Modus operandi and personality disorder in incarcerated spousal killers

Domestic/Family Homicide: A Systematic Review of Empirical Evidence

BACKGROUND

Domestic/family homicide (D/FH) is a global social, economic and public health problem. To date, the research studies into risk factors associated with D/FH has largely focused on intimate partner homicide (IPH). A more contemporary approach recognizes that D/FH extends beyond the intimate partner relationship. This systematic review sought to identify and quantify the individual, relationship, community and societal factors in the empirical evidence literature on D/FH.

METHODS

Eight electronic databases were searched from January 1999 to December 2020. Published journal articles on studies of D/FH were included if the study included victims and/or perpetrator of D/FH, reported risk and/or protective factors associated with D/FH, reported primary data and was published in English. Factors were descriptively synthesized by the categories of the social ecological model and D/FH sub-type.

RESULTS

Three hundred and forty published articles met the inclusion criteria. From 1999 to 2020 the number of articles on D/FH increased globally from 10 to 40 respectively, declining to 23 in 2020. Almost half of the articles examined populations located in the Americas (160, 47.1%), predominately the United States and the majority of articles used quantitative designs (277, 81.5%). The forms of homicide more commonly studied were intimate partner (171, 50.3%), and filicide (98, 28.8%). Approximately 90% of articles reported individual victim and perpetrator factors, 64.7% examined relationship factors, 17.9% examined community factors and 15.6% examined societal factors.

CONCLUSION

To inform universal and targeted D/FH elimination and prevention strategies, more research across different regions and a greater emphasis on community and societal-level factors is needed.

The role of grievance in fatal family violence and implications for the construct of lone actor grievance-fuelled violence

Introduction

The concept of lone actor grievance fuelled violence assumes that homicides that occur in very different contexts can be thought about in a consistent manner because they share common motivations and resultant emotional states like resentment, outrage or revenge. Fatal family violence has been largely excluded from discussions of lone actor grievance-fuelled homicide, based on the assumption that it is conceptually different. This scoping review examines similarities and discrepancies between the characteristics and motivations of perpetrators of fatal family violence and those who have engaged in lone actor grievance-fuelled homicide outside the family context, and the relevance of the concept of grievance-fuelled violence to fatal family violence.

Methods

This study reviewed published case studies and case series, resulting in a dataset of 102 homicide cases from 36 studies, of which there were 38 fatal family violence cases and 64 categorised as lone actor grievance-fuelled homicide.

Results

Twenty of the 38 fatal family violence cases were identified as being grievance-fuelled, based on the presence of motivations consistent with definitions in the grievance literature. Whilst there were some offence similarities between the fatal family violence cases (e.g., location of offence), those driven by grievance were more similar to lone actor grievance-fuelled homicide in other ways (e.g., offender's gender and offence methods). In both these categories violence was predominantly motivated by grievance and a desire for revenge, whereas non-grievance fatal family violence cases were predominantly motivated by altruism.

Discussion

The motivations that defined behaviour as lone actor grievance-fuelled homicide were equally apparent in a sub-group of fatal family violence, implying that some family violence cases can be integrated into the construct of lone actor grievance-fuelled homicide in future research and theorising.

Racial Disparities in Pregnancy-associated Intimate Partner Homicide

Pregnancy-associated femicide accounts for a mortality burden at least as high as any of the leading specific obstetric causes of maternal mortality, and intimate partners are the most common perpetrators of these homicides. This study examined pregnancy-associated and non-pregnancy-associated intimate partner homicide (IPH) victimization among racial/ethnic minority women relative to their non-minority counterparts using several sources of state-level data from 2003 through 2017. Data regarding partner homicide victimization came from the National Violent Death Reporting System, natality data were obtained from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's National Center for Health Statistics, and relevant sociodemographic information was obtained from the U.S. Census Bureau. Findings indicated that pregnancy and racial/ethnic minority status were each associated with increased risk for partner homicide victimization. Although rates of non-pregnancy-associated IPH victimization were similar between Black and White women, significant differences emerged when limited to pregnancy-associated IPH such that Black women evidenced pregnancy-associated IPH rates more than threefold higher than that observed among White and Hispanic women. Relatedly, the largest intraracial discrepancies between pregnant and non-pregnant women emerged among Black women, who experienced pregnancy-associated IPH victimization at a rate 8.1 times greater than their non-pregnant peers. These findings indicate that the racial disparities in IPH victimization in the United States observed in prior research might be driven primarily by the pronounced differences among the pregnant subset of these populations.

