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Cafruny WA, Duman RG, Wong GHW, Said S, Ward-Demo P, Rowland RRR, Nelson EA. Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) infection spreads by cell-to-cell transfer in cultured MARC-145 cells, is dependent on an intact cytoskeleton, and is suppressed by drug-targeting of cell permissiveness to virus infection. Virol J 2006; 3:90. [PMID: 17081295 PMCID: PMC1635561 DOI: 10.1186/1743-422x-3-90] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2006] [Accepted: 11/02/2006] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) is the etiologic agent of PRRS, causing widespread chronic infections which are largely uncontrolled by currently available vaccines or other antiviral measures. Cultured monkey kidney (MARC-145) cells provide an important tool for the study of PRRSV replication. For the present study, flow cytometric and fluorescence antibody (FA) analyses of PRRSV infection of cultured MARC-145 cells were carried out in experiments designed to clarify viral dynamics and the mechanism of viral spread. The roles of viral permissiveness and the cytoskeleton in PRRSV infection and transmission were examined in conjunction with antiviral and cytotoxic drugs. Results Flow cytometric and FA analyses of PRRSV antigen expression revealed distinct primary and secondary phases of MARC-145 cell infection. PRRSV antigen was randomly expressed in a few percent of cells during the primary phase of infection (up to about 20–22 h p.i.), but the logarithmic infection phase (days 2–3 p.i.), was characterized by secondary spread to clusters of infected cells. The formation of secondary clusters of PRRSV-infected cells preceded the development of CPE in MARC-145 cells, and both primary and secondary PRRSV infection were inhibited by colchicine and cytochalasin D, demonstrating a critical role of the cytoskeleton in viral permissiveness as well as cell-to-cell transmission from a subpopulation of cells permissive for free virus to secondary targets. Cellular expression of actin also appeared to correlate with PRRSV resistance, suggesting a second role of the actin cytoskeleton as a potential barrier to cell-to-cell transmission. PRRSV infection and cell-to-cell transmission were efficiently suppressed by interferon-γ (IFN-γ), as well as the more-potent experimental antiviral agent AK-2. Conclusion The results demonstrate two distinct mechanisms of PRRSV infection: primary infection of a relatively small subpopulation of innately PRRSV-permissive cells, and secondary cell-to-cell transmission to contiguous cells which appear non-permissive to free virus. The results also indicate that an intact cytoskeleton is critical for PRRSV infection, and that viral permissiveness is a highly efficient drug target to control PRRSV infection. The data from this experimental system have important implications for the mechanisms of PRRSV persistence and pathology, as well as for a better understanding of arterivirus regulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- William A Cafruny
- Division of Basic Biomedical Science, Sanford School ofMedicine, University of South Dakota, Vermillion, SD 57069, USA
| | - Richard G Duman
- Division of Basic Biomedical Sciences, Sanford School ofMedicine, University of South Dakota, Vermillion, SD 57069, USA
| | - Grace HW Wong
- Actokine Therapeutics, 12 Middlesex Rd. Chestnut Hill, MA02467, USA
| | - Suleman Said
- Division of Basic Biomedical Sciences, Sanford School ofMedicine, University of South Dakota, Vermillion, SD 57069, USA
| | - Pam Ward-Demo
- Sanford School of Medicine, University of South Dakota, Vermillion, SD 57069, USA
| | - Raymond RR Rowland
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine and Pathobiology, KansasState University, Manhattan, KS 66506, USA
| | - Eric A Nelson
- Department of Veterinary Science, South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD 57007, USA
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Chang LY, Hsiung CA, Lu CY, Lin TY, Huang FY, Lai YH, Chiang YP, Chiang BL, Lee CY, Huang LM. Status of cellular rather than humoral immunity is correlated with clinical outcome of enterovirus 71. Pediatr Res 2006; 60:466-71. [PMID: 16940249 PMCID: PMC7086547 DOI: 10.1203/01.pdr.0000238247.86041.19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
We valuated specific cellular and humoral immune response of cases of enterovirus 71 (EV71) infection and correlated immune response with clinical outcome. After obtaining informed consent, we enrolled 30 EV71 cases including 7 cases with brainstem encephalitis plus pulmonary edema, 12 cases of CNS (CNS) involvement and 11 uncomplicated cases. We measured antibodies specific to EV71, lymphocyte proliferation response and EV71-stimulated cellular response of Th1/Th2 cytokines and chemokines. The 7 EV71 cases involving brainstem encephalitis plus pulmonary edema had a significantly lower phytohemagglutinin stimulation index than other cases (p = 0.04). After EV71 stimulation of peripheral mononuclear cells, there was a significant increase in cellular Th1 cytokine (gamma-interferon) and proinflammatroy cytokines. However, cases with pulmonary edema had significantly lower cellular gamma-interferon (p = 0.04), lower cellular IL-1beta (p = 0.04), lower cellular IL-6 (p = 0.04), lower cellular tumor necrosis factor-alpha response (p = 0.04), and lower cellular macrophage inflammatory protein-1alpha (p = 0.04) response compared with other cases. Their titers of EV71 neutralizing antibodies demonstrated no difference among cases. These results suggest lower EV71-specific cellular response may be associated with immunopathogenesis of EV71-related pulmonary edema.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luan-Yin Chang
