Transient somatostatin-immunoreactive ganglion cells in the developing rat retina

Somatostatin receptor types 1 and 2 in the developing mammalian cochlea

The neuropeptide somatostatin (SST) exerts several important physiological actions in the adult central nervous system through interactions with membrane-bound receptors. Transient expression of SST and its receptors has been described in several brain areas during early ontogeny. It is therefore believed that SST may play a role in neural maturation. The present study provides the first evidence for the developmental expression of SST receptors in the mammalian cochlea, emphasizing their possible roles in cochlear maturation. In the developing mouse cochlea, cells immunoreactive to somatostatin receptor 1 (SSTR1) and somatostatin receptor 2 (SSTR2) were located in the embryonic cochlear duct on Kolliker's organ as early as embryonic day (E) 14 (E14). At E17, the expression of both receptors was high and already located at the hair cells and supporting cells along the length of the cochlear duct, which have become arranged into the characteristic pattern for the organ of Corti (OC) at this stage. At birth, SSTR1- and SSTR2-containing cells were only localized in the OC. In general, immunoreactivity for both receptors increased in the mouse cochlea from postnatal day (P) 0 (P0) to P10; the majority of immunostained cells were inner hair cells, outer hair cells, and supporting cells. Finally, a peak in the mRNA and protein expression of both receptors is present near the time when they respond to physiological hearing (i.e., hearing of airborne sound) at P14. At P21, SSTR1 and SSTR2 levels decrease dramatically. A similar developmental pattern was observed for SSTR1 and SSTR2 mRNA, suggesting that the expression of the SSTR1 and SSTR2 genes is controlled at the transcriptional level throughout development. In addition, we observed reduced levels of phospho-Akt and total Akt in SSTR1 knockout and SSTR1/SSTR2 double-knockout mice compared with wild-type mice. We know from previous studies that Akt is involved in hair cell survival. Taken together, the dynamic nature of SSTR1 and SSTR2 expression at a time of major developmental changes in the cochlea suggests that SSTR1 and SSTR2 (and possibly other members of this family) are involved in the maturation of the mammalian cochlea.

Physiology and pathology of somatostatin in the mammalian retina: a current view

In the retina, peptidergic signalling participates in multiple circuits of visual information processing. The neuropeptide somatostatin (SRIF) is localised to amacrine cells and, in some instances, in a subset of ganglion cells. The variegated expression patterns of SRIF receptors (sst(1)-sst(5)) and the variety of signalling mechanisms activated by retinal SRIF suggest that this peptide may exert multiple actions on retinal neurons and on retinal physiology, although our current understanding reflects a rather complicated picture. SRIF, mostly through sst(2), may act as a positive factor in the retina by regulating retinal homeostasis and protecting neurons against damage. In this respect, SRIF analogues seem to constitute a promising therapeutic arsenal to cure different retinal diseases, as for instance, ischemic and diabetic retinopathies. However, further investigations are needed not only to fully understand the functional role of the SRIF system in the retina but also to exploit new chemical space for drug-like molecules.

Comparison of hypocretin/orexin and melanin-concentrating hormone neurons and axonal projections in the embryonic and postnatal rat brain

Hypocretin/orexin (H/O) and melanin-concentrating hormone (MCH) are peptide neuromodulators found in separate populations of neurons located within the lateral and perifornical hypothalamic regions. H/O has been linked to sleep-wakefulness regulation and to the sleep disorder narcolepsy, and both systems have been implicated in energy homeostasis, including the regulation of food intake. In the present study we compared the development of H/O and MCH-expressing neuronal populations with in situ hybridization and immunohistochemistry on adjacent sections in the embryonic and postnatal rat brain. We found that MCH mRNA and protein were present in developing neurons of the hypothalamus by embryonic day 16 (E16), whereas H/O mRNA and protein were not detected until E18. We also identified previously undescribed populations of MCH-immunoreactive cells in the lateral septum, paraventricular hypothalamic nucleus, lateral zona incerta, and ventral lateral geniculate nucleus that may play a specific role in the development of these regions. MCH immunoreactive axonal processes were also evident earlier than H/O stained fibers and at the time H/O immunoreactive processes were first identified in the hypothalamus at E20, extensive MCH axonal fiber systems were already present in many brain regions. Interestingly, however, the density of axonal fibers immunoreactive for H/O in the locus coeruleus reached peak levels at the same developmental age (P21) as MCH immunoreactive axons in the diagonal band of Broca (DBB). The peak of axon density coincided with the developmental stage at which adult patterns of feeding and sleep-waking activity become established. The present results demonstrate developmental differences and similarities between the MCH and H/O systems that may relate to their respective roles in feeding and sleep regulation.