A Comprehensive Analysis of Factors Associated with Intimate Partner Femicide: A Systematic Review

There has been a growing concern about violence against women by intimate partners due to its incidence and severity. This type of violence is a severe problem that has taken the lives of thousands of women worldwide and is expected to continue in the future. A limited amount of research exclusively considers factors related only to these women's deaths. Most focus on deaths of both men and women in an intimate partnership and do not provide precise results on the phenomenon under study. The necessity for an actual synthesis of factors linked solely to women's deaths in heterosexual relationships is key to a comprehensive knowledge of that case. This could assist in identifying high-risk cases by professionals involving an interdisciplinary approach. The study's objective is to systematically review the factors associated with these deaths. Twenty-four studies found inclusion criteria extracted from seven databases (Dialnet, Web of Science, Pubmed, Criminal Justice, Psychology and Behavioral Science Collection, Academic Search Ultimate, and APA Psyarticles). The review was carried out under the PRISMA guidelines' standards. The studies' quality assessment complies with the MMAT guidelines. Findings revealed that there are specific factors of the aggressor, victim, partner's relationship, and environment associated with women's deaths. The results have implications for predicting and preventing women's deaths, providing scientific knowledge applied to develop public action programs, guidelines, and reforms.

Mental Disorders and Intimate Partner Femicide: Clinical Characteristics in Perpetrators of Intimate Partner Femicide and Male-to-Male Homicide

Intimate partner violence against women is a global and persistent public health issue. An extreme manifestation of this problem is intimate partner femicide (IPF), the killing of a woman by a male partner. While declining trends of homicide rates have been observed over decades, rates of femicide and IPF have remained stable. Yet, IPF as a phenomenon has until recently been fairly invisible in Europe, why research from the European countries on rates and characteristics of IPF has been relatively scarce. One area of research, particularly in need of further scrutiny, is to what degree perpetrators of IPF suffer from mental health conditions, and what the clinical features are. The objective of present study was to add to the existing literature by investigating prevalence and types of mental disorders in perpetrators of IPF, and to compare with male-to-male homicide (MMH) perpetrators. Our aim was also to examine life-time contact with psychiatric services, and, with missed opportunities in mind, contacts shortly preceding the homicide. With a retrospective design, this population-based study includes all solved cases of male-perpetrated homicides against intimate female partners (IPF) and other males (MMH) committed in Sweden between January 2007 and December 2009. Primary and secondary psychiatric diagnoses based on ICD, version 8, 9 or 10 from psychiatric inpatient as well as outpatient care have been retrieved. In order to identify mental disorders in perpetrators during commission of the homicidal offense, we also retrieved diagnoses from forensic psychiatric evaluations. Our results demonstrate that approximately one-third of the perpetrators, irrespective of homicide type, had been diagnosed with a mental disorder (excluding substance related disorders) at some point in life. Diagnosis of substance related disorders from psychiatric care was significantly more common in MMH perpetrators (37%) compared to IPF perpetrators (15%). Similarly low rates of major mental disorder were found in both groups (11%) when aggregating life-time diagnoses and diagnoses during commission of the crime. However, homicide-suicide in connection to the offense was relatively common in IPF perpetrators (20%). Thus, our study supports the notion that previous suicide attempts and suicide ideation are important indicators for predicting and possibly preventing IPF.

The Arizona Intimate Partner Homicide (AzIPH) Study: a Step toward Updating and Expanding Risk Factors for Intimate Partner Homicide

Despite the importance of intimate partner violence (IPV) and homicide research to women's health and safety, much remains unknown about risk factors for intimate partner homicide (IPH). This article presents the Arizona Intimate Partner Homicide Study, pilot research that is being conducted in one U.S. state to update and expand on risk factors for IPH. In the context of presenting this study, we summarize the literature on data collection techniques, various marginalized and under researched populations, and the importance of gathering data about the victim-offender relationship and situational IPH risk factors. Additional research is needed to update risk factors for IPH to account for changes in technology and to examine differential risk across diverse populations. Local, community based data collection strategies are likely to provide more comprehensive and nuanced insight into IPH; though, to understand risk factors among marginalized populations, it may be necessary to increase sample size through a national strategy. Although not a panacea, we present this ongoing research as a model for other states to emulate and improve upon, in the hopes of developing more comprehensive data examining risk for IPH among victims of IPV.

