Biosynthesis of glucans by subcellular fractions of Paracoccidioides brasiliensis

Biochemical and structural characterization of a glucan synthase GFGLS2 from edible fungus Grifola frondosa to synthesize β-1, 3-glucan

BACKGROUND

Grifola frondosa is a Basidiomycete fungus belonging to the family of Grifolaceae and the order of Polyporales. β-Glucans are the main polymers in G. frondosa, playing a crucial role in the physiology and representing the healthy benefits for humans. The membrane-integrated β-1, 3-glucan synthase (GLS) is responsible for glucan synthesis, cell wall assembly, differentiation and growth of the edible fungi. However, the structural/catalytic characteristics and mechanisms of β-1, 3-glucan synthases in G. frondosa are still unknown due to their extremely complex structures with multi-transmembranes and large molecular masses.

RESULTS

Herein, a β-1, 3-glucan synthase (GFGLS2) was purified and identified from the cultured mycelia with a specific activity of 60.01 pmol min-1 μg-1 for the first time. The GFGLS2 showed a strict specificity to UDP-glucose with a Vmax value of 1.29 ± 0.04 µM min-1 at pH 7.0 and synthesized β-1, 3-glucan with a maximum degree of polymerization (DP) of 62. Sequence Similarity Network (SSN) analysis revealed that GFGLS2 has a close relationship with others in Ganoderma sinense, Trametes coccinea, Polyporus brumalis, and Trametes pubescens. With the assistance of 3D structure modelling by AlphaFold 2, molecular docking and molecular dynamics simulations, the central hydrophilic domain (Class III) in GFGLS2 was the main active sites through binding the substrate UDP-glucose to 11 amino acid residues via hydrogen bonds, π-stacking and salt bridges.

CONCLUSIONS

The biochemical, 3D structural characterization and potential catalytic mechanism of a membrane-bound β-1, 3-glucan synthase GFGLS2 from cultured mycelia of G. frondosa were well investigated and would provide a reasonable full picture of β-1, 3-glucan synthesis in fungi.

Cell wall glucan synthases and GTPases in Paracoccidioides brasiliensis

In this report we identified orthologues of fungal AGS1, RHO1, RHO2, RAC1 and CDC42 genes in the dimorphic fungus Paracoccidioides brasiliensis. Based on its homology to known fungal sequences, P. brasiliensis Ags1 was identified as an alpha-1,3-glucan synthase, while Rho1, Rho2, Rac1 and Cdc42 proteins were classified into the Rho1, Rho2, Rac1 and Cdc42 subgroups of fungal Rho GTPases, respectively. Of them, Rho1 is one of two subunits of a putative beta-1,3-glucan synthase complex, the other being the synthase itself (Fks1), while Rho2 has been associated to the alpha-1,3-glucan synthase (Ags1). Expression studies showed that mRNAs levels of RHO2 and AGS1 kept a direct relationship but the levels of RHO1 and FKS1 did not. P. brasiliensis RHO1 successfully restored growth of Saccharomyces cerevisiae rho1 mutant under restrictive temperature conditions. Chemical analyses of P. brasiliensis alpha-1,3-glucan, synthesized by Ags1p, indicated that it is essentially a linear polysaccharide, with <3% of alpha-1,4-linked glucose branches, occasionally attached as single units to the alpha-1,3-backbone.

Paracoccidioides brasiliensis and paracoccidioidomycosis: molecular approaches to morphogenesis, diagnosis, epidemiology, taxonomy and genetics

Paracoccidioides brasiliensis is an amenable model to study the molecular and biochemical events that lead to morphological transition in fungi, because temperature seems to be the only factor regulating this process. It is the causative agent of paracoccidioidomycosis, a systemic mycosis that affects humans and that is geographically confined to Latin America, where it constitutes one of the most prevalent deep mycoses. With the help of molecular tools, events leading to the morphological transition have been traced to genes that control cell wall glucan and chitin syntheses, and other metabolic processes such as production of heat shock proteins and ornithine decarboxylase activity. Molecular diagnosis and epidemiology of paracoccidioidomycosis are also the focus of intensive research, with several primers being proposed as specific probes for clinical and field uses. Although P. brasiliensis is refractory to cytogenetic analysis, electrophoretic methods have allowed an approximation of its genomic organization and ploidy. Finally, the recognition of P. brasiliensis as an anamorph in the phylum Ascomycota, order Onygenales, family Onygenaceae, has been accomplished by means of molecular tools. This phylogenetic placement has revised the taxonomic position of this fungus, which was traditionally included within now-abandoned higher anamorph taxa, the phylum Deuteromycota and the class Hyphomycetes.

Fungal polysaccharides

Fungal polysaccharides are cell wall components which may act as antigens or as structural substrates. As antigens, the role of mannans in Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Candida albicans, and of glycoproteins in Aspergillus fumigatus are discussed. Analyses on beta-glucan synthetase in Paracoccidioides brasiliensis and the inhibitory effect of Hansenula mrakii killer toxin on beta-glucan biosynthesis are also considered.