Neurokinin 1 receptor expression and substance p physiological actions are developmentally regulated in the rabbit retina

We investigated the expression of the substance P (SP) receptor (the neurokinin 1 receptor, NK1 receptor) and SP functional effects in developing rabbit retinas. NK1 receptors in adult retinas were in a population of cone bipolar cells and in dopaminergic amacrine cells, as previously described. In contrast, at birth and at postnatal day (PND) 6, NK1 receptors were exclusively expressed by cholinergic amacrine and displaced amacrine cells. NK1 receptor expression in cholinergic cells was still observed at PND10 (eye opening), while at PND21 it was confined to cholinergic cells of the inner nuclear layer. Starting at PND10, NK1 receptors were also in bipolar cells and in dopaminergic amacrine cells. A fully mature NK1 receptor expression pattern was observed at PND35. Dopamine release was assessed in isolated retinas in the presence of SP, the NK1 receptor agonist GR73632 or the NK1 receptor antagonist GR82334. At PND35, extracellular dopamine was significantly increased by 10 microM SP or 0.01-100 microM GR73632, and it was decreased by 0.01-10 microM GR82334. No effects were detected in developing retinas up to PND21. Ca2+ imaging experiments were performed in single cholinergic cells identified by their "starburst" morphology in perinatal retinas. Intracellular Ca2+ levels were significantly increased by 1 microM SP or GR73632. This effect was reversibly inhibited by 1 microM GR82334. These data demonstrate that both NK1 receptor expression and SP physiological actions are developmentally regulated in the retina. SP neurotransmission in the immature retina may subserve developmental events, and SP is likely to represent an important developmental factor for the maturation of retinal neurons and circuitries.

Somatostatin (SRIF) and SRIF receptors in the mouse retina

In the retina, somatostatin (SRIF) acts as a neuromodulator by interacting with specific SRIF subtype (sst) receptors. The aim of this study was to detect mRNAs for sst(1-5) receptors by semiquantitative RT-PCR and to determine the cellular localization of either SRIF or individual SRIF receptor immunoreactivities. Size, density and absolute number of immunolabeled somata were measured using computer-assisted image analysis. With RT-PCR we found that all five sst receptor mRNAs were expressed, with highest levels of sst(2) and sst(4) receptors. SRIF immunolabeling was localized to sparse-occurring amacrine cells in the inner nuclear layer (INL) and to displaced amacrine cells in the ganglion cell layer (GCL). sst(2A) receptors were localized to protein kinase- (PKC) immunoreactive (IR) rod bipolar cells, calbindin- (CaBP-) IR horizontal cells, tyrosine hydroxylase- (TH-) IR amacrine cells and glycinergic amacrine cells. None of the sst(2A)-IR amacrine cells were found to express parvalbumin (PV) immunoreactivity. sst(4) receptor immunolabeling was localized to CaBP-IR and CaBP-non-IR cells in the GCL that originated long process bundles in the GC axon layer. These cells were not observed after optic nerve transection and they were therefore interpreted as ganglion cells. Quantitative analysis showed that all of the PKC-IR rod bipolar cells, CaBP-IR horizontal cells, and TH-IR amacrine cells and 5% of the glycinergic amacrine cells expressed sst(2A) receptors. In addition, 4-6% of the putative ganglion cells expressed sst(4) receptors. The localization of SRIF to sparse-occurring retinal neurons, together with the widespread expression of sst(2A) and sst(4) receptors suggests that SRIF acts at multiple levels of retinal circuitry. These results provide a database for investigations of the functional retinal networks in mice with genetic alterations of somatostatinergic transmission.