Risk Factors for Male Perpetration and Female Victimization of Intimate Partner Homicide: A Meta-Analysis

Intimate partner homicide (IPH) is a serious problem throughout the world. Research has identified the continued need to examine risk factors for IPH to identify individuals who may be at a greater risk of IPH perpetration or victimization. In this study, we conducted a meta-analysis on risk factors for male IPH perpetration and female IPH victimization. This meta-analysis examined results from 17 studies, which included 148 effect sizes used in the analysis. Primary findings from this research suggest the strongest risk factors for IPH were the perpetrator having direct access to a gun, perpetrator's previous nonfatal strangulation, perpetrator's previous rape of the victim, perpetrator's previous threat with a weapon, the perpetrator's demonstration of controlling behaviors, and the perpetrator's previous threats to harm the victim. Implications for law enforcement personnel, medical professionals, victim advocates, mental health professionals, and other professionals who may be in contact with potential IPH perpetrators and victims are discussed.

Personality Disorder Traits, Trauma, and Risk in Perpetrators of Domestic Violence

Crimes committed against partners and family members have devastating effects on victims. Unfortunately, recidivism rates for offenders are high, and there is a need to establish risk factors that may be potential treatment targets. This study aimed to investigate childhood maltreatment, symptoms of trauma, and personality disorder (PD) traits in males convicted of domestic violence (DV) offences. Data were extracted from the files of 40 males under the supervision of the probation service in the United Kingdom. Actual return to custody was recorded after a minimum follow-up of 6 months. Self-reported childhood maltreatment was associated with increases in PD traits, posttraumatic symptoms, and assessed risk. However, maltreatment did not predict return to custody. Tension-reducing behaviours and depressive symptoms predicted return to custody as did antisocial PD. These preliminary findings highlight important areas of future research, in particular, factors which may be relevant treatment targets in reducing the risk of recidivism.

Intimate Partner Homicide Suicide: a Mini-Review of the Literature (2012-2018)

RECENT FINDINGS

In homicide-suicide (HS), a perpetrator kills at least one victim and then commits suicide within a time frame, which is not consistently described in the literature. Most HS happen in an intimate partner relationship (HS-IP), but data about this phenomenon are still scant and poorly systematized.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

To assess the research papers published about HS-IP from 2012 to 2018 in Pubmed and Scopus. Article selection followed the PRISMA flow diagram. Information was extracted from the selected articles and tabulated. The 22 eligible articles focusing on different types of HS, including HS-IP, suggest that HS-IPs are predominantly committed by men, usually married, cohabiting, or recently separated from their partner, with a medium-low employment status; the victim is usually the current or former female partner. Heterogenity of HS makes it difficult to generalize the results. Implications emerge for the need to target domestic violence and firearm regulation.

The magnitude of the injury pattern in femicides by stabbing in Colombian women

Introducción. Estudiar la gravedad del trauma físico en las víctimas de feminicidio podría contribuir a prevenirlo de forma más efectiva.Objetivo. Determinar si el número de heridas en los feminicidios con arma cortopunzante varía respecto a la edad de la víctima y su relación con el atacante.Materiales y métodos. La población correspondió a mujeres colombianas lesionadas hasta la muerte con arma cortopunzante entre 2011 y 2013 (n=331; edad promedio 14-91 años), quienes fueron categorizadas por rangos de edad y tipos de relación con los agresores. Dos análisis ANOVA de una vía y uno factorial permitieron identificar diferencias entre los promedios de las lesiones de las víctimas y los efectos de interacción entre las categorías establecidas.Resultados. El patrón de gravedad del trauma físico fue mayor en mujeres entre los 22 y 40 años y con vínculos románticos con los agresores. Los rangos de edad y tipos de relación tuvieron efectos de interacción sobre la cantidad de heridas sufridas.Conclusión. La edad de las víctimas y el tipo de relación que tenían con el agresor son variables a considerar al diseñar políticas de prevención del feminicidio dado que su conexión con actos violentos resulta en un patrón peor de lesiones.