Biosynthesis of beta-glucans in fungi

Glucans are the most abundant polysaccharides present in fungi. The present review provides updated information on the structure and synthesis of beta-glucans in fungal cells. Synthesis of these polymers made up of B1,3 chains with a variable degree of B1,6 branching involves several reactions: initiation, chain elongation and branching, of which the most studied one is the elongation step. This reaction, catalyzed by the so-called glucan synthetases, utilizes UDPG as sugar donor. Properties of glucan synthetases are extremely variable depending on the fungal species, and their developmental stage. Because of the importance of these polysaccharides it is anticipated that comprehension of their mechanism of synthesis, is important for the understanding of cell wall assembly and cell growth and morphogenesis, as well as for the design of specific antifungal drugs.

Molecular aspects of fungal dimorphism

The approach to this article will be the review of experimental developments achieved in recent years in the fields of biochemistry, molecular biology, ultrastructure, etc. and that have suggested models and hypothesis in order to understand the regulation of the molecular mechanisms involved in fungal differentiation. Since fungal dimorphism has been seen by many investigators as a useful model of differentiation in eukaryotic systems, and also because of the prevalence of dimorphism among human pathogenic fungi, we have considered relevant to review the work done in Mucor, but also in dimorphic pathogenic fungi such as Paracoccidioides brasiliensis, Histoplasma capsulatum, Candida albicans, Blastomyces dermatitidis, and Sporothrix Schenckii. From this point of view, the involvements of cyclic nucleotides, nucleic acid polymerases, synthesis of macromolecules, synthesis of cell wall and less studied factors will be reviewed.

Effect of detergents on membrane-associated glucan synthetase from Paracoccidioides brasiliensis

Yeast and mycelial particulate preparations of Paracoccidioides brasiliensis were subjected to the action of several detergents in an attempt to solubilize the glucan synthetase present in these preparations. This was achieved more successfully in the yeast membranes than in the mycelial ones. The enzymatic activity was greatly stimulated in the insoluble fractions upon treatment with some of the detergents used. The results suggest that the yeast and mycelial phases of P. brasiliensis may differ in the structures of their membranes and also in the characteristics of their glucan synthetases.

Ultrastructural studies on the dimorphism of Paracoccidioides brasiliensis, Blastomyces dermatitidis and Histoplasma capsulatum

Whole cells or cell walls of the yeastlike and mycelial forms of Paracoccidioides brasiliensis, Blastomyces dermatitidis and Histoplasma capsulatum were treated successively with sodium hydroxide, beta-1,3-glucanase and pronase. The microfibrils in the insoluble residues, probably composed of chitin, were examined in the electron microscope. In the yeastlike form, tightly interwoven, randomly oriented microfibrils were seen. On the other hand, in the mycelial form, a large portion of microfibrils tended to lie in a more or less longitudinal orientation. A role of chitin in the conversion from the yeastlike form to the mycelial form is discussed.

β-1-3- and β-1-4-glucan synthesis by membrane fractions from the fungus Saprolegnia

The β-glucan synthetase activity of the fungus Saprolegnia monoica was assayed by supplying UDP-glucose to membrane fractions of mycelial homogenate. The analysis of glucan products by hydrolysis with various β-glucanases and by chromatography show that both β-1-3- and β-1-4-linkages are formed at high substrate concentrations. In the absence of MgCl2, β-1-3-linked glucans are mainly produced. By increasing MgCl2 concentrations the total synthesis activity and β-1-3-linkages production are reduced. At low substrate concentrations in the presence of MgCl2, β-1-4-linked glucans are the only polysaccharide synthesized. Electron microscopy of radioactive products, synthesized by original membrane fractions or by membrane fractions isolated from continuous sucrose density gradients, shows microfibrils when the assays are conducted at high substrate concentrations in the absence of MgCl2.

Influence of manganese on morphology and cell wall composition of Aspergillus niger during citric acid fermentation

Morphology and cell wall composition of Aspergillus niger were studied under conditions of manganese sufficient or deficient cultivation in an otherwise citric acid producing medium. Omission of Mn2+ (less than 10(-7) M) from the nutrient medium of Aspergillus niger results in abnormal morphological development which is characterized by increased spore swelling, and squat, bulbeous hyphae. Fractionation and analysis of manganese deficient cell walls revealed increased chitin and reduced beta-glucan contents as well as reduction of galactose containing polymers, as compared to cell walls from manganese sufficient grown hyphae. Addition of copper induced the same effect as manganese deficiency, both on morphology and cell wall composition. Addition of cycloheximide also produced a very similar type of morphology with increased chitin and reduced beta-glucan contents of the cell wall but its effect on galactose was less pronounced.