- Department of Pediatrics, National Taiwan University Hospital and National Taiwan University College of Medicine, Taipei, 100 Taiwan
| | - Chao A Hsiung
- Division of Biostatistics and Bioinformatics, National Health Research Institutes, Miaoli, 350 Taiwan
| | - Chun-Yi Lu
- Department of Pediatrics, National Taiwan University Hospital and National Taiwan University College of Medicine, Taipei, 100 Taiwan
| | - Tzou-Yien Lin
- Chang Gung Children's Hospital and Medical College, Chang Gung University, Tao-Yuan, 333
| | - Fu-Yuan Huang
- Department of Pediatrics, Taipei Mackay Memorial Hospital, Taipei, 100 Taiwan
| | - Yu-Han Lai
- Department of Pediatrics, National Taiwan University Hospital and National Taiwan University College of Medicine, Taipei, 100 Taiwan
| | - Yu-Ping Chiang
- Department of Pediatrics, National Taiwan University Hospital and National Taiwan University College of Medicine, Taipei, 100 Taiwan
| | - Bor-Luen Chiang
- Department of Pediatrics, National Taiwan University Hospital and National Taiwan University College of Medicine, Taipei, 100 Taiwan
| | - Chin-Yun Lee
- Department of Pediatrics, National Taiwan University Hospital and National Taiwan University College of Medicine, Taipei, 100 Taiwan
| | - Li-Min Huang
- Department of Pediatrics, National Taiwan University Hospital and National Taiwan University College of Medicine, Taipei, 100 Taiwan
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Zitterkopf NL, McNeal DW, Eyster KM, Bradley DS, Cafruny WA. Lactate dehydrogenase-elevating virus induces apoptosis in cultured macrophages and in spinal cords of C58 mice coincident with onset of murine amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Virus Res 2004; 106:35-42. [PMID: 15522445 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2004.05.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2004] [Revised: 05/28/2004] [Accepted: 05/28/2004] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Age-dependent poliomyelitis (ADPM) or murine amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a murine paralytic disease triggered in immunosuppressed genetically-susceptible mice by infection with the arterivirus lactate dehydrogenase-elevating virus (LDV). This disease provides an animal model for ALS, affecting anterior horn neurons and resulting in neuroparalysis 2-3 weeks after LDV infection. We have tested the hypothesis that spinal cord apoptosis is a feature of the LDV-induced murine ALS, since apoptosis is postulated to be a causal factor in human ALS. Gene microarray analyses of spinal cords from paralyzed animals revealed upregulation of several genes associated with apoptosis. Spinal cord apoptosis was investigated further by TUNEL and activated caspase-3 assays, and was observed to emerge concurrent with paralytic symptoms in both neuronal and non-neuronal cells. Caspase-3-dependent apoptosis was also triggered in cultured macrophages by neurovirulent LDV infection. Thus, virus-induced spinal cord apoptosis is a pre-mortem feature of ADPM, which affects both neuronal and support cells, and may contribute to the pathogenesis of this ALS-like disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole L Zitterkopf
- Department of Basic Biomedical Sciences, School of Medicine, University of South Dakota, Vermillion, SD 57069, USA
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Oleszak EL, Chang JR, Friedman H, Katsetos CD, Platsoucas CD. Theiler's virus infection: a model for multiple sclerosis. Clin Microbiol Rev 2004; 17:174-207. [PMID: 14726460 PMCID: PMC321460 DOI: 10.1128/cmr.17.1.174-207.2004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 206] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Both genetic background and environmental factors, very probably viruses, appear to play a role in the etiology of multiple sclerosis (MS). Lessons from viral experimental models suggest that many different viruses may trigger inflammatory demyelinating diseases resembling MS. Theiler's virus, a picornavirus, induces in susceptible strains of mice early acute disease resembling encephalomyelitis followed by late chronic demyelinating disease, which is one of the best, if not the best, animal model for MS. During early acute disease the virus replicates in gray matter of the central nervous system but is eliminated to very low titers 2 weeks postinfection. Late chronic demyelinating disease becomes clinically apparent approximately 2 weeks later and is characterized by extensive demyelinating lesions and mononuclear cell infiltrates, progressive spinal cord atrophy, and axonal loss. Myelin damage is immunologically mediated, but it is not clear whether it is due to molecular mimicry or epitope spreading. Cytokines, nitric oxide/reactive nitrogen species, and costimulatory molecules are involved in the pathogenesis of both diseases. Close similarities between Theiler's virus-induced demyelinating disease in mice and MS in humans, include the following: major histocompatibility complex-dependent susceptibility; substantial similarities in neuropathology, including axonal damage and remyelination; and paucity of T-cell apoptosis in demyelinating disease. Both diseases are immunologically mediated. These common features emphasize the close similarities of Theiler's virus-induced demyelinating disease in mice and MS in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emilia L Oleszak
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Temple University School of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19106, USA.
