affiliated Hospital, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, 511436, People's Republic of China.
| | - Xi-Yong Yu
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Target & Clinical Pharmacology , The State & NMPA Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences & the Fifth Affiliated Hospital, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, 511436, People's Republic of China.
| | - Jian-Ye Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Target & Clinical Pharmacology , The State & NMPA Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences & the Fifth Affiliated Hospital, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, 511436, People's Republic of China.
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3
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Zucha D, Kubista M, Valihrach L. Tutorial: Guidelines for Single-Cell RT-qPCR. Cells 2021; 10:cells10102607. [PMID: 34685587 PMCID: PMC8534298 DOI: 10.3390/cells10102607] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2021] [Revised: 09/24/2021] [Accepted: 09/27/2021] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Reverse transcription quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) has delivered significant insights in understanding the gene expression landscape. Thanks to its precision, sensitivity, flexibility, and cost effectiveness, RT-qPCR has also found utility in advanced single-cell analysis. Single-cell RT-qPCR now represents a well-established method, suitable for an efficient screening prior to single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-Seq) experiments, or, oppositely, for validation of hypotheses formulated from high-throughput approaches. Here, we aim to provide a comprehensive summary of the scRT-qPCR method by discussing the limitations of single-cell collection methods, describing the importance of reverse transcription, providing recommendations for the preamplification and primer design, and summarizing essential data processing steps. With the detailed protocol attached in the appendix, this tutorial provides a set of guidelines that allow any researcher to perform scRT-qPCR measurements of the highest standard.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Zucha
- Laboratory of Gene Expression, Institute of Biotechnology CAS, 252 50 Vestec, Czech Republic; (D.Z.); (M.K.)
- Department of Informatics and Chemistry, Faculty of Chemical Technology, University of Chemistry and Technology, 166 28 Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Mikael Kubista
- Laboratory of Gene Expression, Institute of Biotechnology CAS, 252 50 Vestec, Czech Republic; (D.Z.); (M.K.)
- TATAA Biocenter AB, 411 03 Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Lukas Valihrach
- Laboratory of Gene Expression, Institute of Biotechnology CAS, 252 50 Vestec, Czech Republic; (D.Z.); (M.K.)
- Correspondence:
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4
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Nadelmann ER, Gorham JM, Reichart D, Delaughter DM, Wakimoto H, Lindberg EK, Litviňukova M, Maatz H, Curran JJ, Gutierrez DI, Hübner N, Seidman CE, Seidman JG. Isolation of Nuclei from Mammalian Cells and Tissues for Single-Nucleus Molecular Profiling. Curr Protoc 2021; 1:e132. [PMID: 34043278 PMCID: PMC8191490 DOI: 10.1002/cpz1.132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Both single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNAseq) and single-nucleus RNA sequencing (snRNAseq) can be used to characterize the transcriptional profile of individual cells, and based on these transcriptional profiles, help define cell type distribution in mixed cell populations. However, scRNAseq analyses are confounded if some of the cells are large (>50 µm) or if some of cells adhere more tightly to some adjacent cells than to others. Further, single cell isolation for scRNAseq requires fresh tissue, which may not be available for human or animal model tissues. Additionally, the current enzymatic and mechanical methods for single-cell dissociation can lead to stress-induced transcriptional artifacts. Nuclei for snRNAseq, on the other hand, can be isolated from any cell, regardless of size, and from either fresh or frozen tissues, and compared to whole cells, they are more resistant to mechanical pressures and appear not to exhibit as many cell isolation-based transcriptional artifacts. Here, we describe a time- and cost-effective procedure to isolate nuclei from mammalian cells and tissues. The protocol incorporates steps to mechanically disrupt samples to release nuclei. Compared to conventional nuclei isolation protocols, the approach described here increases overall efficiency, eliminates risk of contaminant exposure, and reduces volumes of expensive reagents. A series of RNA quality control checks are also incorporated to ensure success and reduce costs of subsequent snRNAseq experiments. Nuclei isolated by this procedure can be separated on the 10× Genomics Chromium system for either snRNAseq and/or Single-Nucleus ATAC-Seq (snATAC-Seq), and is also compatible with other single cell platforms. © 2021 Wiley Periodicals LLC. Basic Protocol 1: Sample preparation and quality control check via RNA Isolation and Analysis Basic Protocol 2: Nuclei Isolation.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Joshua M. Gorham
- Department of Genetics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Daniel Reichart
- Department of Genetics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
| | | | - Hiroko Wakimoto
- Department of Genetics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Eric K. Lindberg
- Cardiovascular and Metabolic Sciences, Max Delbrück Center for Molecular Medicine in the Helmholtz Association (MDC), Berlin, Germany
| | - Monika Litviňukova
- Cardiovascular and Metabolic Sciences, Max Delbrück Center for Molecular Medicine in the Helmholtz Association (MDC), Berlin, Germany
| | - Henrike Maatz
- Cardiovascular and Metabolic Sciences, Max Delbrück Center for Molecular Medicine in the Helmholtz Association (MDC), Berlin, Germany
| | - Justin J. Curran
- Department of Genetics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
| | | | - Norbert Hübner
- Cardiovascular and Metabolic Sciences, Max Delbrück Center for Molecular Medicine in the Helmholtz Association (MDC), Berlin, Germany
| | | | - J. G. Seidman