Transient expression of somatostatin mRNA in developing ganglion cell layers of rat retina

Somatostatin (SOM) mRNA in developing ganglion cell layer (GCL) detected by in situ hybridization histochemistry and SOM peptide in developing optic chiasma and optic tract detected by immunocytochemistry were monitored to explore whether ganglion cells expressing SOM project to the visual center. Most of these cells in the developing GCL expressed SOM transiently from embryonic day 13 (E13) to E21. The cells expressing SOM mRNA initially followed a central-to-peripheral pattern of development. The cells expressing SOM mRNA in the retinas of fetuses became detectable at E13. From E14 to E17 the number of cells expressing SOM mRNA increased rapidly. At E17 most of the cells in the developing GCL expressed SOM mRNA. From E18 to postnatal days the positive cells became sparse except at the postnatal day 0 (PND0) the positive cells decreased dramatically in comparison with that at the E21. At PND15, the positive cells only can be found in the inner neuroblastic layer and in the ganglion cell layer. At PND20 the distribution pattern and the number of the positive cells were essentially the same as that in adult rat. SOM immunoreactivity was detectable at E16 in the developing optic chiasma and optic tract; the majority of the fibers in these area were SOM positive. From E16 to E18 the density of the immunostaining increased rapidly, whereas from E19 to E21 the density decreased. At PND0 no positive fibers were seen. The transient presence of SOM in most of the ganglion cells in the developing ganglion cell layer has prompted us to study the role of SOM in generation and differentiation of the retinal ganglion cells, and formation of the retina-visual center projections.

Postnatal development of somatostatin 2A (sst2A) receptors expression in the rabbit retina

In the retina, somatostatin (SRIF) acts as a neuromodulator by interacting with specific SRIF subtype (sst) receptors. Aim of this investigation was to determine the cellular localization of the sst2A receptor isoform in the postnatal rabbit retina. Receptor immunoreactivity was localized using the antiserum K-230, directed to the C-terminus of the human sst2A receptor. In the postnatal rabbit retina, sst2A receptors were abundantly expressed without significant regional differences. They were localized predominantly to rod bipolar cells, identified with a protein kinase C (PKC) antibody, to amacrine cells, some of which also containing tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), and to presumed rare horizontal cells. Quantitative analysis showed that sst2A-immunoreactive (-IR) bipolar and amacrine cells reached their maximum density and absolute number at the time of eye opening, when the expression pattern of sst2A receptors was similar to that in adult retinas. In the adult retina, 68% of the PKC-IR rod bipolars and 34% of the TH-IR amacrine cells were observed to also express sst2A receptors. The appearance of sst2A receptor immunolabeling prior to eye opening and the developmental profile of sst2A receptor expression are compatible with a role of SRIF in the maturation of retinal circuitries. The partial expression of sst2A receptors in PKC-IR rod bipolar cells and in TH-IR amacrine cells may suggest some type of heterogeneity within these cell populations.

Chronic exposure to either somatostatin (SS) or octreotide, a long-lasting SS analogue, affects SS expression in the postnatal visual cortex of the rat

The peptide somatostatin (SS) is widely distributed in the mammalian brain where it modulates neuronal activity through interactions with specific membrane-bound receptor subtypes (ssts). Five different ssts were characterized so far (sst1-5) and their selective agonists were developed on the basis of their binding specificity. SS and ssts are transiently expressed in the developing brain, suggesting a functional role of somatostatinergic systems in neuronal maturation. In the present study, we investigated the effects of chronic exposure to either the SS synthetic analogue, SS-14 or octreotide (a long-acting sst2-preferring analogue) on the maturation of SS-immunoreactivity (-ir) in the primary visual cortex of the rat. SS-ir maturation was investigated both by an evaluation of the number of SS-immunoreactive cells and by radioimmunoassay (RIA) to measure the levels of SS in the postnatal visual cortex. In the visual cortex of normal rats, the number of SS-positive cells markedly increased during the second postnatal week and then significantly decreased until the adult value was reached at the third week. Early and repeated intracerebroventricular (i.c.v.) injections of either SS-14 or octreotide prevented the increase in the number of SS-positive cells, with adult values reached at the end of the first postnatal week. Similarly, administration of either SS-14 or octreotide significantly decreased the SS content of the visual cortex, measured at the end of the second postnatal week. These results show that high local concentrations of either SS-14 or octreotide interfere with SS expression in developing cortical neurons in a restricted postnatal period.