The Value of Incorporating Measures of Relationship Concordance When Constructing Profiles of Intimate Partner Homicides: A Descriptive Study of IPH Committed Within London, 1998-2009

This article presents a profile of intimate partner homicides (IPH) committed within London incorporating a gendered comparison of the perpetrators' relationships. Data was sourced from the original police files for offenses committed in the capital between 1998 and 2009 ( N = 207; 173 male and 34 female perpetrators). In common with other international descriptive studies, the results indicate comparative differences between partners according to perpetrator gender in terms of age profiles, employment status, experience of mental health issues, intoxication at time of killing, and possession of criminal convictions. Gender-based IPH descriptive studies have tended to focus on a collation of either victim or perpetrator or relationship characteristics, often in isolation from one another. Assessments of how parties interact within fatal relationships are invariably absent, and yet, it is the relationship that forms the backdrop against which the fatal acts are perpetrated. This study, therefore, not only provides an insight into the profile of IPH committed within London where none had previously existed but also demonstrates the advantages of incorporating relationship concordance measures. The inclusion of such measures when researching IPH assists homicide investigators in understanding the dynamics taking place within the cohort of fatal relationships they police. It also provides researchers a useful platform to enhance understanding of this crucial aspect, for it is the relationship itself which is what defines IPH and distinguishes as a unique subset of homicide.

[Temporal analysis of mortality due to intimate partner violence in Spain]

OBJECTIVES

To analyze the temporal distribution of mortality due to violence by intimate partners (VIP) and to identify possible temporal clusters in women deaths by VIP in Spain.

METHODS

We performed a descriptive epidemiological study based on the VIP deaths included in the database of the Federation of Divorced and Separated Women (1998-2003). The epidemic index (EI) was calculated as the ratio between the actual number of VIP deaths in a given month from January to July 2003 and the median number in the same month in the five preceding years. A Poisson model was used to analyze the distribution by years (1998-2002), seasons, months, and days. Simple regression analysis was performed with three-monthly means. A temporal cluster analysis was also carried out.

RESULTS

In 2003, the EI of VIP mortality was high in January (EI = 1.6), March (EI = 1.2), May (EI = 1.5), June (EI = 2), and July (EI = 2.5). Compared with 1998 and Sundays, respectively, mortality due to VIP was significantly increased in 2001 (relative risk, RR = 1.52; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.05-2.20) and on Mondays (RR = 1.77; 95%CI, 1.13-2.76). The regression analyses confirmed an increase between the first three-month period of 1998 and the last three-month period of 2001. There were no differences between seasons and months. No temporal clusters of deaths were detected.

CONCLUSIONS

VIP is currently an increasing epidemic in Spain with no clear temporal pattern. Political and legal efforts to reduce this problem do not seem to be successful.

Insecure attachment behavior and partner violence: incorporating couple perceptions of insecure attachment and relational aggression

Intimate partner violence and insecure attachment are therapeutically relevant concepts when working with couples. The link between attachment and intimate partner violence has been examined in the literature, but an area of aggression that often goes unexamined is relational aggression, or using third parties as a means of being aggressive toward a partner. We asked how participants' attachment behaviors were related to their own and partners' relational and physical aggression. We used structural equation modeling to estimate actor-partner interdependence among these relationships in 644 heterosexual couples. Results indicated significant partner paths from attachment to relational aggression, as well as significant actor paths between relational aggression and physical aggression. Implications were discussed. Data for this study were collected from the RELATE assessment.

Profile and programming needs of federal offenders with histories of intimate partner violence

This study presents data on male perpetrators of domestic violence (DV) in the Correctional Service of Canada (CSC) using two samples: (a) a snapshot of all male offenders in CSC who had been assessed for DV (n = 15,166) and (b) a cumulative sample of male offenders in CSC from 2002-2010 who had been assessed as moderate or high risk for further DV (n = 4,261) DV offenders were compared to a cohort sample of non-DV offenders (n = 4,261). Analyses were disaggregated for Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal offenders. Results indicated that 40% of the federal male population had a suspected history of DV and were therefore screened in for in-depth DV risk assessment. Of these, 45% were assessed as moderate or high risk for future DV. DV offenders had higher risk and criminogenic need ratings, more learning disabilities, more mental health problems, and more extensive criminal histories than those without DV histories. Aboriginal DV offenders had high levels of alcohol dependence, suggesting a need for substance abuse treatment as part of DV programming. Most federal offenders with DV histories would be described as belonging to the Antisocial/Generalized Aggressive typology and, therefore, adhering to the Risk-Need-Responsivity principles of the effective correctional literature, cognitive-behavioral treatment that focuses on teaching skills of self-management, and changing attitudes supporting relationship violence would be recommended.