- Department of Genetics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
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5
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Chang CC, Wang K, Zhang Y, Chen D, Fan B, Hsieh CH, Wang J, Wu MH, Chen J. Mechanical property characterization of hundreds of single nuclei based on microfluidic constriction channel. Cytometry A 2018; 93:822-828. [PMID: 30063818 DOI: 10.1002/cyto.a.23386] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2017] [Revised: 02/18/2018] [Accepted: 04/02/2018] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
As label-free biomarkers, the mechanical properties of nuclei are widely treated as promising biomechanical markers for cell type classification and cellular status evaluation. However, previously reported mechanical parameters were derived from only around 10 nuclei, lacking statistical significances due to low sample numbers. To address this issue, nuclei were first isolated from SW620 and A549 cells, respectively, using a chemical treatment method. This was followed by aspirating them through two types of microfluidic constriction channels for mechanical property characterization. In this study, hundreds of nuclei were characterized, producing passage times of 0.5 ± 1.2 s for SW620 nuclei in type I constriction channel (n = 153), 0.045 ± 0.047 s for SW620 nuclei in type II constriction channel (n = 215) and 0.50 ± 0.86 s for A549 nuclei in type II constriction channel. In addition, neural network based pattern recognition was used to classify the nuclei isolated from SW620 and A549 cells, producing successful classification rates of 87.2% for diameters of nuclei, 85.5% for passage times of nuclei and 89.3% for both passage times and diameters of nuclei. These results indicate that the characterization of the mechanical properties of nuclei may contribute to the classification of different tumor cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chun-Chieh Chang
- Graduate Institute of Biochemical and Biomedical Engineering, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan City, Taiwan
| | - Ke Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Transducer Technology, Institute of Electronics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, People's Republic of China.,School of Electronic, Electrical and Communication Engineering/School of Future Technology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Yi Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Transducer Technology, Institute of Electronics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, People's Republic of China.,School of Electronic, Electrical and Communication Engineering/School of Future Technology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Deyong Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Transducer Technology, Institute of Electronics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, People's Republic of China.,School of Electronic, Electrical and Communication Engineering/School of Future Technology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Beiyuan Fan
- State Key Laboratory of Transducer Technology, Institute of Electronics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, People's Republic of China.,School of Electronic, Electrical and Communication Engineering/School of Future Technology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Chia-Hsun Hsieh
- Division of Haematology/Oncology, Department of Internal Medicine, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital at Linkou, Taoyuan City, Taiwan
| | - Junbo Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Transducer Technology, Institute of Electronics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, People's Republic of China.,School of Electronic, Electrical and Communication Engineering/School of Future Technology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Min-Hsien Wu
- Graduate Institute of Biochemical and Biomedical Engineering, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan City, Taiwan.,Division of Haematology/Oncology, Department of Internal Medicine, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital at Linkou, Taoyuan City, Taiwan
| | - Jian Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Transducer Technology, Institute of Electronics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, People's Republic of China.,School of Electronic, Electrical and Communication Engineering/School of Future Technology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, People's Republic of China
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6
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Christadore L, Grinstaff MW, Schaus SE. Fluorescent Dendritic Micro-Hydrogels: Synthesis, Analysis and Use in Single-Cell Detection. Molecules 2018; 23:E936. [PMID: 29669998 PMCID: PMC6017717 DOI: 10.3390/molecules23040936] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2018] [Revised: 04/10/2018] [Accepted: 04/11/2018] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Hydrogels are of keen interest for a wide range of medical and biotechnological applications including as 3D substrate structures for the detection of proteins, nucleic acids, and cells. Hydrogel parameters such as polymer wt % and crosslink density are typically altered for a specific application; now, fluorescence can be incorporated into such criteria by specific macromonomer selection. Intrinsic fluorescence was observed at λmax 445 nm from hydrogels polymerized from lysine and aldehyde- terminated poly(ethylene glycol) macromonomers upon excitation with visible light. The hydrogel’s photochemical properties are consistent with formation of a nitrone functionality. Printed hydrogels of 150 μm were used to detect individual cell adherence via a decreased in fluorescence. The use of such intrinsically fluorescent hydrogels as a platform for cell sorting and detection expands the current repertoire of tools available.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa Christadore
- Department of Chemistry, Boston University, Boston, MA 02215, USA.
| | - Mark W Grinstaff
- Department of Chemistry, Boston University, Boston, MA 02215, USA.
- Departments of Biomedical Engineering and Medicine, Boston University, Boston, MA 02215, USA.
| | - Scott E Schaus
- Department of Chemistry, Boston University, Boston, MA 02215, USA.
