Heme-Cu complexes as oxygen-activating functional models for the active site of cytochrome c oxidase

Structural Determination of an Unusual CuI -Porphyrin-π-Bond in a Hetero-Pacman Cu-Zn-Complex

The synthesis and characterization of a hetero‐dinuclear compound is presented, in which a copper(I) trishistidine type coordination unit is positioned directly above a zinc porphyrin unit. The close distance between the two coordination fragments is secured by a rigid xanthene backbone, and a unique (intramolecular) copper porphyrin‐π‐bond was determined for the first time in the molecular structure. This structural motif was further analyzed by temperature‐dependent NMR studies: In solution at room temperature the coordinative bond fluctuates, while it can be frozen at low temperatures. Preliminary reactivity studies revealed a reduced reactivity of the copper(I) moiety towards dioxygen. The results adumbrate why nature is avoiding metal porphyrin‐π‐bonds by fixing reactive metal centers in a predetermined distance to each other within multimetallic enzymatic reaction centers.

Influence of intramolecular secondary sphere hydrogen-bonding interactions on cytochrome c oxidase inspired low-spin heme-peroxo-copper complexes

Dioxygen reduction by heme-copper oxidases is a critical biochemical process, wherein hydrogen bonding is hypothesized to participate in the critical step involving the active-site reductive cleavage of the O-O bond. Sixteen novel synthetic heme-(μ-O2 2-)-Cu(XTMPA) complexes, whose design is inspired by the cytochrome c oxidase active site structure, were generated in an attempt to form the first intramolecular H-bonded complexes. Derivatives of the "parent" ligand (XTMPA, TMPA = (tris((2-pyridyl)methyl)amine)) possessing one or two amine pendants preferentially form an H-bond with the copper-bound O-atom of the peroxide bridge. This is evidenced by a characteristic blue shift in the ligand-to-metal charge transfer (LMCT) bands observed in UV-vis spectroscopy (consistent with lowering of the peroxo π* relative to the iron orbitals) and a weakening of the O-O bond determined by resonance Raman spectroscopy (rR), with support from Density Functional Theory (DFT) calculations. Remarkably, with the TMPA-based infrastructure (versus similar heme-peroxo-copper complexes with different copper ligands), the typically undetected Cu-O stretch for these complexes was observed via rR, affording critical insights into the nature of the O-O peroxo core for the complexes studied. While amido functionalities have been shown to have greater H-bonding capabilities than their amino counterparts, in these heme-peroxo-copper complexes amido substituents distort the local geometry such that H-bonding with the peroxo core only imparts a weak electronic effect; optimal H-bonding interactions are observed by employing two amino groups on the copper ligand. The amino-substituted systems presented in this work reveal a key orientational anisotropy in H-bonding to the peroxo core for activating the O-O bond, offering critical insights into effective O-O cleavage chemistry. These findings indirectly support computational and protein structural studies suggesting the presence of an interstitial H-bonding water molecule in the CcO active site, which is critical for the desired reactivity. The results are evaluated with appropriate controls and discussed with respect to potential O2-reduction capabilities.

The regulation of oxidative phosphorylation pathway on Vibrio alginolyticus adhesion under adversities

Vibrio alginolyticus is one of the most important pathogens in mariculture and leading to heavy losses. After treatment with Cu²⁺, Pb²⁺, and low pH, the expression of oxidative phosphorylation pathway genes, including coxA, coxB, coxC, ccoN, ccoO, and ccoQ, was found commonly downregulated by RNA‐seq as well as quantitative real‐time PCR. RNAi significantly reduced the expression of coxA, coxB, coxC, ccoN, ccoO, and ccoQ in V. alginolyticus. Compared with the wild‐type strain, the adhesion abilities of RNAi strains of V. alginolyticus were significantly impaired, as well as their cytochrome C oxidase activity. ccoQ appeared to be more important in the regulation of bacterial adhesion in these target genes, while ccoO was relatively weak in the regulation of the adhesion. Meanwhile, the changes of temperature, salinity, pH, and starvation affected coxA, coxB, coxC, ccoN, ccoO, and ccoQ expression remarkably. These findings indicated that: the oxidative phosphorylation pathway is a critical regulator of adhesion in V. alginolyticus; coxA, coxB, coxC, ccoN, ccoO, and ccoQ regulate the bacterial adhesion in response to environmental changes such as temperature, salinity, pH, and starvation.