Homicidal behaviour among people with avoidant, dependent and obsessive-compulsive (cluster C) personality disorder

BACKGROUND

Despite a growing forensic psychiatry literature, no previous study has examined in detail homicidal behaviour among offenders with cluster C personality disorders - the avoidant, dependent or obsessional personality disorders.

AIMS

This study aims to compare homicide offenders with cluster C personality disorders with those with other personality disorders on criminal history, offender-victim relationship and post-offence reaction variables.

METHODS

The sample was drawn from all Finnish homicide cases of 1996-2004 for whom a forensic psychiatric evaluation had been conducted. Data were extracted from forensic psychiatric and crime reports.

RESULTS

In a nationwide sample of 593 homicide offenders, 21 had at least one cluster C personality disorder. These offenders had significantly shorter criminal histories than the others. Offender-victim relationship did not differ between the groups, but confession to the crime and feelings of remorse were more common among people with cluster C disorders. In addition, compared with other personality disorder clusters, co-morbid depression was more common.

CONCLUSIONS

Cluster C personality disorders are rare, but not nonexistent, among homicide offenders. Observed differences in their backgrounds and post-offence behaviours indicate that they may have special needs.

Applying Effective Corrections Principles (RNR) to Partner Abuse Interventions

Results of outcome evaluations of the domestic violence (DV) programs are not encouraging. Overall, the most optimistic conclusion is that these programs have only a modest impact on reducing repeat partner violence. Recently, there are calls for DV programs to “grow up,” adapt a paradigm shift, shed ideology, and determine how the maximum impact can be realized from work to reduce intimate partner violence (IPV). The following review examines why program results are so unconvincing and proposes a comprehensive framework to advance the field. Specifically, it recommends that applying the risk-need-responsivity (RNR) principles of effective corrections could substantially improve treatment results. Using this framework, the article identifies selected risk assessment tools to screen offenders into appropriate levels of service (the risk principle) and provides an extensive review of the literature on appropriate targets for change (the need principle). Problems with substance use (particularly alcohol abuse), emotion management, self-regulation, and attitudes supportive of partner abuse have substantial empirical support as factors related to IPV. There is weaker but promising support for targeting the impact of association with peers who are supportive of abuse of women, poor communication skills, and motivation to change abusive behavior patterns. Responsivity could be enhanced through incorporation of motivational interviewing techniques, the processes of change identified in the Transtheoretical Model, solution-focused and strength-based approaches, and attention to identity change and cultural issues. In addition, the review describes strategies to insure ongoing program integrity, a key factor in implementing effective interventions.

Women who kill their mates

Spousal homicide perpetrators are much more likely to be men than women. Accordingly, little research has focused on delineating characteristics of women who have committed spousal homicide. A retrospective clinical review of coroners' files containing all cases of spousal homicide occurring in Quebec over a 20-year period was carried out. A total of 276 spousal homicides occurred between 1991 and 2010, with 42 homicides by female spouses and 234 homicides by male spouses. Differences between homicides committed by female offenders and male offenders are discussed, and findings on spousal homicide committed by women are compared with those of previous studies. Findings regarding offenses perpetrated by females in the context of mental illness, domestic violence, and homicide-suicide are explored. The finding that only 28% of the female offenders in the Quebec sample had previously been subjected to violence by their victim is in contrast to the popular belief and reports that indicate that most female-perpetrated spousal homicide occurs in self-defense or in reaction to long-term abuse. In fact, women rarely gave a warning before killing their mates. Most did not suffer from a mental illness, although one-fifth were acutely intoxicated at the time of the killing. In the vast majority of cases of women who killed their mates, there were very few indicators that might have signaled the risk and helped predict the violent lethal behavior.