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Markine-Goriaynoff D, Hulhoven X, Cambiaso CL, Monteyne P, Briet T, Gonzalez MD, Coulie P, Coutelier JP. Natural killer cell activation after infection with lactate dehydrogenase-elevating virus. J Gen Virol 2002; 83:2709-2716. [PMID: 12388806 DOI: 10.1099/0022-1317-83-11-2709] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Early after infection, lactate dehydrogenase-elevating virus (LDV) alters the immune system by polyclonally activating B lymphocytes, which leads to IgG2a-restricted hypergammaglobulinaemia, and by suppressing the secretion of Th2 cytokines. Considering that these alterations may involve cells of the innate immune system and cytokines such as interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma), we analysed the effect of LDV on natural killer (NK) cells. Within a few days of infection, a strong and transient NK cell activation, characterized by enhanced IFN-gamma message expression and cytolysis, was observed. LDV triggered a large increase in serum IFN-gamma levels. Because NK cells and IFN-gamma may participate in the defence against virus infection, we analysed their possible role in the control of LDV titres with a new agglutination assay. Our results indicate that neither the activation of NK cells nor the IFN-gamma secretion affect the early and rapid virus replication that follows LDV inoculation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dominique Markine-Goriaynoff
- Unit of Experimental Medicine1 and Unit of Cellular Genetics2, Institute for Cellular Pathology, Université Catholique de Louvain, UCL MEXP 7430, Av. Hippocrate 74, 1200 Bruxelles, Belgium
| | - Xavier Hulhoven
- Unit of Experimental Medicine1 and Unit of Cellular Genetics2, Institute for Cellular Pathology, Université Catholique de Louvain, UCL MEXP 7430, Av. Hippocrate 74, 1200 Bruxelles, Belgium
| | - César L Cambiaso
- Unit of Experimental Medicine1 and Unit of Cellular Genetics2, Institute for Cellular Pathology, Université Catholique de Louvain, UCL MEXP 7430, Av. Hippocrate 74, 1200 Bruxelles, Belgium
| | - Philippe Monteyne
- Unit of Experimental Medicine1 and Unit of Cellular Genetics2, Institute for Cellular Pathology, Université Catholique de Louvain, UCL MEXP 7430, Av. Hippocrate 74, 1200 Bruxelles, Belgium
| | - Thérèse Briet
- Unit of Experimental Medicine1 and Unit of Cellular Genetics2, Institute for Cellular Pathology, Université Catholique de Louvain, UCL MEXP 7430, Av. Hippocrate 74, 1200 Bruxelles, Belgium
| | - Maria-Dolores Gonzalez
- Unit of Experimental Medicine1 and Unit of Cellular Genetics2, Institute for Cellular Pathology, Université Catholique de Louvain, UCL MEXP 7430, Av. Hippocrate 74, 1200 Bruxelles, Belgium
| | - Pierre Coulie
- Unit of Experimental Medicine1 and Unit of Cellular Genetics2, Institute for Cellular Pathology, Université Catholique de Louvain, UCL MEXP 7430, Av. Hippocrate 74, 1200 Bruxelles, Belgium
| | - Jean-Paul Coutelier
- Unit of Experimental Medicine1 and Unit of Cellular Genetics2, Institute for Cellular Pathology, Université Catholique de Louvain, UCL MEXP 7430, Av. Hippocrate 74, 1200 Bruxelles, Belgium
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Cafruny WA, Bradley SE, Rowland RR. Regulation of immune complexes during infection of mice with lactate dehydrogenase-elevating virus: studies with interferon-gamma gene knockout and tolerant mice. Viral Immunol 1999; 12:163-73. [PMID: 10413362 DOI: 10.1089/vim.1999.12.163] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Mice persistently infected with lactate dehydrogenase-elevating virus (LDV) develop circulating IgG-containing hydrophobic immune complexes, with a molecular mass of 150 to 300 kd, which bind to the surfaces of high-capacity enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) plates. LDV infection also stimulates polyclonal B-cell activation and autoimmunity. For this study, interferon-gamma gene knockout (GKO) mice were utilized to study circulating immune complexes and other parameters of LDV infection. The kinetics of LDV viremia, formation of plasma IgG anti-LDV antibodies, and LDV replication in the spleen and liver were essentially normal in GKO mice. Polyclonal activation of B cells, as reflected by increased total plasma IgG concentration during LDV infection, was found to be intact in GKO mice, although at a lower magnitude than in control mice. The plasma concentration of IgG-containing hydrophobic immune complexes was reduced about 75% in LDV-infected GKO mice relative to normal LDV-infected controls. Allogeneic tissue responses were also found to be reduced in LDV-infected GKO mice relative to those in normal LDV-infected controls. These results dissociate specific anti-LDV immunity from formation of hydrophobic immune complexes, show that the IgG anti-LDV response as well as LDV replication in the spleen and liver are insensitive to physiological levels of interferon (IFN)-gamma, and suggest that IgG-containing immune complexes stimulated by LDV infection are a marker for autoimmunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- W A Cafruny
- Department of Microbiology, University of South Dakota School of Medicine, Vermillion 57069, USA.
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