Synthetic Fe/Cu Complexes: Toward Understanding Heme-Copper Oxidase Structure and Function

Heme-copper oxidases (HCOs) are terminal enzymes on the mitochondrial or bacterial respiratory electron transport chain, which utilize a unique heterobinuclear active site to catalyze the 4H+/4e- reduction of dioxygen to water. This process involves a proton-coupled electron transfer (PCET) from a tyrosine (phenolic) residue and additional redox events coupled to transmembrane proton pumping and ATP synthesis. Given that HCOs are large, complex, membrane-bound enzymes, bioinspired synthetic model chemistry is a promising approach to better understand heme-Cu-mediated dioxygen reduction, including the details of proton and electron movements. This review encompasses important aspects of heme-O2 and copper-O2 (bio)chemistries as they relate to the design and interpretation of small molecule model systems and provides perspectives from fundamental coordination chemistry, which can be applied to the understanding of HCO activity. We focus on recent advancements from studies of heme-Cu models, evaluating experimental and computational results, which highlight important fundamental structure-function relationships. Finally, we provide an outlook for future potential contributions from synthetic inorganic chemistry and discuss their implications with relevance to biological O2-reduction.

Surface enhanced resonance Raman spectroscopy of iron Hangman complexes on electrodes during electrocatalytic oxygen reduction: advantages and problems of common drycast methods

Drycast methods have been used frequently in recent decades to adsorb a range of synthetic catalysts on electrodes. The uncoordinated multilayers that are formed via this immobilization method can however have a strong impact on the electrocatalytic reaction pathway as slow electron transfer and intermolecular interactions can alter the chemistry of the catalysts on the surface. To gain insight into the structure of Fe porphyrin Hangman catalysts during electrocatalytic oxygen reduction a combination of electrochemistry and surface enhanced resonance Raman spectroscopy (SERRS) was applied. The Hangman complexes were attached to the electrodes via different methods and the influence of the immobilisation technique on oxygen chemistry was studied. In multilayer systems, new intermediates could be identified via potential dependent SERRS that were not present in solution or in monolayer systems under catalytic conditions. A comparison of Raman spectra obtained either via Soret or Q-band excitation showed that the porphyrin symmetry is strongly distorted under reducing conditions, which was interpreted by the transient formation of dimer complexes during catalysis.

Unprecedented (μ-1,1-Peroxo)diferric Structure for the Ambiphilic Orange Peroxo Intermediate of the Nonheme N-Oxygenase CmlI

The final step in the biosynthesis of the antibiotic chloramphenicol is the oxidation of an aryl-amine substrate to an aryl-nitro product catalyzed by the N-oxygenase CmlI in three two-electron steps. The CmlI active site contains a diiron cluster ligated by three histidine and four glutamate residues and activates dioxygen to perform its role in the biosynthetic pathway. It was previously shown that the active oxidant used by CmlI to facilitate this chemistry is a peroxo-diferric intermediate (CmlIP). Spectroscopic characterization demonstrated that the peroxo binding geometry of CmlIP is not consistent with the μ-1,2 mode commonly observed in nonheme diiron systems. Its geometry was tentatively assigned as μ-η2:η1 based on comparison with resonance Raman (rR) features of mixed-metal model complexes in the absence of appropriate diiron models. Here, X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) and rR studies have been used to establish a refined structure for the diferric cluster of CmlIP. The rR experiments carried out with isotopically labeled water identified the symmetric and asymmetric vibrations of an Fe-O-Fe unit in the active site at 485 and 780 cm-1, respectively, which was confirmed by the 1.83 Å Fe-O bond observed by XAS. In addition, a unique Fe···O scatterer at 2.82 Å observed from XAS analysis is assigned as arising from the distal O atom of a μ-1,1-peroxo ligand that is bound symmetrically between the irons. The (μ-oxo)(μ-1,1-peroxo)diferric core structure associated with CmlIP is unprecedented among diiron cluster-containing enzymes and corresponding biomimetic complexes. Importantly, it allows the peroxo-diferric intermediate to be ambiphilic, acting as an electrophilic oxidant in the initial N-hydroxylation of an arylamine and then becoming a nucleophilic oxidant in the final oxidation of an aryl-nitroso intermediate to the aryl-nitro product.

Using Biosynthetic Models of Heme-Copper Oxidase and Nitric Oxide Reductase in Myoglobin to Elucidate Structural Features Responsible for Enzymatic Activities

In biology, a heme-Cu center in heme-copper oxidases (HCOs) is used to catalyze the four-electron reduction of oxygen to water, while a heme-nonheme diiron center in nitric oxide reductases (NORs) is employed to catalyze the two-electron reduction of nitric oxide to nitrous oxide. Although much progress has been made in biochemical and biophysical studies of HCOs and NORs, structural features responsible for similarities and differences within the two enzymatic systems remain to be understood. Here, we discuss the progress made in the design and characterization of myoglobin-based enzyme models of HCOs and NORs. In particular, we focus on use of these models to understand the structure-function relations between HCOs and NORs, including the role of nonheme metals, conserved amino acids in the active site, heme types and hydrogen-bonding network in tuning enzymatic activities and total turnovers. Insights gained from these studies are summarized and future directions are proposed.