Distress resulting from perceivers' own intimate partner violence experiences predicts culpability attributions toward a battered woman on trial for killing her abuser: a path model

Intimate partner violence (IPV) constitutes the majority of assaults against women in the United States, and greater than one third of female homicide victims are murdered by an intimate partner. In a small percentage of cases, battered women kill their abusers, and evidence of battering and its effects may be used to support a plea of self-defense in these cases. Prior research has shown that culpability attributions toward battered women who have killed their abusers are influenced by perceiver variables, including gender. The present study expands on this research by examining the influence of psychological distress resulting from perceivers' own IPV experiences--and the mechanisms of this influence--on their culpability attributions toward a battered woman defendant. Female undergraduates in the present sample (N = 154) read a vignette, adapted from an actual criminal case about a battered woman who had killed her abuser. Data supported a hypothesized path model, wherein participants reporting greater psychological distress resulting from IPV perpetrated against them perceived themselves more similar to the defendant, in turn empathized with her to a greater extent, and, in turn, attributed less legal culpability to her. Implications for future research are discussed.

Adaptive and maladaptive personality traits as predictors of violent and nonviolent offending behavior in men and women

The aim of this study was to assess both violent and nonviolent offending behavior in a single, mixed-sex population. The rationale for this is that the two types of offending are usually researched separately, despite evidence that they overlap. A comprehensive measure of general violence, intimate partner violence (IPV), and nonviolent offending behavior was administered to 116 men and 181 women, together with measures of personality and personality disorder (PD) traits, to investigate whether predictors of violent and nonviolent offending were similar or different for men and women. Men were found to perpetrate higher levels of general violence and nonviolent offenses than women, but women perpetrated significantly more IPV than men. Cluster B PD traits predicted all three offense types for women and also men's general violence and nonviolent offending. Women's general violence and men's non-violence also had one unique risk factor each, low agreeableness, and low conscientiousness, respectively. The main difference was for IPV, where men's IPV was predicted by cluster A PD traits, indicating that men's and women's risk factors for IPV may be different, although their risk factors for the other offense types were fairly consistent.

From Mate Retention to Murder: Evolutionary Psychological Perspectives on Men's Partner-Directed Violence

In response to the tragically high incidence and negative consequences of female-directed violence in intimate relationships, a large literature has been dedicated to the investigation of the proximate and the ultimate or evolutionary predictors of men's partner-directed violence. Evolutionary psychology offers a framework for investigating the design of evolved information-processing mechanisms that motivate costly behaviors such as men's partner-directed violence. We review several forms of men's partner-directed violence, including insults, sexual coercion, physical violence, and homicide, from an evolutionary psychological perspective and with a particular focus on the adaptive problem of paternity uncertainty. The problem of paternity uncertainty is hypothesized to have selected for the emotion of male sexual jealousy, which in turn motivates men's nonviolent and violent mate retention behaviors. We review empirical evidence for the relationships among paternity uncertainty, male sexual jealousy, and men's partner-directed violence. We propose that a comprehensive understanding of men's partner-directed violence will be achieved only by careful consideration of both proximate and ultimate causes.

Treating patients with two or more personality disorders: an introduction

A high percentage of patients diagnosed with one personality disorder (PD) have, at the same time, at least one other PD. However, psychotherapists lack clinical guidance and research evidence on treating such complex patients. This issue of the Journal of Clinical Psychology: In Session attempts to bridge the gap. In this Introduction, the editors outline the subsequent articles in this issue and address the terminology, prevalence, and possible causes of Axis II comorbidity. They argue that comorbidity is, in part, ascribable to problems in classification systems and can be reduced by defining PDs in a more multifaceted manner. They provide several clinical vignettes to portray frequent difficulties encountered by psychotherapists in treating these complex, co-occurrent cases.

Classifying partner femicide

The heterogeneity of domestic violent men has long been established. However, research has failed to examine this phenomenon among men committing the most severe form of domestic violence. This study aims to use a multidimensional approach to empirically construct a classification system of men who are incarcerated for the murder of their female partner based on the Holtzworth-Munroe and Stuart (1994) typology. Ninety men who had been convicted and imprisoned for the murder of their female partner or spouse in England were identified from two prison samples. A content dictionary defining offense and offender characteristics associated with two dimensions of psychopathology and criminality was developed. These variables were extracted from institutional records via content analysis and analyzed for thematic structure using multidimensional scaling procedures. The resultant framework classified 80% (n = 72) of the sample into three subgroups of men characterized by (a) low criminality/low psychopathology (15%), (b) moderate-high criminality/ high psychopathology (36%), and (c) high criminality/low-moderate psychopathology (49%). The latter two groups are akin to Holtzworth-Munroe and Stuart's (1994) generally violent/antisocial and dysphoric/borderline offender, respectively. The implications for intervention, developing consensus in research methodology across the field, and examining typologies of domestic violent men prospectively are discussed.