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7
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Abstract
Single-cell analysis has become an established method to study cell heterogeneity and for rare cell characterization. Despite the high cost and technical constraints, applications are increasing every year in all fields of biology. Following the trend, there is a tremendous development of tools for single-cell analysis, especially in the RNA sequencing field. Every improvement increases sensitivity and throughput. Collecting a large amount of data also stimulates the development of new approaches for bioinformatic analysis and interpretation. However, the essential requirement for any analysis is the collection of single cells of high quality. The single-cell isolation must be fast, effective, and gentle to maintain the native expression profiles. Classical methods for single-cell isolation are micromanipulation, microdissection, and fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS). In the last decade several new and highly efficient approaches have been developed, which not just supplement but may fully replace the traditional ones. These new techniques are based on microfluidic chips, droplets, micro-well plates, and automatic collection of cells using capillaries, magnets, an electric field, or a punching probe. In this review we summarize the current methods and developments in this field. We discuss the advantages of the different commercially available platforms and their applicability, and also provide remarks on future developments.
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8
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Abstract
Nanobiomechanics of living cells is very important to understand cell-materials interactions. This would potentially help to optimize the surface design of the implanted materials and scaffold materials for tissue engineering. The nanoindentation techniques enable quantifying nanobiomechanics of living cells, with flexibility of using indenters of different geometries. However, the data interpretation for nanoindentation of living cells is often difficult. Despite abundant experimental data reported on nanobiomechanics of living cells, there is a lack of comprehensive discussion on testing with different tip geometries, and the associated mechanical models that enable extracting the mechanical properties of living cells. Therefore, this paper discusses the strategy of selecting the right type of indenter tips and the corresponding mechanical models at given test conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinju Chen
- School of Mechanical and Systems Engineering, Newcastle University, Newcastle Upon Tyne NE1 7RU, UK
- Arthritis Research UK (ARUK) Tissue Engineering Centre, Institute of Cellular Medicine, Newcastle University, Newcastle Upon Tyne NE2 4HH, UK
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9
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Dobes NC, Dhopeshwarkar R, Henley WH, Ramsey JM, Sims CE, Allbritton NL. Laser-based directed release of array elements for efficient collection into targeted microwells. Analyst 2013; 138:831-8. [PMID: 23223411 PMCID: PMC3558317 DOI: 10.1039/c2an36342a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
A cell separation strategy capable of the systematic isolation and collection of moderate to large numbers (25-400) of single cells into a targeted microwell is demonstrated. An array of microfabricated, releasable, transparent micron-scale pedestals termed pallets and an array of microwells in poly(dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS) were mated to enable selective release and retrieval of individual cells. Cells cultured on a pallet array mounted on a custom designed stage permitted the array to be positioned independently of the microwell locations. Individual pallets containing cells were detached in a targeted fashion using a pulsed Nd:YAG laser. The location of the laser focal point was optimized to transfer individual pallets to designated microwells. In a large-scale sort (n = 401), the accuracy, defined as placing a pallet in the intended well, was 94% and the collection efficiency was 100%. Multiple pallets were observed in only 4% of the targeted wells. In cell sorting experiments, the technique provided a yield and purity of target cells identified by their fluorescence signature of 91% and 93%, respectively. Cell viability based on single-cell cloning efficiency at 72 h post collection was 77%.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas C. Dobes
- Department of Chemistry, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599
| | - Rahul Dhopeshwarkar
- Department of Chemistry, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599
| | - W. Hampton Henley
- Department of Chemistry, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599
| | - J. Michael Ramsey
- Department of Chemistry, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599 and North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695
| | - Christopher E. Sims
- Department of Chemistry, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599
| | - Nancy L. Allbritton
- Department of Chemistry, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599 and North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695
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10
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Hoeppener AELM, Swennenhuis JF, Terstappen LWMM. Immunomagnetic separation technologies. Recent Results Cancer Res 2012; 195:43-58. [PMID: 22527493 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-28160-0_4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
The largest difficulty one faces in the development of technology for detection of circulating tumor cells (CTCs) is whether or not tumor cells are present in the blood and at what frequency. Although the introduction of the validated CellSearch system for CTC enumeration has facilitated CTC research the question remains whether CTC are missed or whether the CTC that are reported are indeed clinically relevant. To fulfill the promise of CTC as a real-time liquid biopsy they will need to be present in the blood volume tested and need to be isolated without losing the ability to test the presence of treatment targets. To characterize a sufficiently large number of CTCs in the majority of cancer patients the volume of blood needed is simply too large to process without enrichment prior to detection. Here, we review the detection of CTCs by flow cytometry and fluorescence microscopy with and without immunomagnetic enrichment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Astrid E L M Hoeppener
- Medical Cell BioPhysics, MIRA Institute, University of Twente, Hallenweg 23, 7522 NH, Enschede, Netherlands
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