Spectroscopic and Crystallographic Evidence for the Role of a Water-Containing H-Bond Network in Oxidase Activity of an Engineered Myoglobin

Heme-copper oxidases (HCOs) catalyze efficient reduction of oxygen to water in biological respiration. Despite progress in studying native enzymes and their models, the roles of non-covalent interactions in promoting this activity are still not well understood. Here we report EPR spectroscopic studies of cryoreduced oxy-F33Y-CuBMb, a functional model of HCOs engineered in myoglobin (Mb). We find that cryoreduction at 77 K of the O2-bound form, trapped in the conformation of the parent oxyferrous form, displays a ferric-hydroperoxo EPR signal, in contrast to the cryoreduced oxy-wild-type (WT) Mb, which is unable to deliver a proton and shows a signal from the peroxo-ferric state. Crystallography of oxy-F33Y-CuBMb reveals an extensive H-bond network involving H2O molecules, which is absent from oxy-WTMb. This H-bonding proton-delivery network is the key structural feature that transforms the reversible oxygen-binding protein, WTMb, into F33Y-CuBMb, an oxygen-activating enzyme that reduces O2 to H2O. These results provide direct evidence of the importance of H-bond networks involving H2O in conferring enzymatic activity to a designed protein. Incorporating such extended H-bond networks in designing other metalloenzymes may allow us to confer and fine-tune their enzymatic activities.

Metal organic frameworks mimicking natural enzymes: a structural and functional analogy

In this review, we have portrayed the structure, synthesis and applications of a variety of biomimetic MOFs from an unprecedented angle.

An unusual peroxo intermediate of the arylamine oxygenase of the chloramphenicol biosynthetic pathway

Streptomyces venezuelae CmlI catalyzes the six-electron oxygenation of the arylamine precursor of chloramphenicol in a nonribosomal peptide synthetase (NRPS)-based pathway to yield the nitroaryl group of the antibiotic. Optical, EPR, and Mössbauer studies show that the enzyme contains a nonheme dinuclear iron cluster. Addition of O(2) to the diferrous state of the cluster results in an exceptionally long-lived intermediate (t(1/2) = 3 h at 4 °C) that is assigned as a peroxodiferric species (CmlI-peroxo) based upon the observation of an (18)O(2)-sensitive resonance Raman (rR) vibration. CmlI-peroxo is spectroscopically distinct from the well characterized and commonly observed cis-μ-1,2-peroxo (μ-η(1):η(1)) intermediates of nonheme diiron enzymes. Specifically, it exhibits a blue-shifted broad absorption band around 500 nm and a rR spectrum with a ν(O-O) that is at least 60 cm(-1) lower in energy. Mössbauer studies of the peroxo state reveal a diferric cluster having iron sites with small quadrupole splittings and distinct isomer shifts (0.54 and 0.62 mm/s). Taken together, the spectroscopic comparisons clearly indicate that CmlI-peroxo does not have a μ-η(1):η(1)-peroxo ligand; we propose that a μ-η(1):η(2)-peroxo ligand accounts for its distinct spectroscopic properties. CmlI-peroxo reacts with a range of arylamine substrates by an apparent second-order process, indicating that CmlI-peroxo is the reactive species of the catalytic cycle. Efficient production of chloramphenicol from the free arylamine precursor suggests that CmlI catalyzes the ultimate step in the biosynthetic pathway and that the precursor is not bound to the NRPS during this step.

Analysis of structure-function relationships in cytochrome c oxidase and its biomimetic analogs via resonance Raman and surface enhanced resonance Raman spectroscopies

Cytochrome c oxidase (CcO) catalyzes the four electron reduction of molecular oxygen to water while avoiding the formation of toxic peroxide; a quality that is of high relevance for the development of oxygen-reducing catalysts. Resonance Raman spectroscopy has been used since many years as a technique to identify electron transfer pathways in cytochrome c oxidase and to identify the key intermediates in the catalytic cycle. This information can be compared to artificial systems such as modified heme-copper enzymes, molecular heme-copper catalysts or CcO/electrode complexes in order to shed light into the reaction mechanism of these non-natural systems. Understanding the structural commonalities and differences of CcO with its non-natural analogs is of great value for designing efficient oxygen-reducing catalysts. In this review therefore Raman spectroscopic measurements on artificial heme-copper enzymes and model complexes are summarized and compared to the natural enzyme cytochrome c oxidase. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Vibrational spectroscopies and bioenergetic systems.