20 years of research into violence and trauma: past and future developments

This reflection on major developments in the past, present, and future of the wider field of violence and trauma is a personal (and probably biased) sampling of what the authors hold to be important. The authors reviewed advances for victims and perpetrators of violence separately. For victims, the authors note that empirical research has established the potential traumatic impact of violence as well as various predictors of what makes persons vulnerable to adverse psychological consequences. The authors also note that the definitions of violence and trauma have evolved to include such behavioral patterns as stalking. Finally, encouraging evidence regarding the efficacy of exposure-based treatments for victims of violence is reviewed, as well as discouraging evidence regarding the efficacy of single-session debriefing following trauma. For the perpetrators, the importance of individual assessment in planning interventions is underscored, and advances in explicit and implicit assessment techniques are discussed.

Age-based factors in femicide

Homicide is a topic of interest not only because of its severity but because it is a fairly reliable barometer of all violent crime, especially as it affects women. This exploratory study compared a group of murdered women over age 60 with a group of murdered women 30-59 and included age-based factors for both groups. Discussion focuses on forensics as insight to crime scene dynamics and homicidal behavior.

Interpersonal processes in social phobia

Social phobia is a condition in which anxiety impairs the person's ability to relate to others. Here, we draw on concepts from interpersonal theory to examine the literature on the role of interpersonal processes in creating and maintaining this disorder. Studies that examine interpersonal interactions with significant others and strangers are reviewed. We next consider topics of particular relevance to relationship impairment, such as the effect of anxiety on cognitive processing of social information, and the social developmental pathways to social phobia. The impact of interpersonal factors on the process and outcome of cognitive-behavioral treatment is also discussed. Finally, we identify emerging themes in the research literature and consider directions for future work. Throughout the paper we highlight topics central to the interpersonal perspective, such as the self-perpetuating interpersonal cycle, interpersonal variability in social phobia, and the relational nature of self-related information.

Perpetrators of spousal homicide: a review

It has been argued that individuals who engage in spouse abuse increase their violence toward their partners, which can culminate in the death of either the assaulter or the victim. The aim of this review is to identify risk factors that determine whether an abusive relationship will end in eventual death. An extensive search revealed 22 empirical research studies on risk factors for spousal homicide. The circumstances of spousal homicide are described and salient risk factors are highlighted. In the United Kingdom, 37% of all women were murdered by their current or former intimate partner compared to 6% of men. The most common cause of an intimate partner's death in England and Wales was being attacked with a sharp implement or being strangled. By contrast, the most common cause in the United States for spousal homicide was being shot. Nine major risk factors are found that may help predict the probability of a partner homicide and prevent future victims.

Personality dynamics of intimate abusiveness

A new theory is proposed to account for individual differences in the tendency to be abusive, assaultive, or homicidal in intimate relationships. The focus of this theory is on men whose abuse is specific to intimate relationships and is manifested through cyclical mood swings. This group, which appears to comprise about 40% of all men who present for treatment for wife assault, appears to have a borderline personality structure. For these men, abusiveness is triggered by internal mood states rather than by external events. Several studies are cited indicating that intimate attachment generates rage in wife assaulters. The origins of this attachment-rage are traced to early development. This template generates a complex of perceptions (attributions and projections) and behaviors (abusiveness) specific to intimate relationships. A personality profile of intimately abusive males has been strongly related to intimate partners' reports of psychological abusiveness in several samples of males, including physically assaultive males, non-violent controls, clinical outpatients, college students, and gay males.

Avoidant personality disorder: current status and future directions

Avoidant Personality Disorder (APD) is the topic of a growing body of research literature. In this article, we review empirical studies of APD with the goals of identifying the themes that underlie this work and pointing to new directions for future research. In particular, we recommend that future studies evaluate several unique factors postulated by personality theorists to be central to this condition.