Systematic tuning of heme redox potentials and its effects on O2 reduction rates in a designed oxidase in myoglobin

Cytochrome c Oxidase (CcO) is known to catalyze the reduction of O2 to H2O efficiently with a much lower overpotential than most other O2 reduction catalysts. However, methods by which the enzyme fine-tunes the reduction potential (E°) of its active site and the corresponding influence on the O2 reduction activity are not well understood. In this work, we report systematic tuning of the heme E° in a functional model of CcO in myoglobin containing three histidines and one tyrosine in the distal pocket of heme. By removing hydrogen-bonding interactions between Ser92 and the proximal His ligand and a heme propionate, and increasing hydrophobicity of the heme pocket through Ser92Ala mutation, we have increased the heme E° from 95 ± 2 to 123 ± 3 mV. Additionally, replacing the native heme b in the CcO mimic with heme a analogs, diacetyl, monoformyl, and diformyl hemes, that posses electron-withdrawing groups, resulted in higher E° values of 175 ± 5, 210 ± 6, and 320 ± 10 mV, respectively. Furthermore, O2 consumption studies on these CcO mimics revealed a strong enhancement in O2 reduction rates with increasing heme E°. Such methods of tuning the heme E° through a combination of secondary sphere mutations and heme substitutions can be applied to tune E° of other heme proteins, allowing for comprehensive investigations of the relationship between E° and enzymatic activity.

Synthetic Models of the Active Site of Cytochromec Oxidase: Influence of Tridentate or Tetradentate Copper Chelates Bearing a HisTyr Linkage Mimic on Dioxygen Adduct Formation by Heme/Cu Complexes

Two synthetic models of the active site of cytochrome c oxidase--[(LN4-OH)CuI-FeII(TMP)]+ (1 a) and [(LN3-OH)CuI-FeII(TMP)]+ (2 a)-have been designed and synthesized. These models each contain a heme and a covalently attached copper moiety supported either by a tetradentate N4-copper chelate or by a tridentate N3-copper chelate including a moiety that acts as a mimic of the crosslinked His-Tyr component of cytochrome c oxidase. Low-temperature oxygenation reactions of these models have been investigated by spectroscopic methods including UV/Vis, resonance Raman, ESI-MS, and EPR spectroscopy. Oxygenation of the tetradentate model 1 a in MeCN and in other solvents produces a low-temperature-stable dioxygen-bridged peroxide [(LN4-OH)CuII-O2-FeIII(TMP)]+ {nuO--O=799 (16O2)/752 cm(-1) (18O2)}, while a heme superoxide species [(TMP)FeIII(O2-)CuIILN3-OH] {nuFe--O2: 576 (16O2)/551 cm(-1) (18O2)} is generated when the tridentate model 2 a is oxygenated in EtCN solution under similar experimental conditions. The coexistence of a heme superoxide species [(TMP)FeIII(O2-)CuIILN3-OH] and a bridged peroxide [(LN3-OH)CuII-O2-FeIII(TMP)]+ species in equal amounts is observed when the oxygenation reaction of 2 a is performed in CH2Cl(2)/7 % EtCN, while the percentage of the peroxide (approximately 70 %) in relation to superoxide (approximately 30 %) increases further when the crosslinked phenol moiety in 2 a is deprotonated to produce the bridged peroxide [(LN3-OH)CuII-O2-FeIII(TMP)]+ {nuO--O: 812 (16O2)/765 cm(-1) (18O2)} as the main dioxygen intermediate. The weak reducibility and decreased O2 reactivity of the tricoordinated CuI site in 2 a are responsible for the solvent-dependent formation of dioxygen adducts. The initial binding of dioxygen to the copper site en route to the formation of a bridged heme-O2-Cu intermediate by model 2 a is suggested and the deprotonated crosslinked His-Tyr moiety might contribute to enhancement of the O2 affinity of the CuI site at an early stage of the dioxygen-binding process.

Further Insights into the Spectroscopic Properties, Electronic Structure, and Kinetics of Formation of the Heme−Peroxo−Copper Complex [(F8TPP)FeIII−(O22-)−CuII(TMPA)]+

In the further development and understanding of heme-copper O2-reduction chemistry inspired by the active-site chemistry in cytochrome c oxidase, we describe a dioxygen adduct, [(F8TPP)FeIII-(O22-)-CuII(TMPA)](ClO4) (3), formed by addition of O2 to a 1:1 mixture of the porphyrinate-iron(II) complex (F8TPP)FeII (1a) {F8TPP = tetrakis(2,6-difluorophenyl)porphyrinate dianion} and the copper(I) complex [(TMPA)CuI(MeCN)](ClO4) (1b) {TMPA = tris(2-pyridylmethyl)amine}. Complex 3 forms in preference to heme-only or copper-only binuclear products, is remarkably stable {t1/2 (RT; MeCN) approximately 20 min; lambda max = 412 (Soret), 558 nm; EPR silent}, and is formulated as a peroxo complex on the basis of manometry {1a/1b/O2 = 1:1:1}, MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry {16O2, m/z 1239 [(3 + MeCN)+]; 18O2, m/z 1243}, and resonance Raman spectroscopy {nu(O-O) = 808 cm-1; Delta16O2/18O2 = 46 cm-1; Delta16O2/16/18O2 = 23 cm-1}. Consistent with a mu-eta2:eta1 bridging peroxide ligand, two metal-O stretching frequencies are observed {nu(Fe-O) = 533 cm-1, nu(Fe-O-Cu) = 511 cm-1}, and supporting normal coordinate analysis is presented. 2H and 19F NMR spectroscopies reveal that 3 is high-spin {also muB = 5.1 +/- 0.2, Evans method} with downfield-shifted pyrrole and upfield-shifted TMPA resonances, similar to the pattern observed for the structurally characterized mu-oxo complex [(F8TPP)FeIII-O-CuII(TMPA)]+ (4) (known S = 2 system, antiferromagnetically coupled high-spin FeIII and CuII). Mössbauer spectroscopy exhibits a sharp quadrupole doublet (zero field; delta = 0.57 mm/s, |DeltaEQ| = 1.14 mm/s) for 3, with isomer shift and magnetic field dependence data indicative of a peroxide ligand and S = 2 formulation. Both UV-visible-monitored stopped-flow kinetics and Mössbauer spectroscopic studies reveal the formation of heme-only superoxide complex (S)(F8TPP)FeIII-(O2-) (2a) (S = solvent molecule) prior to 3. Thermal decomposition of mu-peroxo complex 3 yields mu-oxo complex 4 with concomitant release of approximately 0.5 mol O2 per mol 3. Characterization of the reaction 1a/1b + O2 --> 2 --> 3 --> 4, presented here, advances our understanding and provides new insights to heme/Cu dioxygen-binding and reduction.

Built-in Axial Base Binding on Phenanthroline-Strapped Zinc(II) and Iron(III) Porphyrins

In addition to the need for functional models of cytochrome c oxidase, structural models are still required for a better understanding of the small reorganizations occurring during the catalytic cycle. An efficient synthetic approach has been designed to prepare several phenanthroline-strapped porphyrins, two of them bearing two pendant imidazoles. These built-in bases are both potentially able to act as axial bases for the metalloporphyrin and as complementary ligands for copper if necessary. Diamagnetic zinc(II) was used to demonstrate that the distal/proximal selectivity demonstrated by exogenic bases binding studies can be extended to the coordination of iron(III). Combination of EPR and paramagnetic 1H NMR shows that the imidazole binding on the zinc species can be further extended to the iron(III) species in dilute conditions.

Identification of a histidine-tyrosine cross-link in the active site of the cbb3-type cytochrome c oxidase from Rhodobacter sphaeroides

The heme-copper oxidases constitute a superfamily of terminal dioxygen-reducing enzymes located in the inner mitochondrial or in the bacterial cell membrane. The presence of a mechanistically important covalent bond between a histidine ligand of the copper ion (Cu(B)) in the active site and a generally conserved tyrosine residue nearby has been shown to exist in the canonical cytochrome c oxidases. However, according to sequence alignment studies, this critical tyrosine is missing from the subfamily of cbb(3)-type oxidases found in certain bacteria. Recently, homology modeling has suggested that a tyrosine residue located in a different helix might fulfill this role in these enzymes. Here, we show directly by methods of protein chemistry and mass spectrometry that there is indeed a covalent link between this tyrosine and the copper-ligating histidine. The identity of the cross-linked tyrosine was determined by showing that the cross-link is not formed when this residue is replaced by phenylalanine, even though structural integrity is maintained. These results suggest a universal functional importance of the histidine-tyrosine cross-link in the mechanism of O(2) reduction by all heme-copper oxidases.

Biogenesis of cytochrome c oxidase

Cytochrome c oxidase (COX), the terminal enzyme of electron transport chains in some prokaryotes and in mitochondria, has been characterized in detail over many years. Recently, a number of new data on structural and functional aspects as well as on COX biogenesis emerged. COX biogenesis includes a variety of steps starting from translation to the formation of the mature complex. Each step involves a set of specific factors that assist translation of subunits, their translocation across membranes, insertion of essential cofactors, assembly and final maturation of the enzyme. In this review, we focus on the organization and biogenesis of COX.

Tridentate Copper Ligand Influences on Heme−Peroxo−Copper Formation and Properties: Reduced, Superoxo, and μ-Peroxo Iron/Copper Complexes

In cytochrome c oxidase synthetic modeling studies, we recently reported a new mu-eta2:eta2-peroxo binding mode in the heteronuclear heme/copper complex [(2L)Fe(III)-(O2(2-))-CuII]+ (6) which is effected by tridentate copper chelation (J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2004, 126, 12716). To establish fundamental coordination and O2-reactivity chemistry, we have studied and describe here (i) the structure and dioxygen reactivity of the copper-free compound (2L)FeII (1), (ii) detailed spectroscopic properties of 6 in comparisons with those of known mu-eta2:eta1 heme-peroxo-copper complexes, (iii) formation of 6 from the reactions of [(2L)FeIICuI]+ (3) and dioxygen by stopped-flow kinetics, and (iv) reactivities of 6 with CO and PPh3. In the absence of copper, 1 serves as a myoglobin model compound possessing a pyridine-bound five-coordinate iron(II)-porphyrinate which undergoes reversible dioxygen binding. Oxygenation of 3 below -60 degrees C generates the heme-peroxo-copper complex 6 with strong antiferromagnetic coupling between high-spin iron(III) and copper(II) to yield an S = 2 spin system. Stopped-flow kinetics in CH2Cl2/6% EtCN show that dioxygen reacts with iron(II) first to form a heme-superoxide moiety, [(EtCN)(2L)FeIII-(O2-)...CuI(EtCN)]+ (5), which further reacts with Cu(I) to generate 6. Compared to those properties of a known mu-eta2:eta1-heme-peroxo-copper complex, 6 has a significantly diminished resonance Raman nu(O-O) stretching frequency at 747 cm(-1) and distinctive visible absorptions at 485, 541, and 572 nm, all of which seem to be characteristics of a mu-eta2:eta2-heme-peroxo-copper system. Addition of CO or PPh3 to 6 yields a bis-CO adduct of 3 or a PPh(3) adduct of 5, the latter with a remaining FeIII-(O2-) moiety.

Dioxygen reactivity of copper and heme-copper complexes possessing an imidazole-phenol cross-link

Recent spectroscopic, kinetics, and structural studies on cytochrome c oxidases (CcOs) suggest that the histidine-tyrosine cross-link at the heme a3-CuB binuclear active site plays a key role in the reductive O2-cleavage process. In this report, we describe dioxygen reactivity of copper and heme/Cu assemblies in which the imidazole-phenol moieties are employed as a part of copper ligand LN4OH (2-{4-[2-(bis-pyridin-2-ylmethyl-amino)-ethyl]-imidazol-1-yl}-4,6-di -tert-butyl-phenol). Stopped-flow kinetic studies reveal that low-temperature oxygenation of [CuI(LN4OH)]+ (1) leads to rapid formation of a copper-superoxo species [CuII(LN4OH)(O2-)]+ (1a), which further reacts with 1 to form the 2:1 Cu:O2 adduct, peroxo complex [{CuII(LN4OH)}2(O2(2-))]2+ (1b). Complex 1b is also short-lived, and a dimer Cu(II)-phenolate complex [CuII(LN4O-)]2(2+) (1c) eventually forms as a final product in the later stage of the oxygenation reaction. Dioxygen reactivities of 1 and its anisole analogue [CuI(LN4OMe)]+ (2) in the presence of a heme complex (F8)FeII (3) (F8 = tetrakis(2,6,-difluorotetraphenyl)-porphyrinate) are also described. Spectroscopic investigations including UV-vis, 1H and 2H NMR, EPR, and resonance Raman spectroscopies along with spectrophotometric titration reveal that low-temperature oxygenation of 1/3 leads to formation of a heme-peroxo-copper species [(F8)FeIII-(O2(2-))-CuII(LN4OH)]+ (4), nu(O-O) = 813 cm(-1). Complex 4 is an S = 2 spin system with strong antiferromagnetic coupling between high-spin iron(III) and copper(II) through a bridging peroxide ligand. A very similar complex [(F8)FeIII-(O2(2-))-CuII(LN4OMe)]+ (5) (nu(O-O) = 815 cm(-1)) can be generated by utilizing the anisole compound 2, which indicates that the cross-linked phenol moiety in 4 does not interact with the bridging peroxo group between heme and copper. This investigation thus reveals that a stable heme-peroxo-copper species can be generated even in the presence of an imidazole-phenol group (i.e., possible electron/proton donor source) in close proximity. Future studies are needed to probe key factors that can trigger the reductive O-O cleavage in CcO model compounds.

Selective formation of a stable μ-peroxo ferric heme-CuIIcomplex from the corresponding μ-oxo FeIII–CuIIspecies with hydrogen peroxide

An oxo-bridged ferric heme-copper(II) complex, obtained by thermal transformation of the corresponding peroxo-bridged complex, was reacted with an equimolar amount of H2O2 to regenerate the micro-peroxo complex by a ligand exchange from oxo to peroxo, without the formation of a ferryl-oxo species or heme degradation as are observed in general ferric heme-H2O2 reactions.

Heme-copper/dioxygen adduct formation relevant to cytochrome c oxidase: spectroscopic characterization of [(6L)FeIII-(O2(2-))-CuII]+

In the further development and understanding of heme-copper dioxygen reactivity relevant to cytochrome c oxidase O(2)-reduction chemistry, we describe a high-spin, five-coordinate dioxygen (peroxo) adduct of an iron(II)-copper(I) complex, [((6)L)Fe(II)Cu(I)](BArF(20)) (1), where (6)L is a tetraarylporphyrinate with a tethered tris(2-pyridylmethyl)amine chelate for copper. Reaction of 1 with O(2) in MeCN affords a remarkably stable [t(1/2) (rt; MeCN) approximately 60 min] adduct, [((6)L)Fe(III)-(O(2) (2-))-Cu(II)](+) (2) [EPR silent; lambda(max)=418 (Soret), 561 nm], formulated as a peroxo complex based on manometry (1:O(2)=1:1; spectrophotometric titration, -40 degrees C, MeCN), mass spectrometry {MALDI-TOF-MS: (16)O(2), m/z 1191 ([((6)L)Fe(III)-((16)O(2) (2-))-Cu(II)](+)); (18)O(2), m/z 1195}, and resonance Raman spectroscopy (nu((O-O))=788 cm(-1); Delta(16)O(2)/(18)O(2)=44 cm(-1); Delta(16)O(2)/(16/18)O(2)=22 cm(-1)). (1)H and (2)H NMR spectroscopy (-40 degrees C, MeCN) reveals that 2 is the first heme-copper peroxo complex which is high-spin, with downfield-shifted pyrrole resonances (delta(pyrrole)=75 ppm, s, br) and upfield shifted peaks at delta= -22, -35, and -40 ppm, similar to the pattern observed for the mu-oxo complex [((6)L)Fe(III)-O-Cu(II)](BAr(F)) (3) (known S=2 system, antiferromagnetically coupled high-spin Fe(III) and Cu(II)). The corresponding magnetic moment measurement (Evans method, CD(3)CN, -40 degrees C) also confirms the S=2 spin state, with mu(B)=4.9. Structural insights were obtained from X-ray absorption spectroscopy, showing Fe-O (1.83 A) and Cu-O (1.882 A) bonds, and an Fe...Cu distance of 3.35(2) A, suggestive of a mu-1,2-peroxo ligand present in 2. The reaction of 2 with cobaltocene gives 3, differing from the observed full reduction seen with other heme-Cu peroxo complexes. Finally, thermal decomposition of 2 yields 3, with concomitant release of 0.5 mol O(2) per mol 2, as confirmed quantitatively by an alkaline pyrogallol dioxygen scavenging solution.

Targeted Proton Delivery in the Catalyzed Reduction of Oxygen to Water by Bimetallic Pacman Porphyrins

A combined experimental and theoretical investigation of the role of proton delivery in determining O2 reduction pathways catalyzed by cofacial bisporphyrins is presented. A homologous family of dicobalt(II) Pacman porphyrins anchored by xanthene [Co2(DPX) (1) and Co2(DPXM) (3)] and dibenzofuran [Co2(DPD) (2) and Co2(DPDM) (4)] have been synthesized, characterized, and evaluated as catalysts for the direct four-proton, four-electron reduction of O2 to H2O. Structural analysis of the intramolecular diiron(III) mu-oxo complex Fe2O(DPXM) (5) and electrochemical measurements of 1-4 establish that Pacman derivatives bearing an aryl group trans to the spacer possess structural flexibilities and redox properties similar to those of their parent counterparts; however, these trans-aryl catalysts exhibit markedly reduced selectivities for the direct reduction of O2 to H2O over the two-proton, two-electron pathway to H2O2. Density functional theory calculations reveal that trans-aryl substitution results in inefficient proton delivery to O2-bound catalysts compared to unsubstituted congeners. In particular, the HOMO of [Co2(DPXM)(O2)]+ disfavors proton transfer to the bound oxygen species, funneling the O-O activation pathway to single-electron chemistry and the production of H2O2, whereas the HOMO of [Co2(DPX)(O2)]+ directs protonation to the [Co2O2] core to facilitate subsequent multielectron O-O bond activation to generate two molecules of H2O. Our findings highlight the importance of controlling both proton and electron inventories for specific O-O bond activation and offer a unified model for O-O bond activation within the clefts of bimetallic porphyrins.

Formation and spectroscopic characterization of the dioxygen adduct of a heme-Cu complex possessing a cross-linked tyrosine-histidine mimic: modeling the active site of cytochrome c oxidase

A binucleating porphyrin with covalently appended copper chelates having a cross-linked imidazole-phenol group as the novel active site model of cytochrome c oxidase has been prepared, and the dioxygen adduct of its iron(II)-copper(I) complex was spectroscopically characterized.

Superoxo, mu-peroxo, and mu-oxo complexes from heme/O2 and heme-Cu/O2 reactivity: copper ligand influences in cytochrome c oxidase models

The O(2)-reaction chemistry of 1:1 mixtures of (F(8))Fe(II) (1; F(8) = tetrakis(2,6-diflurorophenyl)porphyrinate) and [(L(Me(2))N)Cu(I)](+) (2; L(Me(2))N = N,N-bis(2-[2-(N',N'-4-dimethylamino)pyridyl]ethyl)methylamine) is described, to model aspects of the chemistry occurring in cytochrome c oxidase. Spectroscopic investigations, along with stopped-flow kinetics, reveal that low-temperature oxygenation of 1/2 leads to rapid formation of a heme-superoxo species (F(8))Fe(III)-(O(2)(-)) (3), whether or not 2 is present. Complex 3 subsequently reacts with 2 to form [(F(8))Fe(III)-(O(2)(2-))-Cu(II)(L(Me(2))N)](+) (4), which thermally converts to [(F(8))Fe(III)-(O)-Cu(II)(L(Me(2))N)](+) (5), which has an unusually bent (Fe-O-Cu) bond moiety. Tridentate chelation, compared with tetradentate, is shown to dramatically lower the nu(O-O) values observed in 4 and give rise to the novel structural features in 5.

Distal metal effects in cobalt porphyrins related to CcO

Cobalt(II) porphyrins were studied to determine the influence of distal site metalation and superstructure upon dioxygen reactivity in active site models of cytochrome c oxidase (CcO). Monometallic, Co(II)(P) complexes when ligated by an axial imidazole react with dioxygen to form reversible Co-superoxide adducts, which were characterized by EPR and resonance Raman (RR). Unexpectedly, certain Co porphyrins with Cu(I) metalated imidazole pickets do not form mu-peroxo Co(III)/Cu(II) products even though the calculated intermetallic distance suggests this is possible. Instead, cobalt-porphyrin-superoxide complexes are obtained with the distal copper remaining as Cu(I). Moreover, distal metals (Cu(I) or Zn(II)) greatly enhance the stability of the dioxygen adduct, such that Co superoxides of bimetallic complexes demonstrate minimal reversibility. The "trapping" of dioxygen by a second metal is attributed to structural and electrostatic changes within the distal pocket upon metalation. EPR evidence suggests that the terminal oxygen in these bimetallic Co-superoxide systems is H-bonded to the NH of an imidazole picket amide linker, which may contribute to enthalpic stabilization of the dioxygen adduct. Stabilization of the dioxygen adduct in these bimetallic systems suggests one possible role for the distal copper in the Fe/Cu bimetallic active site of terminal oxidases, which form a heme-superoxide/copper(I) adduct upon oxygenation.

Biomimetic studies of terminal oxidases: trisimidazole picket metalloporphyrins

Three biomimetic models for the binuclear Fe/Cu (heme/trisimidazole) active site of terminal oxidases, such as cytochrome c oxidase and related enzymes, have been prepared. Based upon a tetrakis(aminophenyl)porphyrin core, these models possess a single covalently linked imidazole-bearing tail on one side of the porphyrin and three imidazole "pickets" on the opposite side of the porphyrin ring. Three different imidazole picket motifs are characterized in free base, Fe, Zn, Fe/Cu, and Zn/Cu forms. A combination of NMR, EPR, and IR demonstrates that, for the N-methylimidazole systems studied, the distal Cu is bound within the trisimidazole environment in the reduced (Cu(I)) and oxidized (Cu(II)) forms. The imidazole picket substitution pattern and state of metalation have significant influence on the interaction of these compounds with CO. For imidazole picket systems containing NH groups, intramolecular H bonds compete with Cu(I) coordination of the N donors.